Dynamic ubiquitination drives herpesvirus neuroinvasion

Tethered release of the pseudorabies virus deubiquitinase from the capsid promotes enzymatic activity

Herpesviruses carry an assortment of proteins in the interstitial space between the capsid and membrane envelope, collectively referred to as the tegument. Upon virion fusion with a cell, envelope integrity is disrupted, and many tegument constituents disperse into the cytosol to carry out individual effector functions, while others direct transport of the capsid to the nucleus. To gain insight into the tegument dynamics that occur with disruption of envelope integrity, we used a combination of single-particle fluorescence and biochemical approaches that leveraged the previously established use of n-ethylmaleimide to inhibit virion dynamics. We document that the large tegument protein (pUL36), which is stably bound to the capsid surface at its C-terminus, is also conditionally bound to the capsid via its N-terminal deubiquitinase (DUB) domain. The DUB is released, while remaining tethered to the capsid by the pUL36 C-terminus, by a mechanism dependent on reactive cysteines. Mutation of these cysteines locks the DUB in a capsid bound state and suppresses enzymatic activity.

IMPORTANCE

Neuroinvasive alphaherpesviruses, such as herpes simplex virus and pseudorabies virus, cause a broad range of diseases in humans and other animals. Novel strategies to interfere with the virion structural rearrangements required for infectivity could prove valuable to treat infections, yet critical aspects of the virion architecture and its metastability remain poorly defined. In this study, we document that the pUL36 tegument protein exhibits conditional capsid binding in its N-terminal deubiquitinase domain that regulates enzymatic activity during infection.

Recent Advances in the Study of Alphaherpesvirus Latency and Reactivation: Novel Guidance for the Design of Herpesvirus Live Vector Vaccines

Alphaherpesviruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), and varicella-zoster virus (VZV), infect a diverse array of hosts, spanning both humans and animals. Alphaherpesviruses have developed a well-adapted relationship with their hosts through long-term evolution. Some alphaherpesviruses exhibit a typical neurotropic characteristic, which has garnered widespread attention and in-depth research. Virus latency involves the retention of viral genomes without producing infectious viruses. However, under stress, this can be reversed, resulting in lytic infection. Such reactivation events can lead to recurrent infections, manifesting as diseases like herpes labialis, genital herpes, and herpes zoster. Reactivation is a complex process influenced by both viral and host factors, and identifying how latency and reactivation work is vital to developing new antiviral therapies. Recent research highlights a complex interaction among the virus, neurons, and the immune system in regulating alphaherpesvirus latency and reactivation. Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses can breach host barriers to infect neurons, proliferate extensively within their cell bodies, and establish latent infections or spread further. Whether infecting neurons or spreading further, the virus undergoes transmission along axons or dendrites, making this process an indispensable part of the viral life cycle and a critical factor influencing the virus's invasion of the nervous system. Research on the transmission process of neurotropic alphaherpesviruses within neurons can not only deepen our understanding of the virus but can also facilitate the targeted development of corresponding vaccines. This review concentrates on the relationship between the transmission, latency, and activation of alphaherpesviruses within neurons, summarizes recent advancements in the field, and discusses how these findings can inform the design of live virus vaccines for alphaherpesviruses.

A Hitchhiker's Guide Through the Cell: The World According to the Capsids of Alphaherpesviruses

The nucleoplasm, the cytosol, the inside of virions, and again the cytosol comprise the world in which the capsids of alphaherpesviruses encounter viral and host proteins that support or limit them in performing their tasks. Here, we review the fascinating conundrum of how specific protein-protein interactions late in alphaherpesvirus infection orchestrate capsid nuclear assembly, nuclear egress, and cytoplasmic envelopment, but target incoming capsids to the nuclear pores in naive cells to inject the viral genomes into the nucleoplasm for viral transcription and replication. Multiple capsid interactions with viral and host proteins have been characterized using viral mutants and assays that reconstitute key stages of the infection cycle. Keratinocytes, fibroblasts, mucosal epithelial cells, neurons, and immune cells employ cell type-specific intrinsic and cytokine-induced resistance mechanisms to restrict several stages of the viral infection cycle. However, concomitantly, alphaherpesviruses have evolved countermeasures to ensure efficient capsid function during infection.

Leveraging biotin-based proximity labeling to identify cellular factors governing early alphaherpesvirus infection

Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 and pseudorabies virus, establish a lifelong presence within the peripheral nervous system of their mammalian hosts. Upon entering cells, two conserved tegument proteins, pUL36 and pUL37, traffic DNA-containing capsids to nuclei. These proteins support long-distance retrograde axonal transport and invasion of the nervous system in vivo. To better understand how pUL36 and pUL37 function, recombinant viral particles carrying BioID2 fused to these proteins were produced to biotinylate cellular proteins in their proximity (<10 nm) during infection. Eighty-six high-confidence host proteins were identified by mass spectrometry and subsequently targeted by CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing to assess their contributions to early infection. Proteins were identified that both supported and antagonized infection in immortalized human epithelial cells. The latter included zyxin, a protein that localizes to focal adhesions and regulates actin cytoskeletal dynamics. Zyxin knockout cells were hyper-permissive to infection and could be rescued with even modest expression of GFP-zyxin. These results provide a resource for studies of the virus-cell interface and identify zyxin as a novel deterrent to alphaherpesvirus infection.IMPORTANCENeuroinvasive alphaherpesviruses are highly prevalent with many members found across mammals [e.g., herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) in humans and pseudorabies virus in pigs]. HSV-1 causes a range of clinical manifestations from cold sores to blindness and encephalitis. There are no vaccines or curative therapies available for HSV-1. A fundamental feature of these viruses is their establishment of lifelong infection of the nervous system in their respective hosts. This outcome is possible due to a potent neuroinvasive property that is coordinated by two proteins: pUL36 and pUL37. In this study, we explore the cellular protein network in proximity to pUL36 and pUL37 during infection and examine the impact of knocking down the expression of these proteins upon infection.

Human TMEFF1 is a restriction factor for herpes simplex virus in the brain

Most cases of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) encephalitis (HSE) remain unexplained1,2. Here, we report on two unrelated people who had HSE as children and are homozygous for rare deleterious variants of TMEFF1, which encodes a cell membrane protein that is preferentially expressed by brain cortical neurons. TMEFF1 interacts with the cell-surface HSV-1 receptor NECTIN-1, impairing HSV-1 glycoprotein D- and NECTIN-1-mediated fusion of the virus and the cell membrane, blocking viral entry. Genetic TMEFF1 deficiency allows HSV-1 to rapidly enter cortical neurons that are either patient specific or derived from CRISPR-Cas9-engineered human pluripotent stem cells, thereby enhancing HSV-1 translocation to the nucleus and subsequent replication. This cellular phenotype can be rescued by pretreatment with type I interferon (IFN) or the expression of exogenous wild-type TMEFF1. Moreover, ectopic expression of full-length TMEFF1 or its amino-terminal extracellular domain, but not its carboxy-terminal intracellular domain, impairs HSV-1 entry into NECTIN-1-expressing cells other than neurons, increasing their resistance to HSV-1 infection. Human TMEFF1 is therefore a host restriction factor for HSV-1 entry into cortical neurons. Its constitutively high abundance in cortical neurons protects these cells from HSV-1 infection, whereas inherited TMEFF1 deficiency renders them susceptible to this virus and can therefore underlie HSE.

The HSV-1 pUL37 protein promotes cell invasion by regulating the kinesin-1 motor

Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses, including herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), recruit microtubule motor proteins to invade cells. The incoming viral particle traffics to nuclei in a two-step process. First, the particle uses the dynein-dynactin motor to sustain transport to the centrosome. In neurons, this step is responsible for long-distance retrograde axonal transport and is an important component of the neuroinvasive property shared by these viruses. Second, a kinesin-dependent mechanism redirects the particle from the centrosome to the nucleus. We have reported that the kinesin motor used during the second step of invasion is assimilated into nascent virions during the previous round of infection. Here, we report that the HSV-1 pUL37 tegument protein suppresses the assimilated kinesin-1 motor during retrograde axonal transport. Region 2 (R2) of pUL37 was required for suppression and functioned independently of the autoinhibitory mechanism native to kinesin-1. Furthermore, the motor domain and proximal coiled coil of kinesin-1 were sufficient for HSV-1 assimilation, pUL37 suppression, and nuclear trafficking. pUL37 localized to the centrosome, the site of assimilated kinesin-1 activation during infection, when expressed in cells in the absence of other viral proteins; however, pUL37 did not suppress kinesin-1 in this context. These results indicate that the pUL37 tegument protein spatially and temporally regulates kinesin-1 via the amino-terminal motor region in the context of the incoming viral particle.

The mutations on the envelope glycoprotein D contribute to the enhanced neurotropism of the pseudorabies virus variant

The pseudorabies virus (PRV) TJ strain, a variant of PRV, induces more severe neurological symptoms and higher mortality in piglets and mice than the PRV SC strain isolated in 1980. However, the mechanism underlying responsible for the discrepancy in virulence between these strains remains unclear. Our study investigated the differences in neurotropism between PRV TJ and PRV SC using both in vitro and in vivo models. We discovered that PRV TJ enters neural cells more efficiently than PRV SC. Furthermore, we found that PRV TJ has indistinguishable genomic DNA replication capability and axonal retrograde transport dynamics compared to the PRV SC. To gain deeper insights into the mechanisms underlying these differences, we constructed gene-interchanged chimeric virus constructs and assessed the affinity between envelope glycoprotein B, C, and D (gD) and corresponding receptors. Our findings confirmed that mutations in these envelope proteins, particularly gD, significantly contributed to the heightened attachment and penetration capabilities of PRV TJ. Our study revealed the critical importance of the gDΔR278/P279 and gDV338A in facilitating viral invasion. Furthermore, our observations indicated that mutations in envelope proteins have a more significant impact on viral invasion than on virulence in the mouse model. Our findings provide valuable insights into the roles of natural mutations on the PRV envelope glycoproteins in cell tropism, which sheds light on the relationship between cell tropism and clinical symptoms and offers clues about viral evolution.

Herpesvirus ubiquitin deconjugases

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like polypeptides to cellular and viral proteins regulates numerous processes that enable virus infection, viral genome replication, and the spread of viruses to new hosts. The importance of these protein modifications in the regulation of the life cycle of herpesviruses is underscored by the discovery that all known members of this virus family encode at least one protease that specifically recognizes and disassembles ubiquitin conjugates. The structural and functional characterization of the viral enzymes and the identification of their viral and cellular substrates is providing valuable insights into the biology of viral infection and increasing evidence suggests that the viral deconjugases may also play a role in malignant transformation.

pUL36 Deubiquitinase Activity Augments Both the Initiation and the Progression of Lytic Herpes Simplex Virus Infection in IFN-Primed Cells

The evolutionarily conserved, structural HSV-1 tegument protein pUL36 is essential for both virus entry and assembly. While its N-terminal deubiquitinase (DUB) activity is dispensable for infection in cell culture, it is required for efficient virus spread in vivo, as it acts as a potent viral immune evasin. Interferon (IFN) induces the expression of hundreds of antiviral factors, including many ubiquitin modulators, which HSV-1 needs to neutralize to efficiently initiate a productive infection. Herein, we discover two functions of the conserved pUL36 DUB during lytic replication in cell culture in an understudied but equally important scenario of HSV-1 infection in IFN-treated cells. Our data indicate that the pUL36 DUB contributes to overcoming the IFN-mediated suppression of productive infection in both the early and late phases of HSV-1 infection. We show that incoming tegument-derived pUL36 DUB activity contributes to the IFN resistance of HSV-1 in IFN-primed cells to efficiently initiate lytic virus replication. Subsequently, the de novo expressed DUB augmented the efficiency of virus replication and increased the output of infectious virus. Notably, the DUB defect was only apparent when IFN was applied prior to infection. Our data indicate that IFN-induced defense mechanisms exist and that they work to both neutralize infectivity early on and slow the progression of HSV-1 replication in the late stages of infection. Also, our data indicate that pUL36 DUB activity contributes to the disarming of these host responses. IMPORTANCE HSV-1 is a ubiquitous human pathogen that is responsible for common cold sores and may also cause life-threatening disease. pUL36 is an essential, conserved herpesvirus protein with N-terminal deubiquitinating (DUB) activity. The DUB is dispensable for HSV-1 replication in cell culture but represents an important viral immune evasin in vivo. IFN plays a pivotal role in HSV-1 infection and suppresses viral replication both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we show that DUB activity contributes to overcoming IFN-induced cellular resistance in order to more efficiently initiate lytic replication and produce infectious virions. As such, DUB activity in the incoming virions increases their infectivity, while the de novo synthesized DUB augments productive infection. Thus, the HSV-1 DUB antagonizes the activity of IFN-inducible effector proteins to facilitate productive infection at multiple levels. Our findings underscore the importance of using more challenging cell culture systems to fully understand virus protein functions.

Establishing a Herpesvirus Quiescent Infection in Differentiated Human Dorsal Root Ganglion Neuronal Cell Line Mediated by Micro-RNA Overexpression

HSV-1 is a neurotropic pathogen associated with severe encephalitis, excruciating orofacial sensation, and other chronic neuropathic complications. After the acute infection, the virus may establish a lifelong latency in the neurons of trigeminal ganglia (TG) and other sensory and autonomic ganglia, including the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), etc. The reactivation occurred periodically by a variety of physical or emotional stressors. We have been developing a human DRG neuronal cell-culture model HD10.6, which mimics the mature neurons for latency and reactivation with robust neuronal physiology. We found that miR124 overexpression without acyclovir (ACV) could maintain the virus in a quiescent infection, with the accumulation of latency-associate transcript (LAT). The immediate-early (IE) gene ICP0, on the other hand, was very low and the latent viruses could be reactivated by trichostatin A (TSA) treatment. Together, these observations suggested a putative role of microRNA in promoting HSV-1 latency in human neurons.

Initial TK-deficient HSV-1 infection in the lip alters contralateral lip challenge immune dynamics

Primary infection with herpes simplex type 1 (HSV-1) occurring around the mouth and nose switches rapidly to lifelong latent infection in sensitive trigeminal ganglia (TG) neurons. Sporadic reactivation of these latent reservoirs later in life is the cause of acute infections of the corneal epithelium, which can cause potentially blinding herpes simplex keratitis (HSK). There is no effective vaccine to protect against HSK, and antiviral drugs provide only partial protection against recurrences. We previously engendered an acute disease-free, non-reactivating latent state in mice when challenged with virulent HSV-1 in orofacial mucosa, by priming with non-neurovirulent HSV-1 (TK_del) before the challenge. Herein, we define the local immune infiltration and inflammatory chemokine production changes after virulent HSV-1 challenge, which were elicited by TK_del prime. Heightened immunosurveillance before virulent challenge, and early enhanced lymphocyte-enriched infiltration of the challenged lip were induced, which corresponded to attenuation of inflammation in the TG and enhanced viral control. Furthermore, classical latent-phase T cell persistence around latent HSV-1 reservoirs were severely reduced. These findings identify the immune processes that are likely to be responsible for establishing non-reactivating latent HSV-1 reservoirs. Stopping reactivation is essential for development of efficient vaccine strategies against HSV-1.

Systems Biology of Virus-Host Protein Interactions: From Hypothesis Generation to Mechanisms of Replication and Pathogenesis

As obligate intracellular parasites, all viruses must co-opt cellular machinery to facilitate their own replication. Viruses often co-opt these cellular pathways and processes through physical interactions between viral and host proteins. In addition to facilitating fundamental aspects of virus replication cycles, these virus-host protein interactions can also disrupt physiological functions of host proteins, causing disease that can be advantageous to the virus or simply a coincidence. Consequently, unraveling virus-host protein interactions can serve as a window into molecular mechanisms of virus replication and pathogenesis. Identifying virus-host protein interactions using unbiased systems biology approaches provides an avenue for hypothesis generation. This review highlights common systems biology approaches for identification of virus-host protein interactions and the mechanistic insights revealed by these methods. We also review conceptual innovations using comparative and integrative systems biology that can leverage global virus-host protein interaction data sets to more rapidly move from hypothesis generation to mechanism. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Virology, Volume 9 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Invasion of Sensory Neurons by Retrograde Axonal Transport Is Dependent on the pUL37 Region 2 Effector

Following exposure and replication at mucosal surfaces, most alphaherpesviruses invade the peripheral nervous system by retrograde axonal transport and establish lifelong latent infections in the peripheral ganglia. Reactivation of ganglionic infections is followed by anterograde axonal transport of virions back to body surfaces where viral replication results in disease that can range from moderate to severe in presentation. In the case of bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), replication in the epithelial mucosa presents as infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR), a respiratory disease of significant economic impact. In this study, we provide a live-cell analysis of BoHV-1 retrograde axonal transport relative to the model alphaherpesvirus pathogen pseudorabies virus (PRV) and demonstrate that this critical neuroinvasive step is conserved between the two viruses. In addition, we report that the BoHV-1 pUL37 tegument protein supports processive retrograde motion in infected axons and invasion of the calf peripheral nervous system. IMPORTANCE A molecular and cellular understanding of the retrograde axonal transport process that underlies the neuroinvasive properties of the alphaherpesviruses is established from studies of herpes simplex virus and pseudorabies virus. The degree to which this phenotype is conserved in other related viruses has largely not been examined. We provide a time-lapse analysis of the retrograde axonal transport kinetics of bovine herpesvirus 1 and demonstrate that mutation of the pUL37 region 2 effector affords a strategy to produce live-attenuated vaccines for enhanced protection of cattle.

The interferon-inducible GTPase MxB promotes capsid disassembly and genome release of herpesviruses

Host proteins sense viral products and induce defence mechanisms, particularly in immune cells. Using cell-free assays and quantitative mass spectrometry, we determined the interactome of capsid-host protein complexes of herpes simplex virus and identified the large dynamin-like GTPase myxovirus resistance protein B (MxB) as an interferon-inducible protein interacting with capsids. Electron microscopy analyses showed that cytosols containing MxB had the remarkable capability to disassemble the icosahedral capsids of herpes simplex viruses and varicella zoster virus into flat sheets of connected triangular faces. In contrast, capsids remained intact in cytosols with MxB mutants unable to hydrolyse GTP or to dimerize. Our data suggest that MxB senses herpesviral capsids, mediates their disassembly, and thereby restricts the efficiency of nuclear targeting of incoming capsids and/or the assembly of progeny capsids. The resulting premature release of viral genomes from capsids may enhance the activation of DNA sensors, and thereby amplify the innate immune responses.

Circadian disruption of hippocampus in an early senescence male mouse model

Age-related cognitive decline and disruptions in circadian rhythms are growing problems as the average human life span increases. Multiple strains of the senescence-accelerated mouse (SAM) show reduced life span, and the SAMP8 strain in particular has been well documented to show cognitive deficits in behavior as well as a bimodal pattern of circadian locomotor activity. However, little is known about circadian regulation within the hippocampus of these strains of mice. Here we test the hypothesis that in this early senescence model, disruption of the molecular circadian clock in SAMP8 animals drives disrupted behavior and physiology. We found normal rhythms in PER2 protein expression in the SCN of SAMP8 animals at 4 months, despite the presence of disrupted wheel-running activity rhythms at this age. Interestingly, a significant rhythm in PER2 expression was not observed in the hippocampus of SAMP8 animals, despite a significant 24-h rhythm in SAMR1 controls. We also examined time-restricted feeding as a potential strategy to rescue disrupted hippocampal plasticity. Time-restricted feeding increased long-term potentiation at Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapses in SAMP8 mice (compared to SAMR1 controls). Overall, we confirm disrupted circadian locomotor rhythms in this early senescence model (as early as 4 months) and discovered that this disruption is not due to arrhythmic PER2 levels in the SCN; however, other extra-SCN circadian oscillators (i.e., hippocampus) are likely impaired with accelerated aging.

Innate Immune Signaling and Role of Glial Cells in Herpes Simplex Virus- and Rabies Virus-Induced Encephalitis

The environment of the central nervous system (CNS) represents a double-edged sword in the context of viral infections. On the one hand, the infectious route for viral pathogens is restricted via neuroprotective barriers; on the other hand, viruses benefit from the immunologically quiescent neural environment after CNS entry. Both the herpes simplex virus (HSV) and the rabies virus (RABV) bypass the neuroprotective blood-brain barrier (BBB) and successfully enter the CNS parenchyma via nerve endings. Despite the differences in the molecular nature of both viruses, each virus uses retrograde transport along peripheral nerves to reach the human CNS. Once inside the CNS parenchyma, HSV infection results in severe acute inflammation, necrosis, and hemorrhaging, while RABV preserves the intact neuronal network by inhibiting apoptosis and limiting inflammation. During RABV neuroinvasion, surveilling glial cells fail to generate a sufficient type I interferon (IFN) response, enabling RABV to replicate undetected, ultimately leading to its fatal outcome. To date, we do not fully understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the activation or suppression of the host inflammatory responses of surveilling glial cells, which present important pathways shaping viral pathogenesis and clinical outcome in viral encephalitis. Here, we compare the innate immune responses of glial cells in RABV- and HSV-infected CNS, highlighting different viral strategies of neuroprotection or Neuroinflamm. in the context of viral encephalitis.

Herpesviruses assimilate kinesin to produce motorized viral particles

Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses initiate infection in exposed mucosal tissues and, unlike most viruses, spread rapidly to sensory and autonomic nerves where life-long latency is established¹. Recurrent infections arise sporadically from the peripheral nervous system throughout the life of the host, and invasion of the central nervous system may occur, with severe outcomes². These viruses directly recruit cellular motors for transport along microtubules in nerve axons, but how the motors are manipulated to deliver the virus to neuronal nuclei is not understood. Here, using herpes simplex virus type I and pseudorabies virus as model alphaherpesviruses, we show that a cellular kinesin motor is captured by virions in epithelial cells, carried between cells, and subsequently used in neurons to traffic to nuclei. Viruses assembled in the absence of kinesin are not neuroinvasive. The findings explain a critical component of the alphaherpesvirus neuroinvasive mechanism and demonstrate that these viruses assimilate a cellular protein as an essential proviral structural component. This principle of viral assimilation may prove relevant to other virus families and offers new strategies to combat infection.

Human Cytomegalovirus UL48 Deubiquitinase Primarily Targets Innermost Tegument Proteins pp150 and Itself To Regulate Their Stability and Protects Virions from Inclusion of Ubiquitin Conjugates

Viral deubiquitinases (DUBs) regulate cellular innate immunity to benefit viral replication. In human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), the UL48-encoded DUB regulates innate immune responses, including NF-κB signaling. Although UL48 DUB is known to regulate its stability via auto-deubiquitination, its impact on other viral proteins is not well understood. In this study, we investigated the role of UL48 DUB in regulating the ubiquitination of viral proteins by comparing the levels of ubiquitinated viral peptides in cells infected with wild-type virus and DUB active-site mutants using mass spectrometry. We found that ubiquitinated peptides were increased in DUB mutant virus infection for 90% of viral proteins, with the innermost tegument proteins pp150 (encoded by UL32) and pUL48 itself being most significantly affected. The highly deubiquitinated lysine residues of pUL48 were mapped within its N-terminal DUB domain and the nuclear localization signal. Among them, the arginine substitution of lysine 2 (K2R) increased pUL48 stability and enhanced viral growth at low multiplicity of infection, indicating that K2 auto-deubiquitination has a role in regulating pUL48 stability. pUL48 also interacted with pp150 and increased pp150 expression by downregulating its ubiquitination. Furthermore, we found that, unlike the wild-type virus, mutant viruses expressing the UL48 protein with the DUB domain deleted or DUB active site mutated contain higher levels of ubiquitin conjugates, including the ubiquitinated forms of pp150, in their virions. Collectively, our results demonstrate that UL48 DUB mainly acts on the innermost tegument proteins pp150 and pUL48 itself during HCMV infection and may play a role in protecting virions from the inclusion of ubiquitin conjugates. IMPORTANCE Herpesviruses encode highly conserved tegument proteins that contain deubiquitinase (DUB) activity. Although the role of viral DUBs in the regulation of host innate immune responses has been established, their roles in the stability and function of viral proteins are not well understood. In this study, we performed a comparative analysis of the levels of ubiquitinated viral peptides between wild-type and DUB-inactive HCMV infections and demonstrated that the innermost tegument proteins pp150 and pUL48 (DUB itself) are major targets of viral DUB. We also show that ubiquitinated viral proteins are effectively incorporated into the virions of DUB mutant viruses but not the wild-type virus. Our study demonstrates that viral DUBs may play important roles in promoting the stability of viral proteins and inhibiting the inclusion of ubiquitin conjugates into virions.

The journey of herpesvirus capsids and genomes to the host cell nucleus

Starting a herpesviral infection is a steeplechase across membranes, cytosol, and nuclear envelopes and against antiviral defence mechanisms. Here, we highlight recent insights on capsid stabilization at the portals during assembly, early capsid-host interactions ensuring nuclear targeting of incoming capsids, and genome uncoating. After fusion with a host membrane, incoming capsids recruit microtubule motors for traveling to the centrosome, and by unknown mechanisms get forward towards the nucleus. The interaction of capsid-associated tegument proteins with nucleoporins orients the capsid portal towards the nuclear pore, and presumably after removal of the portal caps the genomes that have been packaged under pressure can be injected into the nucleoplasm for transcription and replication. Some cell types disarm the incoming capsids or silence the incoming genomes to reduce the likelihood of infection.

UBE1a Suppresses Herpes Simplex Virus-1 Replication

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) is the causative agent of cold sores, keratitis, meningitis, and encephalitis. HSV-1-encoded ICP5, the major capsid protein, is essential for capsid assembly during viral replication. Ubiquitination is a post-translational modification that plays a critical role in the regulation of cellular events such as proteasomal degradation, protein trafficking, and the antiviral response and viral events such as the establishment of infection and viral replication. Ub-activating enzyme (E1, also named UBE1) is involved in the first step in the ubiquitination. However, it is still unknown whether UBE1 contributes to viral infection or the cellular antiviral response. Here, we found that UBE1a suppressed HSV-1 replication and contributed to the antiviral response. The UBE1a inhibitor PYR-41 increased HSV-1 production. Immunofluorescence analysis revealed that UBE1a highly expressing cells presented low ICP5 expression, and vice versa. UBE1a inhibition by PYR-41 and shRNA increased ICP5 expression in HSV-1-infected cells. UBE1a reduced and retarded ICP5 protein expression, without affecting transcription of ICP5 mRNA or degradation of ICP5 protein. Additionally, UBE1a interacted with ICP27, and both partially co-localized at the Hsc70 foci/virus-induced chaperone-enriched (VICE) domains. PYR-41 reduced the co-localization of UBE1a and ICP27. Thus, our findings provide insights into the mechanism of UBE1a in the cellular response to viral infection.

Viral entry and the ubiquitin-proteasome system

Viruses confiscate cellular components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) to facilitate many aspects of the infectious cycle. The 26S proteasome is an ATP-dependent, multisubunit proteolytic machine present in all eukaryotic cells. The proteasome executes the controlled degradation of functional proteins, as well as the hydrolysis of aberrantly folded polypeptides. There is growing evidence for the role of the UPS in viral entry. The UPS assists in several steps of the initiation of infection, including endosomal escape of the entering virion, intracellular transport of incoming nucleocapsids and uncoating of the viral genome. Inhibitors of proteasome activity, including MG132, epoxomicin, lactacystin and bortezomib have been integral to developments in this area. Here, we review the mechanistic details of UPS involvement in the entry process of viruses from a multitude of families. The possibility of proteasome inhibitors as therapeutic antiviral agents is highlighted.

The ESCRT-II Subunit EAP20/VPS25 and the Bro1 Domain Proteins HD-PTP and BROX Are Individually Dispensable for Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Replication

Capsid envelopment during assembly of the neurotropic herpesviruses herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) in the infected cell cytoplasm is thought to involve the late-acting cellular ESCRT (endosomal sorting complex required for transport) components ESCRT-III and VPS4 (vacuolar protein sorting 4). However, HSV-1, unlike members of many other families of enveloped viruses, does not appear to require the ESCRT-I subunit TSG101 or the Bro1 domain-containing protein ALIX (Alg-2-interacting protein X) to recruit and activate ESCRT-III. Alternative cellular factors that are known to be capable of regulating ESCRT-III function include the ESCRT-II complex and other members of the Bro1 family. We therefore used small interfering RNA (siRNA) to knock down the essential ESCRT-II subunit EAP20/VPS25 (ELL-associated protein 20/vacuolar protein sorting 25) and the Bro1 proteins HD-PTP (His domain-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase) and BROX (Bro1 domain and CAAX motif containing). We demonstrated reductions in levels of the targeted proteins by Western blotting and used quantitative microscopic assays to confirm loss of ESCRT-II and HD-PTP function. We found that in single-step replication experiments, the final yields of HSV-1 were unchanged following loss of EAP20, HD-PTP, or BROX.IMPORTANCE HSV-1 is a pathogen of the human nervous system that uses its own virus-encoded proteins and the normal cellular ESCRT machinery to drive the construction of its envelope. How HSV-1 structural proteins interact with ESCRT components and which subsets of cellular ESCRT proteins are utilized by the virus remain largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that an essential component of the ESCRT-II complex and two ESCRT-associated Bro1 proteins are dispensable for HSV-1 replication.

Microtubule-Dependent Trafficking of Alphaherpesviruses in the Nervous System: The Ins and Outs

The Alphaherpesvirinae include the neurotropic pathogens herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus of humans and pseudorabies virus of swine. These viruses establish lifelong latency in the nuclei of peripheral ganglia, but utilize the peripheral tissues those neurons innervate for productive replication, spread, and transmission. Delivery of virions from replicative pools to the sites of latency requires microtubule-directed retrograde axonal transport from the nerve terminus to the cell body of the sensory neuron. As a corollary, during reactivation newly assembled virions must travel along axonal microtubules in the anterograde direction to return to the nerve terminus and infect peripheral tissues, completing the cycle. Neurotropic alphaherpesviruses can therefore exploit neuronal microtubules and motors for long distance axonal transport, and alternate between periods of sustained plus end- and minus end-directed motion at different stages of their infectious cycle. This review summarizes our current understanding of the molecular details by which this is achieved.

Human SNORA31 variations impair cortical neuron-intrinsic immunity to HSV-1 and underlie herpes simplex encephalitis

Herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) encephalitis (HSE) is typically sporadic. Inborn errors of TLR3- and DBR1-mediated central nervous system cell-intrinsic immunity can account for forebrain and brainstem HSE, respectively. We report five unrelated patients with forebrain HSE, each heterozygous for one of four rare variants of SNORA31, encoding a small nucleolar RNA of the H/ACA class that are predicted to direct the isomerization of uridine residues to pseudouridine in small nuclear RNA and ribosomal RNA. We show that CRISPR/Cas9-introduced bi- and monoallelic SNORA31 deletions render human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived cortical neurons susceptible to HSV-1. Accordingly, SNORA31-mutated patient hPSC-derived cortical neurons are susceptible to HSV-1, like those from TLR3- or STAT1-deficient patients. Exogenous interferon (IFN)-β renders SNORA31- and TLR3- but not STAT1-mutated neurons resistant to HSV-1. Finally, transcriptome analysis of SNORA31-mutated neurons revealed normal responses to TLR3 and IFN-α/β stimulation but abnormal responses to HSV-1. Human SNORA31 thus controls central nervous system neuron-intrinsic immunity to HSV-1 by a distinctive mechanism.

The Herpes Simplex Virus 1 Deamidase Enhances Propagation but Is Dispensable for Retrograde Axonal Transport into the Nervous System

Upon replication in mucosal epithelia and transmission to nerve endings, capsids of herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) travel retrogradely within axons to peripheral ganglia, where life-long latent infections are established. A capsid-bound tegument protein, pUL37, is an essential effector of retrograde axonal transport and also houses a deamidase activity that antagonizes innate immune signaling. In this report, we examined whether the deamidase of HSV-1 pUL37 contributes to the neuroinvasive retrograde axonal transport mechanism. We conclude that neuroinvasion is enhanced by the deamidase, but the critical contribution of pUL37 to retrograde axonal transport functions independently of this activity.IMPORTANCE Herpes simplex virus 1 invades the nervous system by entering nerve endings and sustaining long-distance retrograde axonal transport to reach neuronal nuclei in ganglia of the peripheral nervous system. The incoming viral particle carries a deamidase activity on its surface that antagonizes antiviral responses. We examined the contribution of the deamidase to the hallmark neuroinvasive property of this virus.

Seeking Closure: How Do Herpesviruses Recruit the Cellular ESCRT Apparatus?

The Herpesviridae are structurally complex DNA viruses whose capsids undergo primary envelopment at the inner nuclear membrane and secondary envelopment at organelles in the cytoplasm. In both locations, there is evidence that envelope formation and scission involve the participation of multiple viral proteins and also the cellular ESCRT apparatus. It nevertheless appears that the best-understood viral strategies for ESCRT recruitment, those adopted by the retroviruses and many other families of enveloped RNA viruses, are not utilized by the Herpesviridae, at least during envelopment in the cytoplasm. Thus, although a large number of herpesvirus proteins have been assigned roles in envelopment, there is a dearth of candidates for the acquisition of the ESCRT complex and the control of envelope scission. This review summarizes our current understanding of ESCRT association by enveloped viruses, examines what is known of herpesvirus ESCRT utilization in the nucleus and cytoplasm, and identifies candidate cellular and viral proteins that could link enveloping herpesviruses to cellular ESCRT components.

The Carboxyl Terminus of Tegument Protein pUL21 Contributes to Pseudorabies Virus Neuroinvasion

Following its entry into cells, pseudorabies virus (PRV) utilizes microtubules to deliver its nucleocapsid to the nucleus. Previous studies have shown that PRV VP1/2 is an effector of dynein-mediated capsid transport. However, the mechanism of PRV for recruiting microtubule motor proteins for successful neuroinvasion and neurovirulence is not well understood. Here, we provide evidence that PRV pUL21 is an inner tegument protein. We tested its interaction with the cytoplasmic light chains using a bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assay and observed that PRV pUL21 interacts with Roadblock-1. This interaction was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) assays. We also determined the efficiency of retrograde and anterograde axonal transport of PRV strains in explanted neurons using a microfluidic chamber system and investigated pUL21's contribution to PRV neuroinvasion in vivo Further data showed that the carboxyl terminus of pUL21 is essential for its interaction with Roadblock-1, and this domain contributes to PRV retrograde axonal transport in vitro and in vivo Our findings suggest that the carboxyl terminus of pUL21 contributes to PRV neuroinvasion.IMPORTANCE Herpesviruses are a group of DNA viruses that infect both humans and animals. Alphaherpesviruses are distinguished by their ability to establish latent infection in peripheral neurons. After entering neurons, the herpesvirus capsid interacts with cellular motor proteins and undergoes retrograde transport on axon microtubules. This elaborate process is vital to the herpesvirus lifecycle, but the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we determined that pUL21 is an inner tegument protein of pseudorabies virus (PRV) and that it interacts with the cytoplasmic dynein light chain Roadblock-1. We also observed that pUL21 promotes retrograde transport of PRV in neuronal cells. Furthermore, our findings confirm that pUL21 contributes to PRV neuroinvasion in vivo Importantly, the carboxyl terminus of pUL21 is responsible for interaction with Roadblock-1, and this domain contributes to PRV neuroinvasion. This study offers fresh insights into alphaherpesvirus neuroinvasion and the interaction between virus and host during PRV infection.

Human iPSC-derived trigeminal neurons lack constitutive TLR3-dependent immunity that protects cortical neurons from HSV-1 infection

Herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) encephalitis (HSE) is the most common sporadic viral encephalitis in Western countries. Some HSE children carry inborn errors of the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3)-dependent IFN-α/β- and -λ-inducing pathway. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived cortical neurons with TLR3 pathway mutations are highly susceptible to HSV-1, due to impairment of cell-intrinsic TLR3-IFN immunity. In contrast, the contribution of cell-intrinsic immunity of human trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons remains unclear. Here, we describe efficient in vitro derivation and purification of TG neurons from human iPSCs via a cranial placode intermediate. The resulting TG neurons are of sensory identity and exhibit robust responses to heat (capsaicin), cold (icilin), and inflammatory pain (ATP). Unlike control cortical neurons, both control and TLR3-deficient TG neurons were highly susceptible to HSV-1. However, pretreatment of control TG neurons with poly(I:C) induced the cells into an anti-HSV-1 state. Moreover, both control and TLR3-deficient TG neurons developed resistance to HSV-1 following pretreatment with IFN-β but not IFN-λ. These data indicate that TG neurons are vulnerable to HSV-1 because they require preemptive stimulation of the TLR3 or IFN-α/β receptors to induce antiviral immunity, whereas cortical neurons possess a TLR3-dependent constitutive resistance that is sufficient to block incoming HSV-1 in the absence of prior antiviral signals. The lack of constitutive resistance in TG neurons in vitro is consistent with their exploitation as a latent virus reservoir in vivo. Our results incriminate deficiencies in the constitutive TLR3-dependent response of cortical neurons in the pathogenesis of HSE.

Dissecting the Herpesvirus Architecture by Targeted Proteolysis

Herpesvirus particles have a complex architecture consisting of an icosahedral capsid that is surrounded by a lipid envelope. Connecting these two components is a layer of tegument that consists of various amounts of 20 or more proteins. The arrangement of proteins within the tegument cannot easily be assessed and instead is inferred from tegument interactions identified in reductionist models. To better understand the tegument architecture, we have developed an approach to probe capsid-tegument interactions of extracellular viral particles by encoding tobacco etch virus (TEV) protease sites in viral structural proteins, along with distinct fluorescent tags in capsid and tegument components. In this study, TEV sites were engineered within the pUL36 large tegument protein, a critical structural element that is anchored directly on the capsid surface. Purified pseudorabies virus extracellular particles were permeabilized, and TEV protease was added to selectively cleave the exposed pUL36 backbone. Interactions with the capsid were assessed in situ by monitoring the fate of the fluorescent signals following cleavage. Although several regions of pUL36 are proposed to bind capsids, pUL36 was found stably anchored to the capsid exclusively at its carboxyl terminus. Two additional tegument proteins, pUL37 and pUS3, were tethered to the capsid via pUL36, whereas the pUL16, pUL47, pUL48, and pUL49 tegument proteins were not stably bound to the capsid.IMPORTANCE Neuroinvasive alphaherpesviruses produce diseases of clinical and economic significance in humans and veterinary animals but are predominantly associated with less serious recurrent disease. Like all viruses, herpesviruses assemble a metastable particle that selectively dismantles during initial infection. This process is made more complex by the presence of a tegument layer that resides between the capsid surface and envelope. Components of the tegument are essential for particle assembly and also serve as critical effectors that promote infection upon entry into cells. How this dynamic network of protein interactions is arranged within virions is largely unknown. We present a molecular approach to dissect the tegument, and with it we begin to tease apart the protein interactions that underlie this complex layer of the virion architecture.

The Apical Region of the Herpes Simplex Virus Major Capsid Protein Promotes Capsid Maturation

The herpesvirus capsid assembles in the nucleus as an immature procapsid precursor built around viral scaffold proteins. The event that initiates procapsid maturation is unknown, but it is dependent upon activation of the VP24 internal protease. Scaffold cleavage triggers angularization of the shell and its decoration with the VP26 and pUL25 capsid-surface proteins. In both the procapsid and mature angularized capsid, the apical region of the major capsid protein (VP5) is surface exposed. We investigated whether the VP5 apical region contributes to intracellular transport dynamics following entry into primary sensory neurons and also tested the hypothesis that conserved negatively charged amino acids in the apical region contribute to VP26 acquisition. To our surprise, neither hypothesis proved true. Instead, mutation of glutamic acid residues in the apical region delayed viral propagation and induced focal capsid accumulations in nuclei. Examination of capsid morphogenesis based on epitope unmasking, capsid composition, and ultrastructural analysis indicated that these clusters consisted of procapsids. The results demonstrate that, in addition to established events that occur inside the capsid, the exterior capsid shell promotes capsid morphogenesis and maturation.IMPORTANCE Herpesviruses assemble capsids and encapsidate their genomes by a process that is unlike those of other mammalian viruses but is similar to those of some bacteriophage. Many important aspects of herpesvirus morphogenesis remain enigmatic, including how the capsid shell matures into a stable angularized configuration. Capsid maturation is triggered by activation of a protease that cleaves an internal protein scaffold. We report on the fortuitous discovery that a region of the major capsid protein that is exposed on the outer surface of the capsid also contributes to capsid maturation, demonstrating that the morphogenesis of the capsid shell from its procapsid precursor to the mature angularized form is dependent upon internal and external components of the megastructure.

Autographa californica Nucleopolyhedrovirus AC141 (Exon0), a Potential E3 Ubiquitin Ligase, Interacts with Viral Ubiquitin and AC66 To Facilitate Nucleocapsid Egress

During the infection cycle of Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV), two forms of virions are produced, budded virus (BV) and occlusion-derived virus (ODV). Nucleocapsids that form BV have to egress from the nucleus, whereas nucleocapsids that form ODV remain inside the nucleus. The molecular mechanism that determines whether nucleocapsids remain inside or egress from the nucleus is unknown. AC141 (a predicted E3 ubiquitin ligase) and viral ubiquitin (vUbi) have both been shown to be required for efficient BV production. In this study, it was hypothesized that vUbi interacts with AC141, and in addition, that this interaction was required for BV production. Deletion of both ac141 and vubi restricted viral infection to a single cell, and BV production was completely eliminated. AC141 was ubiquitinated by either vUbi or cellular Ubi, and this interaction was required for optimal BV production. Nucleocapsids in BV, but not ODV, were shown to be specifically ubiquitinated by vUbi, including a 100-kDa protein, as well as high-molecular-weight conjugates. The viral ubiquitinated 100-kDa BV-specific nucleocapsid protein was identified as AC66, which is known to be required for BV production and was shown by coimmunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry to interact with AC141. Confocal microscopy also showed that AC141, AC66, and vUbi interact at the nuclear periphery. These results suggest that ubiquitination of nucleocapsid proteins by vUbi functions as a signal to determine if a nucleocapsid will egress from the nucleus and form BV or remain in the nucleus to form ODV.IMPORTANCE Baculoviruses produce two types of virions called occlusion-derived virus (ODV) and budded virus (BV). ODVs are required for oral infection, whereas BV enables the systemic spread of virus to all host tissues, which is critical for killing insects. One of the important steps for BV production is the export of nucleocapsids out of the nucleus. This study investigated the molecular mechanisms that enable the selection of nucleocapsids for nuclear export instead of being retained within the nucleus, where they would become ODV. Our data show that ubiquitination, a universal cellular process, specifically tags nucleocapsids of BV, but not those found in ODV, using a virus-encoded ubiquitin (vUbi). Therefore, ubiquitination may be the molecular signal that determines if a nucleocapsid is destined to form a BV, thus ensuring lethal infection of the host.

The pUL37 tegument protein guides alpha-herpesvirus retrograde axonal transport to promote neuroinvasion

A hallmark property of the neurotropic alpha-herpesvirinae is the dissemination of infection to sensory and autonomic ganglia of the peripheral nervous system following an initial exposure at mucosal surfaces. The peripheral ganglia serve as the latent virus reservoir and the source of recurrent infections such as cold sores (herpes simplex virus type I) and shingles (varicella zoster virus). However, the means by which these viruses routinely invade the nervous system is not fully understood. We report that an internal virion component, the pUL37 tegument protein, has a surface region that is an essential neuroinvasion effector. Mutation of this region rendered herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and pseudorabies virus (PRV) incapable of spreading by retrograde axonal transport to peripheral ganglia both in culture and animals. By monitoring the axonal transport of individual viral particles by time-lapse fluorescence microscopy, the mutant viruses were determined to lack the characteristic sustained intracellular capsid motion along microtubules that normally traffics capsids to the neural soma. Consistent with the axonal transport deficit, the mutant viruses did not reach sites of latency in peripheral ganglia, and were avirulent. Despite this, viral propagation in peripheral tissues and in cultured epithelial cell lines remained robust. Selective elimination of retrograde delivery to the nervous system has long been sought after as a means to develop vaccines against these ubiquitous, and sometimes devastating viruses. In support of this potential, we find that HSV-1 and PRV mutated in the effector region of pUL37 evoked effective vaccination against subsequent nervous system challenges and encephalitic disease. These findings demonstrate that retrograde axonal transport of the herpesviruses occurs by a virus-directed mechanism that operates by coordinating opposing microtubule motors to favor sustained retrograde delivery of the virus to the peripheral ganglia. The ability to selectively eliminate the retrograde axonal transport mechanism from these viruses will be useful in trans-synaptic mapping studies of the mammalian nervous system, and affords a new vaccination paradigm for human and veterinary neurotropic herpesviruses.

Structure and Function of Viral Deubiquitinating Enzymes

Post-translational modification of cellular proteins by ubiquitin regulates numerous cellular processes, including innate and adaptive immune responses. Ubiquitin-mediated control over these processes can be reversed by cellular deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs), which remove ubiquitin from cellular targets and depolymerize polyubiquitin chains. The importance of protein ubiquitination to host immunity has been underscored by the discovery of viruses that encode proteases with deubiquitinating activity, many of which have been demonstrated to actively corrupt cellular ubiquitin-dependent processes to suppress innate antiviral responses and promote viral replication. DUBs have now been identified in diverse viral lineages, and their characterization is providing valuable insights into virus biology and the role of the ubiquitin system in host antiviral mechanisms. Here, we provide an overview of the structural biology of these fascinating viral enzymes and their role innate immune evasion and viral replication.

A pUL25 dimer interfaces the pseudorabies virus capsid and tegument

Inside the virions of α-herpesviruses, tegument protein pUL25 anchors the tegument to capsid vertices through direct interactions with tegument proteins pUL17 and pUL36. In addition to promoting virion assembly, both pUL25 and pUL36 are critical for intracellular microtubule-dependent capsid transport. Despite these essential roles during infection, the stoichiometry and precise organization of pUL25 and pUL36 on the capsid surface remain controversial due to the insufficient resolution of existing reconstructions from cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM). Here, we report a three-dimensional (3D) icosahedral reconstruction of pseudorabies virus (PRV), a varicellovirus of the α-herpesvirinae subfamily, obtained by electron-counting cryoEM at 4.9 Å resolution. Our reconstruction resolves a dimer of pUL25 forming a capsid-associated tegument complex with pUL36 and pUL17 through a coiled coil helix bundle, thus correcting previous misinterpretations. A comparison between reconstructions of PRV and the γ-herpesvirus Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) reinforces their similar architectures and establishes important subfamily differences in the capsid-tegument interface.

Viral deubiquitinases: role in evasion of anti-viral innate immunity

Host anti-viral innate-immune signalling pathways are regulated by a variety of post-translation modifications including ubiquitination, which is critical to regulate various signalling pathways for synthesis of anti-viral molecules. A homeostasis of host immune responses, induced due to viral infection and further ubiquitination, is maintained by the action of deubiquitinases (DUB). Infecting viruses utilize the process of deubiquitination for tricking host immune system wherein viral DUBs compete with host DUBs for inhibition of innate-immune anti-viral signalling pathways, which instead of maintaining an immune homeostasis bring about virus-mediated pathogenesis. This suggests that viruses co-evolve with their hosts to acquire similar machinery for tricking immune surveillance and establishing infection.

Cooperative inhibition of RIP1-mediated NF-κB signaling by cytomegalovirus-encoded deubiquitinase and inactive homolog of cellular ribonucleotide reductase large subunit

Several viruses have been found to encode a deubiquitinating protease (DUB). These viral DUBs are proposed to play a role in regulating innate immune or inflammatory signaling. In human cytomegalovirus (HCMV), the largest tegument protein encoded by UL48 contains DUB activity, but its cellular targets are not known. Here, we show that UL48 and UL45, an HCMV-encoded inactive homolog of cellular ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) large subunit (R1), target receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIP1) to inhibit NF-κB signaling. Transfection assays showed that UL48 and UL45, which binds to UL48, interact with RIP1 and that UL48 DUB activity and UL45 cooperatively suppress RIP1-mediated NF-κB activation. The growth of UL45-null mutant virus was slightly impaired with showing reduced accumulation of viral late proteins. Analysis of a recombinant virus expressing HA-UL45 showed that UL45 interacts with both UL48 and RIP1 during virus infection. Infection with the mutant viruses also revealed that UL48 DUB activity and UL45 inhibit TNFα-induced NF-κB activation at late times of infection. UL48 cleaved both K48- and K63-linked polyubiquitin chains of RIP1. Although UL45 alone did not affect RIP1 ubiquitination, it could enhance the UL48 activity to cleave RIP1 polyubiquitin chains. Consistently, UL45-null virus infection showed higher ubiquitination level of endogenous RIP1 than HA-UL45 virus infection at late times. Moreover, UL45 promoted the UL48-RIP1 interaction and re-localization of RIP1 to the UL48-containing virion assembly complex. The mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV)-encoded DUB, M48, interacted with mouse RIP1 and M45, an MCMV homolog of UL45. Collectively, our data demonstrate that cytomegalovirus-encoded DUB and inactive R1 homolog target RIP1 and cooperatively inhibit RIP1-mediated NF-κB signaling at the late stages of HCMV infection.

Activation of NF-κB signaling leads to expression of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines and plays a key role in regulating innate immune response and inflammation to virus infection. HCMV upregulates and downregulates NF-κB signaling during the course of infection. Upregulation of NF-κB signaling may promote viral gene expression or viral dissemination, but its downregulation may be necessary for suppression of excessive immune responses. Recently, it was demonstrated that viral late functions downregulate TNFα- and IL-1β-induced NF-κB activation. However, the viral proteins involved and the underlying mechanisms are not understood. In the present study, we demonstrate that two HCMV proteins, the largest tegument protein harboring deubiquitinase activity and the inactive homolog of cellular ribonucleotide reductase large subunit, cooperatively inhibit RIP1-mediated NF-κB signaling at the late stages of infection. This study for the first time identified RIP1 as a substrate of viral deubiquitinase and highlights the importance of the negative regulation of NF-κB during virus infection.

Murine Cytomegalovirus Deubiquitinase Regulates Viral Chemokine Levels To Control Inflammation and Pathogenesis

Maintaining control over inflammatory processes represents a paradox for viral pathogens. Although many viruses induce host inflammatory responses to facilitate infection, control is necessary to avoid overactivation. One way is through the manipulation of proinflammatory chemokine levels, both host and viral. Murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV), a model betaherpesvirus, encodes a viral C-C chemokine, MCK2, which promotes host inflammatory responses and incorporates into virions to facilitate viral dissemination. Here, we show that the activity of M48, the conserved MCMV deubiquitinating enzyme (DUB), regulates MCK2 levels during infection. Inactivation of M48 DUB activity results in viral attenuation and exacerbates virally induced, MCK2-dependent inflammatory responses. M48 DUB activity also influences MCK2 incorporation into virions. Importantly, attenuation of DUB-mutant virus acute replication in vitro and in vivo is largely ameliorated by targeted deletion of MCK2. Thus, uncontrolled MCK2 levels appear to mediate DUB-mutant virus attenuation in specific tissues or cell types. This demonstrates that MCMV M48 DUB activity plays a previously unappreciated role in controlling MCK2 levels, thereby managing MCK2-dependent processes. These findings reveal a novel intrinsic control mechanism of virally induced inflammation and support the identification of betaherpesvirus DUBs as possible new targets for antiviral therapies.

Human cytomegalovirus infections represent a tremendous burden not only to those afflicted but also to health care systems worldwide. As cytomegalovirus infections are a leading cause of nongenetic sensory loss and neurodevelopmental delay, it is imperative that valuable model systems exist in order that we might understand what viral factors contribute to replication and pathogenesis. Currently, the only approved drug treatments against CMV infection are nucleoside analogues, to which some strains have become resistant. Understanding unique viral enzymatic contributions to infections will allow the development of novel pharmacological therapies. Here, we show that M48, the conserved MCMV deubiquitinase, is critical for MCMV replication in mice and demonstrate that attenuation is due to deregulated production of a viral proinflammatory chemokine. The deubiquitinases of both human and murine CMV represent structurally unique DUBs and are therefore attractive targets for pharmacological intervention. Continued research into the substrates of these DUBs will lend additional insight into their potential as targets.

Assembly and Egress of an Alphaherpesvirus Clockwork

All viruses produce infectious particles that possess some degree of stability in the extracellular environment yet disassemble upon cell contact and entry. For the alphaherpesviruses, which include many neuroinvasive viruses of mammals, these metastable virions consist of an icosahedral capsid surrounded by a protein matrix (referred to as the tegument) and a lipid envelope studded with glycoproteins. Whereas the capsid of these viruses is a rigid structure encasing the DNA genome, the tegument and envelope are dynamic assemblies that orchestrate a sequential series of events that ends with the delivery of the genome into the nucleus. These particles are adapted to infect two different polarized cell types in their hosts: epithelial cells and neurons of the peripheral nervous system. This review considers how the virion is assembled into a primed state and is targeted to infect these cell types such that the incoming particles can subsequently negotiate the diverse environments they encounter on their way from plasma membrane to nucleus and thereby achieve their remarkably robust neuroinvasive infectious cycle.

Visualizing Herpesvirus Procapsids in Living Cells

A complete understanding of herpesvirus morphogenesis requires studies of capsid assembly dynamics in living cells. Although fluorescent tags fused to the VP26 and pUL25 capsid proteins are available, neither of these components is present on the initial capsid assembly, the procapsid. To make procapsids accessible to live-cell imaging, we made a series of recombinant pseudorabies viruses that encoded green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused in frame to the internal capsid scaffold and maturation protease. One recombinant, a GFP-VP24 fusion, maintained wild-type propagation kinetics in vitro and approximated wild-type virulence in vivo The fusion also proved to be well tolerated in herpes simplex virus. Viruses encoding GFP-VP24, along with a traditional capsid reporter fusion (pUL25/mCherry), demonstrated that GFP-VP24 was a reliable capsid marker and revealed that the protein remained capsid associated following entry into cells and upon nuclear docking. These dual-fluorescent viruses made possible the discrimination of procapsids during infection and monitoring of capsid shell maturation kinetics. The results demonstrate the feasibility of imaging herpesvirus procapsids and their morphogenesis in living cells and indicate that the encapsidation machinery does not substantially help coordinate capsid shell maturation.

IMPORTANCE

The family Herpesviridae consists of human and veterinary pathogens that cause a wide range of diseases in their respective hosts. These viruses share structurally related icosahedral capsids that encase the double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viral genome. The dynamics of capsid assembly and maturation have been inaccessible to examination in living cells. This study has overcome this technical hurdle and provides new insights into this fundamental stage of herpesvirus infection.

Conserved Tryptophan Motifs in the Large Tegument Protein pUL36 Are Required for Efficient Secondary Envelopment of Herpes Simplex Virus Capsids

Herpes simplex virus (HSV) replicates in the skin and mucous membranes, and initiates lytic or latent infections in sensory neurons. Assembly of progeny virions depends on the essential large tegument protein pUL36 of 3,164 amino acid residues that links the capsids to the tegument proteins pUL37 and VP16. Of the 32 tryptophans of HSV-1-pUL36, the tryptophan-acidic motifs (1766)WD(1767) and (1862)WE(1863) are conserved in all HSV-1 and HSV-2 isolates. Here, we characterized the role of these motifs in the HSV life cycle since the rare tryptophans often have unique roles in protein function due to their large hydrophobic surface. The infectivity of the mutants HSV-1(17(+))Lox-pUL36-WD/AA-WE/AA and HSV-1(17(+))Lox-CheVP26-pUL36-WD/AA-WE/AA, in which the capsid has been tagged with the fluorescent protein Cherry, was significantly reduced. Quantitative electron microscopy shows that there were a larger number of cytosolic capsids and fewer enveloped virions compared to their respective parental strains, indicating a severe impairment in secondary capsid envelopment. The capsids of the mutant viruses accumulated in the perinuclear region around the microtubule-organizing center and were not dispersed to the cell periphery but still acquired the inner tegument proteins pUL36 and pUL37. Furthermore, cytoplasmic capsids colocalized with tegument protein VP16 and, to some extent, with tegument protein VP22 but not with the envelope glycoprotein gD. These results indicate that the unique conserved tryptophan-acidic motifs in the central region of pUL36 are required for efficient targeting of progeny capsids to the membranes of secondary capsid envelopment and for efficient virion assembly.

IMPORTANCE

Herpesvirus infections give rise to severe animal and human diseases, especially in young, immunocompromised, and elderly individuals. The structural hallmark of herpesvirus virions is the tegument, which contains evolutionarily conserved proteins that are essential for several stages of the herpesvirus life cycle. Here we characterized two conserved tryptophan-acidic motifs in the central region of the large tegument protein pUL36 of herpes simplex virus. When we mutated these motifs, secondary envelopment of cytosolic capsids and the production of infectious particles were severely impaired. Our data suggest that pUL36 and its homologs in other herpesviruses, and in particular such tryptophan-acidic motifs, could provide attractive targets for the development of novel drugs to prevent herpesvirus assembly and spread.

Involvement of the N-Terminal Deubiquitinating Protease Domain of Human Cytomegalovirus UL48 Tegument Protein in Autoubiquitination, Virion Stability, and Virus Entry

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) protein pUL48 is closely associated with the capsid and has a deubiquitinating protease (DUB) activity in its N-terminal region. Although this DUB activity moderately increases virus replication in cultured fibroblast cells, the requirements of the N-terminal region of pUL48 in the viral replication cycle are not fully understood. In this study, we characterized the recombinant viruses encoding UL48(ΔDUB/NLS), which lacks the DUB domain and the adjacent nuclear localization signal (NLS), UL48(ΔDUB), which lacks only the DUB, and UL48(Δ360-1200), which lacks the internal region (amino acids 360 to 1200) downstream of the DUB/NLS. While ΔDUB/NLS and Δ360-1200 mutant viruses did not grow in fibroblasts, the ΔDUB virus replicated to titers 100-fold lower than those for wild-type virus and showed substantially reduced viral gene expression at low multiplicities of infection. The DUB domain contained ubiquitination sites, and DUB activity reduced its own proteasomal degradation in trans. Deletion of the DUB domain did not affect the nuclear and cytoplasmic localization of pUL48, whereas the internal region (360-1200) was necessary for cytoplasmic distribution. In coimmunoprecipitation assays, pUL48 interacted with three tegument proteins (pUL47, pUL45, and pUL88) and two capsid proteins (pUL77 and pUL85) but the DUB domain contributed to only pUL85 binding. Furthermore, we found that the ΔDUB virus showed reduced virion stability and less efficiently delivered its genome into the cell than the wild-type virus. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the N-terminal DUB domain of pUL48 contributes to efficient viral growth by regulating its own stability and promoting virion stabilization and virus entry.

IMPORTANCE

HCMV pUL48 and its herpesvirus homologs play key roles in virus entry, regulation of immune signaling pathways, and virion assembly. The N terminus of pUL48 contains the DUB domain, which is well conserved among all herpesviruses. Although studies using the active-site mutant viruses revealed that the DUB activity promotes viral growth, the exact role of this region in the viral life cycle is not fully understood. In this study, using the mutant virus lacking the entire DUB domain, we demonstrate that the DUB domain of pUL48 contributes to viral growth by regulating its own stability via autodeubiquitination and promoting virion stability and virus entry. This report is the first to demonstrate the characteristics of the mutant virus with the entire DUB domain deleted, which, along with information on the functions of this region, is useful in dissecting the functions associated with pUL48.