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Eckhart L, Holthaus KB, Sachslehner AP. Cell differentiation in the embryonic periderm and in scaffolding epithelia of skin appendages. Dev Biol 2024; 515:60-66. [PMID: 38964706 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Terminal differentiation of epithelial cells is critical for the barrier function of the skin, the growth of skin appendages, such as hair and nails, and the development of the skin of amniotes. Here, we present the hypothesis that the differentiation of cells in the embryonic periderm shares characteristic features with the differentiation of epithelial cells that support the morphogenesis of cornified skin appendages during postnatal life. The periderm prevents aberrant fusion of adjacent epithelial sites during early skin development. It is shed off when keratinocytes of the epidermis form the cornified layer, the stratum corneum. A similar role is played by epithelia that ensheath cornifying skin appendages until they disintegrate to allow the separation of the mature part of the skin appendage from the adjacent tissue. These epithelia, exemplified by the inner root sheath of hair follicles and the epithelia close to the free edge of nails or claws, are referred to as scaffolding epithelia. The periderm and scaffolding epithelia are similar with regard to their transient functions in separating tissues and the conserved expression of trichohyalin and trichohyalin-like genes in mammals and birds. Thus, we propose that parts of the peridermal differentiation program were coopted to a new postnatal function during the evolution of cornified skin appendages in amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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2
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Nicolaï MPJ, Van Hecke B, Rogalla S, Debruyn G, Bowie RCK, Matzke NJ, Hackett SJ, D'Alba L, Shawkey MD. The Evolution of Multiple Color Mechanisms Is Correlated with Diversification in Sunbirds (Nectariniidae). Syst Biol 2024; 73:343-354. [PMID: 38289860 DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syae006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
How and why certain groups become speciose is a key question in evolutionary biology. Novel traits that enable diversification by opening new ecological niches are likely important mechanisms. However, ornamental traits can also promote diversification by opening up novel sensory niches and thereby creating novel inter-specific interactions. More specifically, ornamental colors may enable more precise and/or easier species recognition and may act as key innovations by increasing the number of species-specific patterns and promoting diversification. While the influence of coloration on diversification is well-studied, the influence of the mechanisms that produce those colors (e.g., pigmentary, nanostructural) is less so, even though the ontogeny and evolution of these mechanisms differ. We estimated a new phylogenetic tree for 121 sunbird species and combined color data of 106 species with a range of phylogenetic tools to test the hypothesis that the evolution of novel color mechanisms increases diversification in sunbirds, one of the most colorful bird clades. Results suggest that: (1) the evolution of novel color mechanisms expands the visual sensory niche, increasing the number of achievable colors, (2) structural coloration diverges more readily across the body than pigment-based coloration, enabling an increase in color complexity, (3) novel color mechanisms might minimize trade-offs between natural and sexual selection such that color can function both as camouflage and conspicuous signal, and (4) despite structural colors being more colorful and mobile, only melanin-based coloration is positively correlated with net diversification. Together, these findings explain why color distances increase with an increasing number of sympatric species, even though packing of color space predicts otherwise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël P J Nicolaï
- Biology Department, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bert Van Hecke
- Biology Department, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Svana Rogalla
- Biology Department, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- Instituto Biofisika (UPV/EHU, CSIC), Barrio Sarriena, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Gerben Debruyn
- Biology Department, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Rauri C K Bowie
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Nicholas J Matzke
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Shannon J Hackett
- Negaunee Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Liliana D'Alba
- Biology Department, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- Evolutionary Ecology, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Matthew D Shawkey
- Biology Department, Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
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Wu H, Chuang TC, Liao WC, Chi KJ, Ng CS, Cheng HC, Juan WT. Modification of Keratin Integrations and the Associated Morphogenesis in Frizzling Chicken Feathers. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:464. [PMID: 39056659 PMCID: PMC11273737 DOI: 10.3390/biology13070464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 06/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
The morphological and compositional complexities of keratinized components make feathers ingenious skin appendages adapted to diverse ecological needs. Frizzling feathers, characterized by their distinct curling phenotypes, offer a unique model to explore the intricate morphogenesis in developing a keratin-based bioarchitecture over a wide range of morphospace. Here, we investigated the heterogeneous allocation of α- and β-keratins in flight feather shafts of homozygous and heterozygous frizzle chickens by analyzing the medulla-cortex integrations using quantitative morphology characterizations across scales. Our results reveal the intriguing construction of the frizzling feather shaft through the modified medulla development, leading to a perturbed balance of the internal biomechanics and, therefore, introducing the inherent natural frizzling compared to those from wild-type chickens. We elucidate how the localized developmental suppression of the α-keratin in the medulla interferes with the growth of the hierarchical keratin organization by changing the internal stress in the frizzling feather shaft. This research not only offers insights into the morphogenetic origin of the inherent bending of frizzling feathers but also facilitates our in-depth understanding of the developmental strategies toward the diverse integuments adapted for ecological needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wu
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan; (K.-J.C.)
| | - Tsao-Chi Chuang
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Chi Liao
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Jung Chi
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan; (K.-J.C.)
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
- Department of Physics, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Siang Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan;
| | - Hsu-Cheng Cheng
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan; (K.-J.C.)
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Tau Juan
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
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4
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Chen A, Zhao X, Wen J, Zhao X, Wang G, Zhang X, Ren X, Zhang Y, Cheng X, Yu X, Mei X, Wang H, Guo M, Jiang X, Wei G, Wang X, Jiang R, Guo X, Ning Z, Qu L. Genetic parameter estimation and molecular foundation of chicken beak shape. Poult Sci 2024; 103:103666. [PMID: 38703454 PMCID: PMC11087718 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2024.103666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024] Open
Abstract
The bird beak is mainly functioned as feeding and attacking, and its shape has extremely important significance for survival and reproduction. In chickens, since beak shape could lead to some disadvantages including pecking and waste of feed, it is important to understand the inheritance of chicken beak shape. In the present study, we firstly established 4 indicators to describe the chicken beak shapes, including upper beak length (UL), lower beak length (LL), distance between upper and lower beak tips (DB) and upper beak curvature (BC). And then, we measured the 4 beak shape indicators as well as some production traits including body weight (BW), shank length (SL), egg weight (EW), eggshell strength (ES) of a layer breed, Rhode Island Red (RIR), in order to estimate genetic parameters of chicken beak shape. The heritabilities of UL and LL were 0.41 and 0.37, and the heritabilities of DB and BC were 0.22 and 0.21, indicating that beak shape was a highly or mediumly heritable. There were significant positive genetic and phenotypic correlations among UL, LL, and DB. And UL was positively correlated with body weight (BW18) and shank length (SL18) at 18 weeks of age in genetics, and DB was positively correlated with BC in terms of genetics and phenotype. We also found that layers of chicken cages played a role on beak shape, which could be attributed to the difference of lightness in different cage layers. By a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for the chicken UL, we identified 9 significant candidate genes associated with UL in RIR. For the variants with low minor allele frequencies (MAF <0.01) and outside of high linkage disequilibrium (LD) regions, we also conducted rare variant association studies (RVA) and GWAS to find the association between genotype and phenotype. We also analyzed transcriptomic data from multiple tissues of chicken embryos and revealed that all of the 9 genes were highly expressed in beak of chicken embryos, indicating their potential function for beak development. Our results provided the genetic foundation of chicken beak shape, which could help chicken breeding on beak related traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Chen
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhao
- Xingrui Agricultural Stock Breeding, Baoding 072550, Hebei Province, China
| | - Junhui Wen
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Beijing Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Xiurong Zhao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Gang Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xinye Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xufang Ren
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yalan Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xue Cheng
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaofan Yu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaohan Mei
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Huie Wang
- Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Biological Resources in Tarim Basin, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China
| | - Menghan Guo
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaoyu Jiang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Guozhen Wei
- Qingliu Animal Husbandry, Veterinary and Aquatic Products Center, Sanming, China
| | - Xue Wang
- VVBK Animal Medical Diagnostic Technology (Beijing) Co., Ltd, Beijing, China
| | - Runshen Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Xing Guo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Zhonghua Ning
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Lujiang Qu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps, Key Laboratory of Protection and Utilization of Biological Resources in Tarim Basin, Tarim University, Alar 843300, China.
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5
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Chen CK, Chang YM, Jiang TX, Yue Z, Liu TY, Lu J, Yu Z, Lin JJ, Vu TD, Huang TY, Harn HIC, Ng CS, Wu P, Chuong CM, Li WH. Conserved regulatory switches for the transition from natal down to juvenile feather in birds. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4174. [PMID: 38755126 PMCID: PMC11099144 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48303-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The transition from natal downs for heat conservation to juvenile feathers for simple flight is a remarkable environmental adaptation process in avian evolution. However, the underlying epigenetic mechanism for this primary feather transition is mostly unknown. Here we conducted time-ordered gene co-expression network construction, epigenetic analysis, and functional perturbations in developing feather follicles to elucidate four downy-juvenile feather transition events. We report that extracellular matrix reorganization leads to peripheral pulp formation, which mediates epithelial-mesenchymal interactions for branching morphogenesis. α-SMA (ACTA2) compartmentalizes dermal papilla stem cells for feather renewal cycling. LEF1 works as a key hub of Wnt signaling to build rachis and converts radial downy to bilateral symmetry. Novel usage of scale keratins strengthens feather sheath with SOX14 as the epigenetic regulator. We show that this primary feather transition is largely conserved in chicken (precocial) and zebra finch (altricial) and discuss the possibility that this evolutionary adaptation process started in feathered dinosaurs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Kuan Chen
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Ming Chang
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - ZhiCao Yue
- Department of Cell Biology and Medical Genetics, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- International Cancer Center, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Genome Instability and Human Disease Prevention, Shenzhen University Medical School, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
| | - Tzu-Yu Liu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Jiayi Lu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Zhou Yu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jinn-Jy Lin
- National Applied Research Laboratories, National Center for High-performance Computing, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Trieu-Duc Vu
- Michigan Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Tao-Yu Huang
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hans I-Chen Harn
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Chen Siang Ng
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Bioresource Conservation Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Wen-Hsiung Li
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.
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6
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Dhouailly D. The avian ectodermal default competence to make feathers. Dev Biol 2024; 508:64-76. [PMID: 38190932 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/10/2024]
Abstract
Feathers originate as protofeathers before birds, in pterosaurs and basal dinosaurs. What characterizes a feather is not only its outgrowth, but its barb cells differentiation and a set of beta-corneous proteins. Reticula appear concomitantly with feathers, as small bumps on plantar skin, made only of keratins. Avian scales, with their own set of beta-corneous proteins, appear more recently than feathers on the shank, and only in some species. In the chick embryo, when feather placodes form, all the non-feather areas of the integument are already specified. Among them, midventral apterium, cornea, reticula, and scale morphogenesis appear to be driven by negative regulatory mechanisms, which modulate the inherited capacity of the avian ectoderm to form feathers. Successive dermal/epidermal interactions, initiated by the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and involving principally Eda/Edar, BMP, FGF20 and Shh signaling, are responsible for the formation not only of feather, but also of scale placodes and reticula, with notable differences in the level of Shh, and probably FGF20 expressions. This sequence is a dynamic and labile process, the turning point being the FGF20 expression by the placode. This epidermal signal endows its associated dermis with the memory to aggregate and to stimulate the morphogenesis that follows, involving even a re-initiation of the placode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Dhouailly
- Department of Biology and Chemistry, University Grenoble-Alpes, Institute for Advanced Biosciences, 38700, La Tronche, France.
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Jagadeesan Y, Meenakshisundaram S, Pichaimuthu S, Balaiah A. A scientific version of understanding "Why did the chickens cross the road"? - A guided journey through Bacillus spp. towards sustainable agriculture, circular economy and biofortification. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 244:117907. [PMID: 38109965 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
The world, a famished planet with an overgrowing population, requires enormous food crops. This scenario compelled the farmers to use a high quantity of synthetic fertilizers for high food crop productivity. However, prolonged usage of chemical fertilizers results in severe adverse effects on soil and water quality. On the other hand, the growing population significantly consumes large quantities of poultry meats. Eventually, this produces a mammoth amount of poultry waste, chicken feathers. Owing to the protein value of the chicken feathers, these wastes are converted into protein hydrolysate and further extend their application as biostimulants for sustained agriculture. The protein profile of chicken feather protein hydrolysate (CFPH) produced through Bacillus spp. was the maximum compared to physical and chemical protein extraction methods. Several studies proved that the application of CFPH and active Bacillus spp. culture to soil and plants results in enhanced plant growth, phytochemical constituents, crop yield, soil nutrients, fertility, microbiome and resistance against diverse abiotic and biotic stresses. Overall, "CFPH - Jack of all trades" and "Bacillus spp. - an active camouflage to the surroundings where they applied showed profound and significant benefits to the plant growth under the most adverse conditions. In addition, Bacillus spp. coheres the biofortification process in plants through the breakdown of metals into metal ions that eventually increase the nutrient value of the food crops. However, detailed information on them is missing. This can be overcome by further real-world studies on rhizoengineering through a multi-omics approach and their interaction with plants. This review has explored the best possible and efficient strategy for managing chicken feather wastes into protein-rich CFPH through Bacillus spp. bioconversion and utilizing the CFPH and Bacillus spp. as biostimulants, biofertilizers, biopesticides and biofortificants. This paper is an excellent report on organic waste management, circular economy and sustainable agriculture research frontier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yogeswaran Jagadeesan
- Department of Biotechnology, University College of Engineering, Anna University - BIT Campus, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, 620 024, India.
| | - Shanmugapriya Meenakshisundaram
- Department of Biotechnology, University College of Engineering, Anna University - BIT Campus, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, 620 024, India.
| | - Suthakaran Pichaimuthu
- Genprotic Biopharma Private Limited, SPIC Bioprocess Laboratory, Anna University, Taramani Campus, Taramani, Chennai, Tamilnadu, 600113, India.
| | - Anandaraj Balaiah
- Department of Biotechnology, University College of Engineering, Anna University - BIT Campus, Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu, 620 024, India.
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8
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Holthaus KB, Eckhart L. Development-Associated Genes of the Epidermal Differentiation Complex (EDC). J Dev Biol 2024; 12:4. [PMID: 38248869 PMCID: PMC10801484 DOI: 10.3390/jdb12010004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) is a cluster of genes that encode protein components of the outermost layers of the epidermis in mammals, reptiles and birds. The development of the stratified epidermis from a single-layered ectoderm involves an embryo-specific superficial cell layer, the periderm. An additional layer, the subperiderm, develops in crocodilians and over scutate scales of birds. Here, we review the expression of EDC genes during embryonic development. Several EDC genes are expressed predominantly or exclusively in embryo-specific cell layers, whereas others are confined to the epidermal layers that are maintained in postnatal skin. The S100 fused-type proteins scaffoldin and trichohyalin are expressed in the avian and mammalian periderm, respectively. Scaffoldin forms the so-called periderm granules, which are histological markers of the periderm in birds. Epidermal differentiation cysteine-rich protein (EDCRP) and epidermal differentiation protein containing DPCC motifs (EDDM) are expressed in the avian subperiderm where they are supposed to undergo cross-linking via disulfide bonds. Furthermore, a histidine-rich epidermal differentiation protein and feather-type corneous beta-proteins, also known as beta-keratins, are expressed in the subperiderm. The accumulating evidence for roles of EDC genes in the development of the epidermis has implications on the evolutionary diversification of the skin in amniotes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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9
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Chuang T, Cheng JW, Chuong CM, Juan WT. Autofluorescence microscopy as a non-invasive probe to characterize the complex mechanical properties of keratin-based integumentary organs: A feather paradigm. CHINESE JOURNAL OF PHYSICS 2023; 86:561-571. [PMID: 38370512 PMCID: PMC10868595 DOI: 10.1016/j.cjph.2023.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Integumentary organs exhibit diverse morphologies and functions. The complex mechanical property of the architecture is mainly contributed by the ingenious multiscale assembly of keratins. A cross-scale characterization on keratin integration in an integument system will help us understand the principles on how keratin-based bio-architecture are built and function in nature. In this study, we used feather as a model integument organ. We develop autofluorescence (AF) microscopy to study the characteristics of its keratin assemblies over a wide range of length scales. The AF intensity of each feather component, following the hierarchy from the rachis to barb to barbule, decreased with the physical dimension. By combining the analysis of AF signal and tensile testing, we can probe regional material density and the associated mechanical strength in a composite feather. We further demonstrated that the AF micro-images could resolve subtle variations in the defective keratin assembly in feathers from frizzled chicken variants with a mutation in α-keratin 75. The distinction between AF patterns and the morphological features of feather components across different length scales indicated a synergetic interplay between material integration and complex morphogenesis during feather development. The work shows AF microscopy can serve as an easy and non-invasive approach to study multiscale keratin organizations and the associated bio-mechanical properties in diverse integumentary organs. This approach will facilitate our learning of many bio-inspired designs in diverse animal integumentary organs/appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- T.C. Chuang
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Jiun-Wei Cheng
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Wen-Tau Juan
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
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10
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Alibardi L. Scales of non-avian reptiles and their derivatives contain corneous beta proteins coded from genes localized in the Epidermal Differentiation Complex. Tissue Cell 2023; 85:102228. [PMID: 37793208 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2023.102228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of modern reptiles from basic reptilian ancestors gave rise to scaled vertebrates. Scales are of different types, and their corneous layer can shed frequently during the year in lepidosaurians (lizards, snakes), 1-2 times per year in the tuatara and in some freshwater turtle, irregularly in different parts of the body in crocodilians, or simply wore superficially in marine and terrestrial turtles. Lepidosaurians possess tuberculate, non-overlapped or variably overlapped scales with inter-scale (hinge) regions. The latter are hidden underneath the outer scale surface or may be more exposed in specific body areas. Hinge regions allow stretching during growth and movement so that the skin remains mechanically functional. Crocodilian and turtles feature flat and shield scales (scutes) with narrow inter-scale regions for stretching and growth. The epidermis of non-avian reptilian hinge regions is much thinner than the exposed outer surface of scales and is less cornified. Despite the thickness of the epidermis, scales are mainly composed of variably amount of Corneous Beta Proteins (CBPs) that are coded in a gene cluster known as EDC (Epidermal Differentiation Complex). These are small proteins, 100-200 amino acid long of 8-25 kDa, rich in glycine and cysteine but also in serine, proline and valine that participate to the formation of beta-sheets in the internal part of the protein, the beta-region. This region determines the further polymerization of CBPs in filamentous proteins that, together a network of Intermediate Filament Keratins (IFKs) and other minor epidermal proteins from the EDC make the variable pliable or inflexible corneous material of reptilian scales, claws and of turtle beak. The acquisition of scales and skin derivatives with different mechanical and material properties, mainly due to the evolution of reptile CBPs, is essential for the life and different adaptations of these vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alibardi
- Comparative Histolab Padova, Italy; Department of Biology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
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11
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Xia L, Li C, Zhao Y, Zhang W, Hu C, Qu Y, Li H, Yan J, Zhou K, Li P. Expression analysis of alpha keratins and corneous beta-protein genes during embryonic development of Gekko japonicus. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY. PART D, GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2023; 47:101116. [PMID: 37567027 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2023.101116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Epidermal appendages of birds and reptiles, including claws, feathers, scales, and setae, are primarily composed of alpha keratins (KRTs) and corneous beta-proteins (CBPs). A comprehensive and systematic knowledge of KRTs and CBPs in Schlegel's Japanese gecko (Gekko japonicus) is still lacking. In this study, 22 candidate Gecko japonicus keratin (GjKRT) family genes (12 type I genes, 10 type II genes) were identified in the G. japonicus genome. The majority of GjKRT genes across various subgroups had undergone a prolonged and highly conservative evolutionary process. Through a combination of morphological observation, RNA-seq analysis, and qRT-PCR assay, it was possible to discern the dynamic alterations in the expression of GjKRTs and Gecko japonicus corneous beta-proteins genes (GjCBPs). These findings strongly indicate that GjKRTs gradually accumulate to constitute an α-layer, which is subsequently succeeded by the formation of the corneous beta layer containing GjCBPs at late stages (40-42) of embryonic development. The epidermal appendages in G. japonicus may result from the joint accumulation of KRTs and CBPs, with stages 40-42 being critical for their development. These findings provide novel insights into KRTs and CBPs of G. japonicus and offer a foundation for investigating the functions of GjKRT and GjCBP gene families. Furthermore, this knowledge contributes to unraveling the molecular mechanisms underlying the formation of epidermal appendages in G. japonicus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longjie Xia
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Chao Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Wenyi Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Chaochao Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yanfu Qu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Hong Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Jie Yan
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Kaiya Zhou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Peng Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, Jiangsu, PR China.
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12
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Alibardi L. General aspects on skin development in vertebrates with emphasis on sauropsids epidermis. Dev Biol 2023; 501:60-73. [PMID: 37244375 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2023.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
General cellular aspects of skin development in vertebrates are presented with emphasis on the epidermis of sauropsids. Anamniote skin develops into a multilayered mucogenic and soft keratinized epidermis made of Intermediate Filament Keratins (IFKs) that is reinforced in most fish and few anurans by dermal bony and fibrous scales. In amniotes, the developing epidermis in contact with the amniotic fluid initially transits through a mucogenic phase recalling that of their anamniotes progenitors. A new gene cluster termed EDC (Epidermal Differentiation Complex) evolved in amniotes contributing to the origin of the stratum corneum. The EDC contains numerous genes coding for over 100 types of corneous proteins (CPs). In sauropsids 2-8 layers of embryonic epidermis accumulate soft keratins (IFKs) but do not form a compact corneous layer. The embryonic epidermis of reptiles and birds produces small amount of other, poorly known proteins in addition to IFKs and mucins. In the following development, a resistant corneous layer is formed underneath the embryonic epidermis that is shed before hatching. The definitive corneous epidermis of sauropsids is mainly composed of CBPs (Corneous beta proteins, formerly indicated as beta-keratins) derived from the EDC. CBPs belong to a gene sub-family of CPs unique for sauropsids, contain an inner amino acid region formed by beta-sheets, are rich in cysteine and glycine, and make most of the protein composition of scales, claws, beaks and feathers. In mammalian epidermis CPs missing the beta-sheet region are instead produced, and include loricrin, involucrin, filaggrin and various cornulins. Small amount of CPs accumulate in the 2-3 layers of mammalian embryonic epidermis and their appendages, that is replaced with the definitive corneous layers before birth. Differently from sauropsids, mammals utilize KAPs (keratin associated proteins) rich in cysteine and glycine for making the hard corneous material of hairs, claws, hooves, horns, and occasionally also scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alibardi
- Comparative Histolab Padova, Italy; Department of Biology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy.
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13
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Liu TY, Hughes MW, Wang HV, Yang WC, Chuong CM, Wu P. Molecular and Cellular Characterization of Avian Reticulate Scales Implies the Evo-Devo Novelty of Skin Appendages in Foot Sole. J Dev Biol 2023; 11:30. [PMID: 37489331 PMCID: PMC10366821 DOI: 10.3390/jdb11030030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Among amniotic skin appendages, avian feathers and mammalian hairs protect their stem cells in specialized niches, located in the collar bulge and hair bulge, respectively. In chickens and alligators, label retaining cells (LRCs), which are putative stem cells, are distributed in the hinge regions of both avian scutate scales and reptilian overlapping scales. These LRCs take part in scale regeneration. However, it is unknown whether other types of scales, for example, symmetrically shaped reticulate scales, have a similar way of preserving their stem cells. In particular, the foot sole represents a special interface between animal feet and external environments, with heavy mechanical loading. This is different from scutate-scale-covered metatarsal feet that function as protection. Avian reticulate scales on foot soles display specialized characteristics in development. They do not have a placode stage and lack β-keratin expression. Here, we explore the molecular and cellular characteristics of avian reticulate scales. RNAscope analysis reveals different molecular profiles during surface and hinge determination compared with scutate scales. Furthermore, reticulate scales express Keratin 15 (K15) sporadically in both surface- and hinge-region basal layer cells, and LRCs are not localized. Upon wounding, the reticulate scale region undergoes repair but does not regenerate. Our results suggest that successful skin appendage regeneration requires localized stem cell niches to guide regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Yu Liu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
- Marine Biology and Cetacean Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Michael W Hughes
- Institute of Clinical Medicine and Department of Life Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Hao-Ven Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
- Marine Biology and Cetacean Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 701, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Cheng Yang
- School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106216, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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14
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Youm DJ, Ko BJ, Kim D, Park M, Won S, Lee YH, Kim B, Seol D, Chai HH, Lim D, Jeong C, Kim H. The idiosyncratic genome of Korean long-tailed chicken as a valuable genetic resource. iScience 2023; 26:106236. [PMID: 36915682 PMCID: PMC10006692 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Today, breeds with ornamental traits such as exceptionally long tail feathers are economically valuable. However, the genetic basis of long-tail feathers is yet to be understood. To provide better understanding of long tail feathers, we sequenced Korean long-tailed chicken (KLC) genomes and compared them with genomes of other chicken breeds. We first analyzed the genome structure of KLC and its genomic relationship with other chickens and observed unique characteristics. Subsequently, we searched for genomic regions under selection. Feather keratin 1-like enriched region and several genes were found to have novel putative functions and effects on the long tail trait in KLC. Our findings support the value of KLC as a unique genetic resource and cast light on the genetic basis of long tail traits in avian species. We expect this novel knowledge to provide new genomic evidence and options for designing and implementing genetic improvements of ornamental chicken productivity through precision crossbreeding aids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Jae Youm
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Byung June Ko
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghee Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeongkyu Park
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Sohyoung Won
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- eGnome, Inc, Seoul 05836, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ho Lee
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Bongsang Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- eGnome, Inc, Seoul 05836, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghyeok Seol
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Han-Ha Chai
- Animal Genomics & Bioinformatics Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA 1500, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
| | - Dajeong Lim
- Animal Genomics & Bioinformatics Division, National Institute of Animal Science, RDA 1500, Wanju 55365, Republic of Korea
| | - Choongwon Jeong
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author
| | - Heebal Kim
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology and Research Institute of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Bioinformatics, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
- eGnome, Inc, Seoul 05836, Republic of Korea
- Corresponding author
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15
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Establishment of a culture model for the prolonged maintenance of chicken feather follicles structure in vitro. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0271448. [PMID: 36206252 PMCID: PMC9544018 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0271448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Protocols allowing the in vitro culture of human hair follicles in a serum free-medium up to 9 days were developed 30 years ago. By using similar protocols, we achieved the prolonged maintenance in vitro of juvenile feather follicles (FF) microdissected from young chickens. Histology showed a preservation of the FF up to 7 days as well as feather morphology compatible with growth and/or differentiation. The integrity of the FF wall epithelium was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy at Day 5 and 7 of culture. A slight elongation of the feathers was detected up to 5 days for 75% of the examined feathers. By immunochemistry, we demonstrated the maintenance of expression and localization of two structural proteins: scaffoldin and fibronectin. Gene expression (assessed by qRT-PCR) of NCAM, LCAM, Wnt6, Notch1, and BMP4 was not altered. In contrast, Shh and HBS1 expression collapsed, DKK3 increased, and KRT14 transiently increased upon cultivation. This indicates that cultivation modifies the mRNA expression of a few genes, possibly due to reduced growth or cell differentiation in the feather, notably in the barb ridges. In conclusion, we have developed the first method that allows the culture and maintenance of chicken FF in vitro that preserves the structure and biology of the FF close to its in vivo state, despite transcriptional modifications of a few genes involved in feather development. This new culture model may serve to study feather interactions with pathogens or toxics and constitutes a way to reduce animal experimentation.
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16
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Lin GW, Liang YC, Wu P, Chen CK, Lai YC, Jiang TX, Haung YH, Chuong CM. Regional specific differentiation of integumentary organs: SATB2 is involved in α- and β-keratin gene cluster switching in the chicken. Dev Dyn 2022; 251:1490-1508. [PMID: 34240503 PMCID: PMC8742846 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animals develop skin regional specificities to best adapt to their environments. Birds are excellent models in which to study the epigenetic mechanisms that facilitate these adaptions. Patients suffering from SATB2 mutations exhibit multiple defects including ectodermal dysplasia-like changes. The preferential expression of SATB2, a chromatin regulator, in feather-forming compared to scale-forming regions, suggests it functions in regional specification of chicken skin appendages by acting on either differentiation or morphogenesis. RESULTS Retrovirus mediated SATB2 misexpression in developing feathers, beaks, and claws causes epidermal differentiation abnormalities (e.g. knobs, plaques) with few organ morphology alterations. Chicken β-keratins are encoded in 5 sub-clusters (Claw, Feather, Feather-like, Scale, and Keratinocyte) on Chromosome 25 and a large Feather keratin cluster on Chromosome 27. Type I and II α-keratin clusters are located on Chromosomes 27 and 33, respectively. Transcriptome analyses showed these keratins (1) are often tuned up or down collectively as a sub-cluster, and (2) these changes occur in a temporo-spatial specific manner. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest an organizing role of SATB2 in cluster-level gene co-regulation during skin regional specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gee-Way Lin
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chen Liang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University and Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Chih-Kuan Chen
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402204, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chih Lai
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University and Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
- Institute of New Drug Development, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Yen-Hua Haung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- TMU Research Center of Cell Therapy and Regeneration Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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17
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Ng CS, Lai CK, Ke HM, Lee HH, Chen CF, Tang PC, Cheng HC, Lu MJ, Li WH, Tsai IJ. Genome Assembly and Evolutionary Analysis of the Mandarin Duck Aix galericulata Reveal Strong Genome Conservation among Ducks. Genome Biol Evol 2022; 14:evac083. [PMID: 35640266 PMCID: PMC9189614 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evac083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The mandarin duck, Aix galericulata, is popular in East Asian cultures and displays exaggerated sexual dimorphism, especially in feather traits during breeding seasons. We generated and annotated the first mandarin duck de novo assembly, which was 1.08 Gb in size and encoded 16,615 proteins. Using a phylogenomic approach calibrated with fossils and molecular divergences, we inferred that the last common ancestor of ducks occurred 13.3-26.7 Ma. The majority of the mandarin duck genome repetitive sequences belonged to the chicken repeat 1 (CR1) retroposon CR1-J2_Pass, which underwent a duck lineage-specific burst. Synteny analyses among ducks revealed infrequent chromosomal rearrangements in which breaks were enriched in LINE retrotransposons and DNA transposons. The calculation of the dN/dS ratio revealed that the majority of duck genes were under strong purifying selection. The expanded gene families in the mandarin duck are primarily involved in olfactory perception as well as the development and morphogenesis of feather and branching structures. This new reference genome will improve our understanding of the morphological and physiological characteristics of ducks and provide a valuable resource for functional genomics studies to investigate the feather traits of the mandarin duck.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Siang Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- Bioresource Conservation Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Kuo Lai
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, National Taiwan University and Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Huei-Mien Ke
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Han Lee
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Feng Chen
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Pin-Chi Tang
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsu-Chen Cheng
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Department of Life Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Meiyeh J. Lu
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Li
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Illinois, USA
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18
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Lin PY, Huang PY, Lee YC, Ng CS. Analysis and comparison of protein secondary structures in the rachis of avian flight feathers. PeerJ 2022; 10:e12919. [PMID: 35251779 PMCID: PMC8893027 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Avians have evolved many different modes of flying as well as various types of feathers for adapting to varied environments. However, the protein content and ratio of protein secondary structures (PSSs) in mature flight feathers are less understood. Further research is needed to understand the proportions of PSSs in feather shafts adapted to various flight modes in different avian species. Flight feathers were analyzed in chicken, mallard, sacred ibis, crested goshawk, collared scops owl, budgie, and zebra finch to investigate the PSSs that have evolved in the feather cortex and medulla by using nondestructive attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). In addition, synchrotron radiation-based, Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (SR-FTIRM) was utilized to measure and analyze cross-sections of the feather shafts of seven bird species at a high lateral resolution to resolve the composition of proteins distributed within the sampled area of interest. In this study, significant amounts of α-keratin and collagen components were observed in flight feather shafts, suggesting that these proteins play significant roles in the mechanical strength of flight feathers. This investigation increases our understanding of adaptations to flight by elucidating the structural and mechanistic basis of the feather composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin-Yen Lin
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Yu Huang
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Chang Lee
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu, Taiwan,Department of Optics and Photonics, National Central University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chen Siang Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan,Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan,Bioresource Conservation Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan,The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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19
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Lachner J, Ehrlich F, Wielscher M, Farlik M, Hermann M, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Single-cell transcriptomics defines keratinocyte differentiation in avian scutate scales. Sci Rep 2022; 12:126. [PMID: 34997067 PMCID: PMC8742010 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04082-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The growth of skin appendages, such as hair, feathers and scales, depends on terminal differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes. Here, we investigated keratinocyte differentiation in avian scutate scales. Cells were isolated from the skin on the legs of 1-day old chicks and subjected to single-cell transcriptomics. We identified two distinct populations of differentiated keratinocytes. The first population was characterized by mRNAs encoding cysteine-rich keratins and corneous beta-proteins (CBPs), also known as beta-keratins, of the scale type, indicating that these cells form hard scales. The second population of differentiated keratinocytes contained mRNAs encoding cysteine-poor keratins and keratinocyte-type CBPs, suggesting that these cells form the soft interscale epidermis. We raised an antibody against keratin 9-like cysteine-rich 2 (KRT9LC2), which is encoded by an mRNA enriched in the first keratinocyte population. Immunostaining confirmed expression of KRT9LC2 in the suprabasal epidermal layers of scutate scales but not in interscale epidermis. Keratinocyte differentiation in chicken leg skin resembled that in human skin with regard to the transcriptional upregulation of epidermal differentiation complex genes and genes involved in lipid metabolism and transport. In conclusion, this study defines gene expression programs that build scutate scales and interscale epidermis of birds and reveals evolutionarily conserved keratinocyte differentiation genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Lachner
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Florian Ehrlich
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Wielscher
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Farlik
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcela Hermann
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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20
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Parry DAD, Winter DJ. Keratin intermediate filament chains in the European common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis) and a potential keratin filament crosslinker. J Struct Biol 2021; 213:107793. [PMID: 34481988 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2021.107793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
On the basis of sequence homology with mammalian α-keratins, and on the criteria that the coiled-coil segments and central linker in the rod domain of these molecules must have conserved lengths if they are to assemble into viable intermediate filaments, a total of 28 Type I and Type II keratin intermediate filament chains (KIF) have been identified from the genome of the European common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis). Using the same criteria this number may be compared to 33 found here in the green anole lizard (Anole carolinensis) and 25 in the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). The Type I and Type II KIF genes in the wall lizard fall in clusters on chromosomes 13 and 2 respectively. Although some differences occur in the terminal domains in the KIF chains of the two lizards and tuatara, the similarities between key indicator residues - cysteine, glycine and proline - are significant. The terminal domains of the KIF chains in the wall lizard also contain sequence repeats commonly based on glycine and large apolar residues and would permit the fine tuning of physical properties when incorporated within the intermediate filaments. The H1 domain in the Type II chain is conserved across the lizards, tuatara and mammals, and has been related to its role in assembly at the 2-4 molecule level. A KIF-like chain (K80) with an extensive tail domain comprised of multiple tandem repeats has been identified as having a potential filament-crosslinking role.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A D Parry
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.
| | - David J Winter
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
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21
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Lin GW, Lai YC, Liang YC, Widelitz RB, Wu P, Chuong CM. Regional Specific Differentiation of Integumentary Organs: Regulation of Gene Clusters within the Avian Epidermal Differentiation Complex and Impacts of SATB2 Overexpression. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12081291. [PMID: 34440465 PMCID: PMC8394334 DOI: 10.3390/genes12081291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) encodes a group of unique proteins expressed in late epidermal differentiation. The EDC gave integuments new physicochemical properties and is critical in evolution. Recently, we showed β-keratins, members of the EDC, undergo gene cluster switching with overexpression of SATB2 (Special AT-rich binding protein-2), considered a chromatin regulator. We wondered whether this unique regulatory mechanism is specific to β-keratins or may be derived from and common to EDC members. Here we explore (1) the systematic expression patterns of non-β-keratin EDC genes and their preferential expression in different skin appendages during development, (2) whether the expression of non-β-keratin EDC sub-clusters are also regulated in clusters by SATB2. We analyzed bulk RNA-seq and ChIP-seq data and also evaluated the disrupted expression patterns caused by overexpressing SATB2. The results show that the expression of whole EDDA and EDQM sub-clusters are possibly mediated by enhancers in E14-feathers. Overexpressing SATB2 down-regulates the enriched EDCRP sub-cluster in feathers and the EDCH sub-cluster in beaks. These results reveal the potential of complex epigenetic regulation activities within the avian EDC, implying transcriptional regulation of EDC members acting at the gene and/or gene cluster level in a temporal and skin regional-specific fashion, which may contribute to the evolution of diverse avian integuments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gee-Way Lin
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (G.-W.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (R.B.W.); (P.W.)
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chih Lai
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (G.-W.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (R.B.W.); (P.W.)
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
- Institute of New Drug Development, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chen Liang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (G.-W.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (R.B.W.); (P.W.)
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Randall B. Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (G.-W.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (R.B.W.); (P.W.)
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (G.-W.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (R.B.W.); (P.W.)
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; (G.-W.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (Y.-C.L.); (R.B.W.); (P.W.)
- Correspondence:
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22
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Alibardi L. Vertebrate keratinization evolved into cornification mainly due to transglutaminase and sulfhydryl oxidase activities on epidermal proteins: An immunohistochemical survey. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:333-358. [PMID: 34219408 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The epidermis of vertebrates forms an extended organ to protect and exchange gas, water, and organic molecules with aquatic and terrestrial environments. Herein, the processes of keratinization and cornification in aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates were compared using immunohistochemistry. Keratins with low cysteine and glycine contents form the main bulk of proteins in the anamniote epidermis, which undergoes keratinization. In contrast, specialized keratins rich in cysteine-glycine and keratin associated corneous proteins rich in cysteine, glycine, and tyrosine form the bulk of proteins of amniote soft cornification in the epidermis and hard cornification in scales, claws, beak, feathers, hairs, and horns. Transglutaminase (TGase) and sulfhydryl oxidase (SOXase) are the main enzymes involved in cornification. Their evolution was fundamental for the terrestrial adaptation of vertebrates. Immunohistochemistry results revealed that TGase and SOXase were low to absent in fish and amphibian epidermis, while they increased in the epidermis of amniotes with the evolution of the stratum corneum and skin appendages. TGase aids the formation of isopeptide bonds, while SOXase forms disulfide bonds that generate numerous cross-links between keratins and associated corneous proteins, likely increasing the mechanical resistance and durability of the amniote epidermis and its appendages. TGase is low to absent in the beta-corneous layers of sauropsids but is detected in the softer but pliable alpha-layers of sauropsids, mammalian epidermis, medulla, and inner root sheath of hairs. SOXase is present in hard and soft corneous appendages of reptiles, birds, and mammals, and determines cross-linking among corneous proteins of scales, claws, beaks, hairs, and feathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alibardi
- Comparative Histolab Padova and University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Davis A, Greenwold MJ. Evolution of an Epidermal Differentiation Complex (EDC) Gene Family in Birds. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12050767. [PMID: 34069986 PMCID: PMC8157837 DOI: 10.3390/genes12050767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The transition of amniotes to a fully terrestrial lifestyle involved the adaptation of major molecular innovations to the epidermis, often in the form of epidermal appendages such as hair, scales and feathers. Feathers are diverse epidermal structures of birds, and their evolution has played a key role in the expansion of avian species to a wide range of lifestyles and habitats. As with other epidermal appendages, feather development is a complex process which involves many different genetic and protein elements. In mammals, many of the genetic elements involved in epidermal development are located at a specific genetic locus known as the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC). Studies have identified a homologous EDC locus in birds, which contains several genes expressed throughout epidermal and feather development. A family of avian EDC genes rich in aromatic amino acids that also contain MTF amino acid motifs (EDAAs/EDMTFs), that includes the previously reported histidine-rich or fast-protein (HRP/fp), an important marker in feather development, has expanded significantly in birds. Here, we characterize the EDAA gene family in birds and investigate the evolutionary history and possible functions of EDAA genes using phylogenetic and sequence analyses. We provide evidence that the EDAA gene family originated in an early archosaur ancestor, and has since expanded in birds, crocodiles and turtles, respectively. Furthermore, this study shows that the respective amino acid compositions of avian EDAAs are characteristic of structural functions associated with EDC genes and feather development. Finally, these results support the hypothesis that the genes of the EDC have evolved through tandem duplication and diversification, which has contributed to the evolution of the intricate avian epidermis and epidermal appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Davis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA;
| | - Matthew J. Greenwold
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA;
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Tyler, Tyler, TX 75799, USA
- Correspondence:
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Alibardi L, Eckhart L. Immunolocalization of epidermal differentiation complex proteins reveals distinct molecular compositions of cells that control structure and mechanical properties of avian skin appendages. J Morphol 2021; 282:917-933. [PMID: 33830534 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) is a cluster of genes that encode structural proteins of skin derivatives with variable mechanical performances, from the scales of reptiles and birds to the hard claws and beaks, and to the flexible but resistant corneous material of feathers. Corneous proteins with or without extended beta-regions are produced from avian genomes, and include the largely prevalent corneous beta proteins (CβPs, formerly indicated as beta-keratins), and minor contribution from histidine-rich proteins, trichohyalin-like proteins (scaffoldin), loricrin, and other proteins rich in cysteine or other types of amino acids. The light-microscopic and ultrastructural immunolocalization of major and minor EDC-proteins in avian skin (feather CβPs, EDKM, EDWM, EDMTFH, EDDM, and scaffoldin) suggests that each specific appendage consists of a particular mix of these proteins in addition to the main proteins containing a peculiar beta-region of 34 amino acids, indicated as feather/scale/claw/beak CβPs (fCβPs, sCβPs, cCβPs, bCβPs). This indicates that numerous proteins of the EDC are added to the variable meshwork of intermediate filament keratins to produce avian epidermis with different mechanical and functional properties. Although the specific roles for these proteins are not known they likely make an important contribution to the final material properties of the different skin appendages of birds. The highest number of sauropsid CβPs is found in birds, suggesting a relation to the evolution of feathers, and additional epidermal differentiation proteins have contributed to the evolutionary adaptations of avian skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alibardi
- Comparative Histolab Padova and Department of Biology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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25
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Parry DAD. Structures of the ß-Keratin Filaments and Keratin Intermediate Filaments in the Epidermal Appendages of Birds and Reptiles (Sauropsids). Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:591. [PMID: 33920614 PMCID: PMC8072682 DOI: 10.3390/genes12040591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidermal appendages of birds and reptiles (the sauropsids) include claws, scales, and feathers. Each has specialized physical properties that facilitate movement, thermal insulation, defence mechanisms, and/or the catching of prey. The mechanical attributes of each of these appendages originate from its fibril-matrix texture, where the two filamentous structures present, i.e., the corneous ß-proteins (CBP or ß-keratins) that form 3.4 nm diameter filaments and the α-fibrous molecules that form the 7-10 nm diameter keratin intermediate filaments (KIF), provide much of the required tensile properties. The matrix, which is composed of the terminal domains of the KIF molecules and the proteins of the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) (and which include the terminal domains of the CBP), provides the appendages, with their ability to resist compression and torsion. Only by knowing the detailed structures of the individual components and the manner in which they interact with one another will a full understanding be gained of the physical properties of the tissues as a whole. Towards that end, newly-derived aspects of the detailed conformations of the two filamentous structures will be discussed and then placed in the context of former knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A D Parry
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
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26
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Chen CK, Juan WT, Liang YC, Wu P, Chuong CM. Making region-specific integumentary organs in birds: evolution and modifications. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2021; 69:103-111. [PMID: 33780743 DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2021.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Birds are the most diversified terrestrial vertebrates due to highly diverse integumentary organs that enable robust adaptability to various eco-spaces. Here we show that this complexity is built upon multi-level regional specifications. Across-the-body (macro-) specification includes the evolution of beaks and feathers as new integumentary organs that are formed with regional specificity. Within-an-organ (micro-) specification involves further modifications of organ shapes. We review recent progress in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying feather diversification as an example. (1) β-Keratin gene clusters are regulated by typical enhancers or high order chromatin looping to achieve macro- and micro-level regional specification, respectively. (2) Multi-level symmetry-breaking of feather branches confers new functional forms. (3) Complex color patterns are produced by combinations of macro-patterning and micro-patterning processes. The integration of these findings provides new insights toward the principle of making a robustly adaptive bio-interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Kuan Chen
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA; The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Tau Juan
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chen Liang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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27
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Ehrlich F, Lachner J, Hermann M, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Convergent Evolution of Cysteine-Rich Keratins in Hard Skin Appendages of Terrestrial Vertebrates. Mol Biol Evol 2021; 37:982-993. [PMID: 31822906 PMCID: PMC7086170 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msz279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Terrestrial vertebrates have evolved hard skin appendages, such as scales, claws, feathers, and hair that play crucial roles in defense, predation, locomotion, and thermal insulation. The mechanical properties of these skin appendages are largely determined by cornified epithelial components. So-called "hair keratins," cysteine-rich intermediate filament proteins that undergo covalent cross-linking via disulfide bonds, are the crucial structural proteins of hair and claws in mammals and hair keratin orthologs are also present in lizard claws, indicating an evolutionary origin in a hairless common ancestor of amniotes. Here, we show that reptiles and birds have also other cysteine-rich keratins which lack cysteine-rich orthologs in mammals. In addition to hard acidic (type I) sauropsid-specific (HAS) keratins, we identified hard basic (type II) sauropsid-specific (HBS) keratins which are conserved in lepidosaurs, turtles, crocodilians, and birds. Immunohistochemical analysis with a newly made antibody revealed expression of chicken HBS1 keratin in the cornifying epithelial cells of feathers. Molecular phylogenetics suggested that the high cysteine contents of HAS and HBS keratins evolved independently from the cysteine-rich sequences of hair keratin orthologs, thus representing products of convergent evolution. In conclusion, we propose an evolutionary model in which HAS and HBS keratins evolved as structural proteins in epithelial cornification of reptiles and at least one HBS keratin was co-opted as a component of feathers after the evolutionary divergence of birds from reptiles. Thus, cytoskeletal proteins of hair and feathers are products of convergent evolution and evolutionary co-option to similar biomechanical functions in clade-specific hard skin appendages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Ehrlich
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Lachner
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcela Hermann
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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28
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Parry DAD, Winter DJ. Keratin intermediate filament chains in tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus): A comparison of tuatara and human sequences. J Struct Biol 2021; 213:107706. [PMID: 33577903 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2021.107706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Determination of the sequences of the keratin intermediate filament chains in tuatara has shown that these are closely akin to the α-keratins in human and other vertebrates, especially in the central, coiled-coil rod region. The domain lengths within the rod are preserved exactly, both Type I and Type II chains have been recognised, and sequence identity/homology exists between their respective chains. Nonetheless, there are characteristic differences in amino acid composition and sequence between their respective head (N-terminal) domains and their tail (C-terminal) domains, though some similarities are retained. Further, there is evidence of tandem repeats of a variety of lengths in the tuatara heads and tails indicative of sequence duplication events. These are not evident in human α-keratins and would therefore have implications for the physical attributes of the tissues in the two species. Multiple families of keratin-associated proteins that are ultra-high cysteine-rich or glycine + tyrosine-rich in human and other species do not have direct equivalents in the tuatara. Although high-sulphur proteins are present in tuatara the cysteine residue contents are significantly lower than in human. Further, no sequence homologies between the HS proteins in the two species have been found, thereby casting considerable doubt as to whether any matrix-forming high-sulphur proteins exist in tuatara. These observations may be correlated with the numerous cysteine-rich β-keratins (corneous β-proteins) that are present in tuatara, but which are conspicuously absent in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A D Parry
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.
| | - David J Winter
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
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29
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Mlitz V, Hermann M, Buchberger M, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. The Trichohyalin-Like Protein Scaffoldin Is Expressed in the Multilayered Periderm during Development of Avian Beak and Egg Tooth. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12020248. [PMID: 33578693 PMCID: PMC7916365 DOI: 10.3390/genes12020248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Scaffoldin, an S100 fused-type protein (SFTP) with high amino acid sequence similarity to the mammalian hair follicle protein trichohyalin, has been identified in reptiles and birds, but its functions are not yet fully understood. Here, we investigated the expression pattern of scaffoldin and cornulin, a related SFTP, in the developing beaks of birds. We determined the mRNA levels of both SFTPs by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) in the beak and other ectodermal tissues of chicken (Gallus gallus) and quail (Coturnix japonica) embryos. Immunohistochemical staining was performed to localize scaffoldin in tissues. Scaffoldin and cornulin were expressed in the beak and, at lower levels, in other embryonic tissues of both chickens and quails. Immunohistochemistry revealed scaffoldin in the peridermal compartment of the egg tooth, a transitory cornified protuberance (caruncle) on the upper beak which breaks the eggshell during hatching. Furthermore, scaffoldin marked a multilayered peridermal structure on the lower beak. The results of this study suggest that scaffoldin plays an evolutionarily conserved role in the development of the avian beak with a particular function in the morphogenesis of the egg tooth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Mlitz
- Skin Biology Laboratory, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (V.M.); (M.B.); (E.T.)
| | - Marcela Hermann
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Maria Buchberger
- Skin Biology Laboratory, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (V.M.); (M.B.); (E.T.)
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Skin Biology Laboratory, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (V.M.); (M.B.); (E.T.)
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Skin Biology Laboratory, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria; (V.M.); (M.B.); (E.T.)
- Correspondence:
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30
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Folding Keratin Gene Clusters during Skin Regional Specification. Dev Cell 2021; 53:561-576.e9. [PMID: 32516596 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2020.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Regional specification is critical for skin development, regeneration, and evolution. The contribution of epigenetics in this process remains unknown. Here, using avian epidermis, we find two major strategies regulate β-keratin gene clusters. (1) Over the body, macro-regional specificities (scales, feathers, claws, etc.) established by typical enhancers control five subclusters located within the epidermal differentiation complex on chromosome 25; (2) within a feather, micro-regional specificities are orchestrated by temporospatial chromatin looping of the feather β-keratin gene cluster on chromosome 27. Analyses suggest a three-factor model for regional specification: competence factors (e.g., AP1) make chromatin accessible, regional specifiers (e.g., Zic1) target specific genome regions, and chromatin regulators (e.g., CTCF and SATBs) establish looping configurations. Gene perturbations disrupt morphogenesis and histo-differentiation. This chicken skin paradigm advances our understanding of how regulation of big gene clusters can set up a two-dimensional body surface map.
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31
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Immunohistochemical detection of sulfhydryl oxidase in chick skin appendages and feathers suggests that the enzyme contributes to maturation of the corneous material. ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-020-00498-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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32
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Alibardi L. Development, structure, and protein composition of reptilian claws and hypotheses of their evolution. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2020; 304:732-757. [PMID: 33015957 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Here, we review the development, morphology, genes, and proteins of claws in reptiles. Claws likely form owing to the inductive influence of phalangeal mesenchyme on the apical epidermis of developing digits, resulting in hyperproliferation and intense protein synthesis in the dorsal epidermis, which forms the unguis. The tip of claws results from prevalent cell proliferation and distal movement along most of the ungueal epidermis in comparison to the ventral surface forming the subunguis. Asymmetrical growth between the unguis and subunguis forces beta-cells from the unguis to rotate into the apical part of the subunguis, sharpening the claw tip. Further sharpening occurs by scratching and mechanical wearing. Ungueal keratinocytes elongate, form an intricate perimeter and cementing junctions, and remain united impeding desquamation. In contrast, thin keratinocytes in the subunguis form a smooth perimeter, accumulate less corneous beta proteins (CBPs) and cysteine-poor intermediate filament (IF)-keratins, and desquamate. In addition to prevalent glycine-cysteine-tyrosine rich CBPs, special cysteine-rich IF-keratins are also synthesized in the claw, generating numerous SS bonds that harden the thick and compact corneous material. Desquamation and mechanical wear at the tip ensure that the unguis curvature remains approximately stable over time. Reptilian claws are likely very ancient in evolution, although the unguis differentiated like the outer scale surface of scales, while the subunguis might have derived from the inner scale surface. The few hair-like IF-keratins synthesized in reptilian claws indicate that ancestors of sauropsids and mammals shared cysteine-rich IF-keratins. However, the number of these keratins remained low in reptiles, while new types of CBPs function to strengthen claws.
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33
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Wang S, Chang WL, Zhang Q, Ma M, Yang F, Zhuo D, Hans HIC, Yang R, Wu P, Habib M, Juan WT, Chuong CM. Variations of Mesozoic feathers: Insights from the morphogenesis of extant feather rachises. Evolution 2020; 74:2121-2133. [PMID: 32614075 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The rachises of extant feathers, composed of dense cortex and spongy internal medulla, are flexible and light, yet stiff enough to withstand the load required for flight, among other functions. Incomplete knowledge of early feathers prevents a full understanding of how cylindrical rachises have evolved. Bizarre feathers with unusually wide and flattened rachises, known as "rachis-dominated feathers" (RDFs), have been observed in fossil nonavian and avian theropods. Newly discovered RDFs embedded in early Late Cretaceous Burmese ambers (about 99 million year ago) suggest the unusually wide and flattened rachises mainly consist of a dorsal cortex, lacking a medulla and a ventral cortex. Coupled with findings on extant feather morphogenesis, known fossil RDFs were categorized into three morphotypes based on their rachidial configurations. For each morphotype, potential developmental scenarios were depicted by referring to the rachidial development in chickens, and relative stiffness of each morphotype was estimated through functional simulations. The results suggest rachises of RDFs are developmentally equivalent to a variety of immature stages of cylindrical rachises. Similar rachidial morphotypes documented in extant penguins suggest that the RDFs are not unique to Mesozoic theropods, although they are likely to have evolved independently in extant penguins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Wang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90033
| | - Wei-Ling Chang
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, 40447, Taiwan
| | - Qiyue Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Menglu Ma
- Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution, College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Feng Yang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Imaging Technology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - De Zhuo
- Beijing Xiachong Amber Museum, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Harn I-Chen Hans
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90033
- International Research Center of Wound Repair and Regeneration, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 70101, Taiwan
| | - Rui Yang
- Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution, College of Life Sciences, Capital Normal University, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90033
| | - Michael Habib
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90033
- Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History, Los Angeles, California, 90007
| | - Wen-Tau Juan
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, 40447, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Science, China Medical University, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90033
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Structure and topology of the linkers in the conserved lepidosaur β-keratin chain with four 34-residue repeats support an interfilament role for the central linker. J Struct Biol 2020; 212:107599. [PMID: 32800921 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2020.107599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The β-keratin chain with four 34-residue repeats that is conserved across the lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes and tuatara) contains three linker regions as well as a short, conserved N-terminal domain and a longer, more variable C-terminal domain. Earlier modelling had shown that only six classes of structure involving the four 34-residue repeats were possible. In three of these the 34-residue repeats were confined to a single filament (Classes 1, 2 and 3) whereas in the remaining three classes the repeats lay in two, three or four filaments, with some of the linkers forming interfilament connections (Classes 4, 5 and 6). In this work the members of each class of structure (a total of 20 arrangements) have been described and a comparison has been made of the topologies of each of the linker regions. This provides new constraints on the structure of the chain as a whole. Also, analysis of the sequences of the three linker regions has revealed that the central linker (and only the central linker) contains four short regions displaying a distinctive dipeptide repeat of the form (S-X)2,3 separated by short regions containing proline and cysteine residues. By analogy with silk fibroin proteins this has the capability of forming a β-sheet-like conformation. Using the topology and sequence data the evidence suggests that the four 34-residue repeat chain adopts a Class 4a structure with a β-sandwich in filament 1 connected through the central linker to a β-sandwich in filament 2.
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The Making of a Flight Feather: Bio-architectural Principles and Adaptation. Cell 2020; 179:1409-1423.e17. [PMID: 31778655 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2019.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of flight in feathered dinosaurs and early birds over millions of years required flight feathers whose architecture features hierarchical branches. While barb-based feather forms were investigated, feather shafts and vanes are understudied. Here, we take a multi-disciplinary approach to study their molecular control and bio-architectural organizations. In rachidial ridges, epidermal progenitors generate cortex and medullary keratinocytes, guided by Bmp and transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) signaling that convert rachides into adaptable bilayer composite beams. In barb ridges, epidermal progenitors generate cylindrical, plate-, or hooklet-shaped barbule cells that form fluffy branches or pennaceous vanes, mediated by asymmetric cell junction and keratin expression. Transcriptome analyses and functional studies show anterior-posterior Wnt2b signaling within the dermal papilla controls barbule cell fates with spatiotemporal collinearity. Quantitative bio-physical analyses of feathers from birds with different flight characteristics and feathers in Burmese amber reveal how multi-dimensional functionality can be achieved and may inspire future composite material designs. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
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36
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Castiglione GM, Xu Z, Zhou L, Duh EJ. Adaptation of the master antioxidant response connects metabolism, lifespan and feather development pathways in birds. Nat Commun 2020; 11:2476. [PMID: 32424161 PMCID: PMC7234996 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-16129-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Birds (Aves) display high metabolic rates and oxygen consumption relative to mammals, increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation. Although excess ROS reduces lifespan by causing extensive cellular dysfunction and damage, birds are remarkably long-lived. We address this paradox by identifying the constitutive activation of the NRF2 master antioxidant response in Neoaves (~95% of bird species), providing an adaptive mechanism capable of counterbalancing high ROS levels. We demonstrate that a KEAP1 mutation in the Neoavian ancestor disrupted the repression of NRF2 by KEAP1, leading to constitutive NRF2 activity and decreased oxidative stress in wild Neoaves tissues and cells. Our evidence suggests this ancient mutation induced a compensatory program in NRF2-target genes with functions beyond redox regulation-including feather development-while enabling significant metabolic rate increases that avoid trade-offs with lifespan. The strategy of NRF2 activation sought by intense clinical investigation therefore appears to have also unlocked a massively successful evolutionary trajectory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianni M Castiglione
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 400 N Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Zhenhua Xu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 400 N Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Lingli Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 400 N Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Elia J Duh
- Department of Ophthalmology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 400 N Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA.
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Chen MJ, Xie WY, Jiang SG, Wang XQ, Yan HC, Gao CQ. Molecular Signaling and Nutritional Regulation in the Context of Poultry Feather Growth and Regeneration. Front Physiol 2020; 10:1609. [PMID: 32038289 PMCID: PMC6985464 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.01609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The normal growth and regeneration of feathers is important for improving the welfare and economic value of poultry. Feather follicle stem cells are the basis for driving feather development and are regulated by various molecular signaling pathways in the feather follicle microenvironment. To date, the roles of the Wnt, Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP), Notch, and Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) signaling pathways in the regulation of feather growth and regeneration are among the best understood. While these pathways regulate feather morphogenesis in different stages, their dysregulation results in a low feather growth rate, poor quality of plumage, and depilation. Additionally, exogenous nutrient intervention can affect the feather follicle cycle, promote the formation of the feather shaft and feather branches, preventing plumage abnormalities. This review focuses on our understanding of the signaling pathways involved in the transcriptional control of feather morphogenesis and explores the impact of nutritional factors on feather growth and regeneration in poultry. This work may help to develop novel mechanisms by which follicle stem cells can be manipulated to produce superior plumage that enhances poultry carcass quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Jie Chen
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wen-Yan Xie
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shi-Guang Jiang
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiu-Qi Wang
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui-Chao Yan
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chun-Qi Gao
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University/Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition Control/Key Laboratory of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, China
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38
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Li Q. Progress in Microbial Degradation of Feather Waste. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:2717. [PMID: 31866957 PMCID: PMC6906142 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Feathers are a major by-product of the poultry industry. They are mainly composed of keratins which have wide applications in different fields. Due to the increasing production of feathers from poultry industries, the untreated feathers could become pollutants because of their resistance to protease degradation. Feathers are rich in amino acids, which makes them a valuable source for fertilizer and animal feeds. Numerous bacteria and fungi exhibited capabilities to degrade chicken feathers by secreting enzymes such as keratinases, and accumulated evidence shows that feather-containing wastes can be converted into value-added products. This review summarizes recent progress in microbial degradation of feathers, structures of keratinases, feather application, and microorganisms that are able to secrete keratinase. In addition, the enzymes critical for keratin degradation and their mechanism of action are discussed. We also proposed the strategy that can be utilized for feather degradation. Based on the accumulated studies, microbial degradation of feathers has great potential to convert them into various products such as biofertilizer and animal feeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Li
- Guangdong Bioengineering Institute (Guangzhou Sugarcane Industry Research Institute), Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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Carroll NR, Chiappe LM, Bottjer DJ. Mid-Cretaceous amber inclusions reveal morphogenesis of extinct rachis-dominated feathers. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18108. [PMID: 31792276 PMCID: PMC6889117 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54429-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe three-dimensionally preserved feathers in mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber that share macro-morphological similarities (e.g., proportionally wide rachis with a "medial stripe") with lithic, two-dimensionally preserved rachis-dominated feathers, first recognized in the Jehol Biota. These feathers in amber reveal a unique ventrally concave and dorsoventrally thin rachis, and a dorsal groove (sometimes pigmented) that we identify as the "medial stripe" visible in many rachis-dominated rectrices of Mesozoic birds. The distally pennaceous portion of these feathers shows differentiated proximal and distal barbules, the latter with hooklets forming interlocking barbs. Micro-CT scans and transverse sections demonstrate the absence of histodifferentiated cortex and medullary pith of the rachis and barb rami. The highly differentiated barbules combined with the lack of obvious histodifferentiation of the barb rami or rachis suggests that these feathers could have been formed without the full suite and developmental interplay of intermediate filament alpha keratins and corneous beta-proteins that is employed in the cornification process of modern feathers. This study thus highlights how the development of these feathers might have differed from that of their modern counterparts, namely in the morphogenesis of the ventral components of the rachis and barb rami. We suggest that the concave ventral surface of the rachis of these Cretaceous feathers is not homologous with the ventral groove of modern rachises. Our study of these Burmese feathers also confirms previous claims, based on two-dimensional fossils, that they correspond to an extinct morphotype and it cautions about the common practice of extrapolating developmental aspects (and mechanical attributes) of modern feathers to those of stem birds (and their dinosaurian outgroups) because the latter need not to have developed through identical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan R Carroll
- The Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA, 90007, USA.
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90089-0740, USA.
| | - Luis M Chiappe
- The Dinosaur Institute, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA, 90007, USA
| | - David J Bottjer
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 90089-0740, USA
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40
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Armstrong C, Cassimeris L, Da Silva Santos C, Micoogullari Y, Wagner B, Babasyan S, Brooks S, Galantino-Homer H. The expression of equine keratins K42 and K124 is restricted to the hoof epidermal lamellae of Equus caballus. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0219234. [PMID: 31550264 PMCID: PMC6759161 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0219234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The equine hoof inner epithelium is folded into primary and secondary epidermal lamellae which increase the dermo-epidermal junction surface area of the hoof and can be affected by laminitis, a common disease of equids. Two keratin proteins (K), K42 and K124, are the most abundant keratins in the hoof lamellar tissue of Equus caballus. We hypothesize that these keratins are lamellar tissue-specific and could serve as differentiation- and disease-specific markers. Our objective was to characterize the expression of K42 and K124 in equine stratified epithelia and to generate monoclonal antibodies against K42 and K124. By RT-PCR analysis, keratin gene (KRT) KRT42 and KRT124 expression was present in lamellar tissue, but not cornea, haired skin, or hoof coronet. In situ hybridization studies showed that KRT124 localized to the suprabasal and, to a lesser extent, basal cells of the lamellae, was absent from haired skin and hoof coronet, and abruptly transitions from KRT124-negative coronet to KRT124-positive proximal lamellae. A monoclonal antibody generated against full-length recombinant equine K42 detected a lamellar keratin of the appropriate size, but also cross-reacted with other epidermal keratins. Three monoclonal antibodies generated against N- and C-terminal K124 peptides detected a band of the appropriate size in lamellar tissue and did not cross-react with proteins from haired skin, corneal limbus, hoof coronet, tongue, glabrous skin, oral mucosa, or chestnut on immunoblots. K124 localized to lamellar cells by indirect immunofluorescence. This is the first study to demonstrate the localization and expression of a hoof lamellar-specific keratin, K124, and to validate anti-K124 monoclonal antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin Armstrong
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Lynne Cassimeris
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Claire Da Silva Santos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Yagmur Micoogullari
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Bettina Wagner
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Susanna Babasyan
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Samantha Brooks
- Department of Animal Sciences and University of Florida Genetics institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Hannah Galantino-Homer
- Department of Clinical Studies, New Bolton Center, University of Pennsylvania, School of Veterinary Medicine, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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41
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Feather Evolution from Precocial to Altricial Birds. Zool Stud 2019; 58:e24. [PMID: 31966325 DOI: 10.6620/zs.2019.58-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Birds are the most abundant terrestrial vertebrates and their diversity is greatly shaped by the feathers. How avian evolution is linked to feather evolution has long been a fascinating question. Numerous excellent studies have shed light on this complex relationship by investigating feather diversity and its underlying molecular mechanisms. However, most have focused on adult domestic birds, and the contribution of feather diversity to environmental adaptation has not been well-studied. In this review, we described bird diversity using the traditional concept of the altricial-precocial spectrum in bird hatchlings. We combined the spectrum with a recently published avian phylogeny to profile the spectrum evolution. We then focused on the discrete diagnostic character of the spectrum, the natal down, and propose a hypothesis for the precocial-to-altricial evolution. For the underlying molecular mechanisms in feather diversity and bird evolution, we reviewed the literature and constructed the known mechanisms for feather tract definition and natal down development. Finally, we suggested some future directions for research on altricial-precocial divergence, which may expand our understanding of the relationship between natal down diversity and bird evolution.
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42
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Lachner J, Ehrlich F, Mlitz V, Hermann M, Alibardi L, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Immunolocalization and phylogenetic profiling of the feather protein with the highest cysteine content. PROTOPLASMA 2019; 256:1257-1265. [PMID: 31037447 PMCID: PMC6713690 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-019-01381-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Feathers are the most complex skin appendages of vertebrates. Mature feathers consist of interconnected dead keratinocytes that are filled with heavily cross-linked proteins. Although the molecular architecture determines essential functions of feathers, only few feather proteins have been characterized with regard to their amino acid sequences and evolution. Here, we identify Epidermal Differentiation protein containing DPCC Motifs (EDDM) as a cysteine-rich protein that has co-evolved with other feather proteins. The EDDM gene is located within the avian epidermal differentiation complex (EDC), a cluster of genes that has originated and diversified in amniotes. EDDM shares the exon-intron organization with EDC genes of other amniotes, including humans, and a gene encoding an EDDM-like protein is present in crocodilians, suggesting that avian EDDM arose by sequence modification of an epidermal differentiation gene present in a common ancestor of archosaurs. The EDDM protein contains multiple sequence repeats and a higher number of cysteine residues than any other protein encoded in the EDC. Immunohistochemical analysis of chicken skin and skin appendages showed expression of EDDM in barb and barbules of feathers as well as in the subperiderm on embryonic scutate scales. These results suggest that the diversification and differential expression of EDDM, besides other EDC genes, was instrumental in facilitating the evolution of the most complex molecular architecture of feathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Lachner
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Florian Ehrlich
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Mlitz
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcela Hermann
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Erwin Tschachler
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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43
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Ghosh M, Prajapati BP, Kango N, Dey KK. A comprehensive and comparative study of the internal structure and dynamics of natural β-keratin and regeneratedβ-keratin by solid state NMR spectroscopy. SOLID STATE NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE 2019; 101:1-11. [PMID: 31055225 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssnmr.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Structure and dynamics of natural and regenerated chicken feather β-keratin were investigated by 13C cross-polarization (CP) magic angle spinning (MAS) solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (SSNMR) spectral analysis, 13C and 1H spin-lattice relaxation time measurements, and 13C two dimensional phase adjusted spinning sidebands (2DPASS) MAS SSNMR measurements. Chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) parameters of both natural and regenerated chicken feather β-keratin were extracted by using 2DPASS MAS SSNMR experiment. The beauty of 2DPASS MAS SSNMR experiment is it can correlate the isotropic and anisotropic dimension with the help of shearing transformation and two dimensional Fourier Transformation. Molecular correlation time at each and every magnetically inequivalent carbon site of both natural and regenerated chicken feather β-keratin were also determined. The change in molecular dynamics of structural protein after pretreatment was monitored by 2DPASS MAS SSNMR and 13C relaxation measurement. This type of comprehensive study will provide the information about the interrelation between the structure and dynamics of structural protein and will also shed light in the way of developing methods for conversion of animal by-products to novel product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasi Ghosh
- Department of Physics, Sagar, MP, 470003, India.
| | - Bhanu Pratap Prajapati
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar, MP, 470003, India
| | - Naveen Kango
- Department of Microbiology, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Central University, Sagar, MP, 470003, India
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44
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Parry DA, Fraser RB, Alibardi L, Rutherford KM, Gemmell N. Molecular structure of sauropsid β-keratins from tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). J Struct Biol 2019; 207:21-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2019.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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45
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Ehrlich F, Fischer H, Langbein L, Praetzel-Wunder S, Ebner B, Figlak K, Weissenbacher A, Sipos W, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Differential Evolution of the Epidermal Keratin Cytoskeleton in Terrestrial and Aquatic Mammals. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 36:328-340. [PMID: 30517738 PMCID: PMC6367960 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msy214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratins are the main intermediate filament proteins of epithelial cells. In keratinocytes of the mammalian epidermis they form a cytoskeleton that resists mechanical stress and thereby are essential for the function of the skin as a barrier against the environment. Here, we performed a comparative genomics study of epidermal keratin genes in terrestrial and fully aquatic mammals to determine adaptations of the epidermal keratin cytoskeleton to different environments. We show that keratins K5 and K14 of the innermost (basal), proliferation-competent layer of the epidermis are conserved in all mammals investigated. In contrast, K1 and K10, which form the main part of the cytoskeleton in the outer (suprabasal) layers of the epidermis of terrestrial mammals, have been lost in whales and dolphins (cetaceans) and in the manatee. Whereas in terrestrial mammalian epidermis K6 and K17 are expressed only upon stress-induced epidermal thickening, high levels of K6 and K17 are consistently present in dolphin skin, indicating constitutive expression and substitution of K1 and K10. K2 and K9, which are expressed in a body site-restricted manner in human and mouse suprabasal epidermis, have been lost not only in cetaceans and manatee but also in some terrestrial mammals. The evolution of alternative splicing of K10 and differentiation-dependent upregulation of K23 have increased the complexity of keratin expression in the epidermis of terrestrial mammals. Taken together, these results reveal evolutionary diversification of the epidermal cytoskeleton in mammals and suggest a complete replacement of the quantitatively predominant epidermal proteins of terrestrial mammals by originally stress-inducible keratins in cetaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Ehrlich
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Heinz Fischer
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Division of Cell and Developmental Biology, Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lutz Langbein
- Department of Genetics of Skin Carcinogenesis, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Silke Praetzel-Wunder
- Department of Genetics of Skin Carcinogenesis, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Bettina Ebner
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katarzyna Figlak
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre for Cell Biology and Cutaneous Research, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | | | - Wolfgang Sipos
- Clinical Department for Farm Animals and Herd Management, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Erwin Tschachler
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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46
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Eliason CM, Andersen MJ, Hackett SJ. Using Historical Biogeography Models to Study Color Pattern Evolution. Syst Biol 2019; 68:755-766. [DOI: 10.1093/sysbio/syz012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Color is among the most striking features of organisms, varying not only in spectral properties like hue and brightness, but also in where and how it is produced on the body. Different combinations of colors on a bird’s body are important in both environmental and social contexts. Previous comparative studies have treated plumage patches individually or derived plumage complexity scores from color measurements across a bird’s body. However, these approaches do not consider the multivariate nature of plumages (allowing for plumage to evolve as a whole) or account for interpatch distances. Here, we leverage a rich toolkit used in historical biogeography to assess color pattern evolution in a cosmopolitan radiation of birds, kingfishers (Aves: Alcedinidae). We demonstrate the utility of this approach and test hypotheses about the tempo and mode of color evolution in kingfishers. Our results highlight the importance of considering interpatch distances in understanding macroevolutionary trends in color diversity and demonstrate how historical biogeography models are a useful way to model plumage color pattern evolution. Furthermore, they show that distinct color mechanisms (pigments or structural colors) spread across the body in different ways and at different rates. Specifically, net rates are higher for structural colors than pigment-based colors. Together, our study suggests a role for both development and selection in driving extraordinary color pattern diversity in kingfishers. We anticipate this approach will be useful for modeling other complex phenotypes besides color, such as parasite evolution across the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad M Eliason
- Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael J Andersen
- Department of Biology and Museum of Southwestern Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Shannon J Hackett
- Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, USA
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47
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Pan Y, Zheng W, Sawyer RH, Pennington MW, Zheng X, Wang X, Wang M, Hu L, O'Connor J, Zhao T, Li Z, Schroeter ER, Wu F, Xu X, Zhou Z, Schweitzer MH. The molecular evolution of feathers with direct evidence from fossils. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:3018-3023. [PMID: 30692253 PMCID: PMC6386655 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1815703116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Dinosaur fossils possessing integumentary appendages of various morphologies, interpreted as feathers, have greatly enhanced our understanding of the evolutionary link between birds and dinosaurs, as well as the origins of feathers and avian flight. In extant birds, the unique expression and amino acid composition of proteins in mature feathers have been shown to determine their biomechanical properties, such as hardness, resilience, and plasticity. Here, we provide molecular and ultrastructural evidence that the pennaceous feathers of the Jurassic nonavian dinosaur Anchiornis were composed of both feather β-keratins and α-keratins. This is significant, because mature feathers in extant birds are dominated by β-keratins, particularly in the barbs and barbules forming the vane. We confirm here that feathers were modified at both molecular and morphological levels to obtain the biomechanical properties for flight during the dinosaur-bird transition, and we show that the patterns and timing of adaptive change at the molecular level can be directly addressed in exceptionally preserved fossils in deep time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Pan
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China;
| | - Wenxia Zheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Roger H Sawyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29205
| | | | - Xiaoting Zheng
- Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Lingyi University, Lingyi City, 27605 Shandong, China
- Shandong Tianyu Museum of Nature, Pingyi, 273300 Shandong, China
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- Institute of Geology and Paleontology, Lingyi University, Lingyi City, 27605 Shandong, China
- Shandong Tianyu Museum of Nature, Pingyi, 273300 Shandong, China
| | - Min Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
- Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
| | - Liang Hu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Jingmai O'Connor
- CAS Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
- Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
| | - Tao Zhao
- Chinese Academy of Sciences Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Zhiheng Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
- Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
| | - Elena R Schroeter
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695
| | - Feixiang Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
- Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
| | - Xing Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
- Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
| | - Zhonghe Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Vertebrate Evolution and Human Origins of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China;
- Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100044 Beijing, China
- College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 100049 Beijing, China
| | - Mary H Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695;
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601
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48
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Wu P, Yan J, Lai YC, Ng CS, Li A, Jiang X, Elsey RM, Widelitz R, Bajpai R, Li WH, Chuong CM. Multiple Regulatory Modules Are Required for Scale-to-Feather Conversion. Mol Biol Evol 2019; 35:417-430. [PMID: 29177513 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msx295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The origin of feathers is an important question in Evo-Devo studies, with the eventual evolution of vaned feathers which are aerodynamic, allowing feathered dinosaurs and early birds to fly and venture into new ecological niches. Studying how feathers and scales are developmentally specified provides insight into how a new organ may evolve. We identified feather-associated genes using genomic analyses. The candidate genes were tested by expressing them in chicken and alligator scale forming regions. Ectopic expression of these genes induced intermediate morphotypes between scales and feathers which revealed several major morphogenetic events along this path: Localized growth zone formation, follicle invagination, epithelial branching, feather keratin differentiation, and dermal papilla formation. In addition to molecules known to induce feathers on scales (retinoic acid, β-catenin), we identified novel scale-feather converters (Sox2, Zic1, Grem1, Spry2, Sox18) which induce one or more regulatory modules guiding these morphogenetic events. Some morphotypes resemble filamentous appendages found in feathered dinosaur fossils, whereas others exhibit characteristics of modern avian feathers. We propose these morpho-regulatory modules were used to diversify archosaur scales and to initiate feather evolution. The regulatory combination and hierarchical integration may have led to the formation of extant feather forms. Our study highlights the importance of integrating discoveries between developmental biology and paleontology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Jie Yan
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yung-Chih Lai
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chen Siang Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ang Li
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Xueyuan Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, LA
| | - Randall Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Ruchi Bajpai
- Center for Craniofacial Molecular Biology and Department of Biochemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Wen-Hsiung Li
- Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.,Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Research Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,International Laboratory for Wound Repair and Regenerative Research, Graduated Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan.,Integrative and Evolutionary Galliformes Genomics Research Center (iEGG), National Chung-Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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49
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Holthaus KB, Eckhart L, Dalla Valle L, Alibardi L. Review: Evolution and diversification of corneous beta‐proteins, the characteristic epidermal proteins of reptiles and birds. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2019; 330:438-453. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Brigit Holthaus
- Department of DermatologyMedical University of ViennaWien Austria
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche ed Ambientali (BiGeA)University of BolognaBologna Italy
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of DermatologyMedical University of ViennaWien Austria
| | | | - Lorenzo Alibardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche ed Ambientali (BiGeA)University of BolognaBologna Italy
- Comparative Histolab PadovaPadova Italy
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50
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Widelitz RB, Lin GW, Lai YC, Mayer JA, Tang PC, Cheng HC, Jiang TX, Chen CF, Chuong CM. Morpho-regulation in diverse chicken feather formation: Integrating branching modules and sex hormone-dependent morpho-regulatory modules. Dev Growth Differ 2018; 61:124-138. [PMID: 30569461 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Many animals can change the size, shape, texture and color of their regenerated coats in response to different ages, sexes, or seasonal environmental changes. Here, we propose that the feather core branching morphogenesis module can be regulated by sex hormones or other environmental factors to change feather forms, textures or colors, thus generating a large spectrum of complexity for adaptation. We use sexual dimorphisms of the chicken to explore the role of hormones. A long-standing question is whether the sex-dependent feather morphologies are autonomously controlled by the male or female cell types, or extrinsically controlled and reversible. We have recently identified core feather branching molecular modules which control the anterior-posterior (bone morphogenetic orotein [BMP], Wnt gradient), medio-lateral (Retinoic signaling, Gremlin), and proximo-distal (Sprouty, BMP) patterning of feathers. We hypothesize that morpho-regulation, through quantitative modulation of existing parameters, can act on core branching modules to topologically tune the dimension of each parameter during morphogenesis and regeneration. Here, we explore the involvement of hormones in generating sexual dimorphisms using exogenously delivered hormones. Our strategy is to mimic male androgen levels by applying exogenous dihydrotestosterone and aromatase inhibitors to adult females and to mimic female estradiol levels by injecting exogenous estradiol to adult males. We also examine differentially expressed genes in the feathers of wildtype male and female chickens to identify potential downstream modifiers of feather morphogenesis. The data show male and female feather morphology and their color patterns can be modified extrinsically through molting and resetting the stem cell niche during regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall B Widelitz
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Gee-Way Lin
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chih Lai
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.,Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Julie A Mayer
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.,Biocept Inc., San Diego, California
| | - Pin-Chi Tang
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.,Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan.,The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Hsu-Chen Cheng
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan.,The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Chih-Feng Chen
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan.,The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan.,The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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