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Andrews K, Fitzpatrick S, Westra E. Human and nonhuman norms: a dimensional framework. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2024; 379:20230026. [PMID: 38244597 PMCID: PMC10799728 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2023.0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Human communities teem with a variety of social norms. In order to change unjust and harmful social norms, it is crucial to identify the psychological processes that give rise to them. Most researchers take it for granted that social norms are uniquely human. By contrast, we approach this matter from a comparative perspective, leveraging recent research on animal social behaviour. While there is currently only suggestive evidence for norms in nonhuman communities, we argue that human social norms are likely produced by a wide range of mechanisms, many of which we share with nonhuman animals. Approaching this variability from a comparative perspective can help norm researchers expand and reframe the range of hypotheses they test when attempting to understand the causes of socially normative behaviours in humans. First, we diagnose some of the theoretical obstacles to developing a comparative science of social norms, and offer a few basic constructs and distinctions to help norm researchers overcome these obstacles. Then we develop a six-dimensional model of the psychological and social factors that contribute to variability in both human and potential nonhuman norms. This article is part of the theme issue 'Social norm change: drivers and consequences'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Andrews
- Department of Philosophy, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada M3J 1P3
| | - Simon Fitzpatrick
- Department of Philosophy, John Carroll University, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Evan Westra
- Department of Philosophy, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Formaux A, Sperber D, Fagot J, Claidière N. Guinea baboons are strategic cooperators. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadi5282. [PMID: 37889969 PMCID: PMC10610893 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi5282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Humans are strategic cooperators; we make decisions on the basis of costs and benefits to maintain high levels of cooperation, and this is thought to have played a key role in human evolution. In comparison, monkeys and apes might lack the cognitive capacities necessary to develop flexible forms of cooperation. We show that Guinea baboons (Papio papio) can use direct reciprocity and partner choice to develop and maintain high levels of cooperation in a prosocial choice task. Our findings demonstrate that monkeys have the cognitive capacities to adjust their level of cooperation strategically using a combination of partner choice and partner control strategies. Such capacities were likely present in our common ancestor and would have provided the foundations for the evolution of typically human forms of cooperation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Formaux
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, UMR7290, Université Aix-Marseille/CNRS, Marseille, France
- Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS UAR846, Rousset, France
| | - Dan Sperber
- Central European University, Wien, Austria
- Institut Jean Nicod, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Paris, France
| | - Joël Fagot
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, UMR7290, Université Aix-Marseille/CNRS, Marseille, France
- Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS UAR846, Rousset, France
- Institute for Language, Communication and the Brain, Université Aix-Marseille, CNRS, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - Nicolas Claidière
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, UMR7290, Université Aix-Marseille/CNRS, Marseille, France
- Station de Primatologie-Celphedia, CNRS UAR846, Rousset, France
- Institute for Language, Communication and the Brain, Université Aix-Marseille, CNRS, Aix-en-Provence, France
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Sauciuc GA, Persson T. Empirical challenges from the comparative and developmental literature to the Shared Intentionality Theory - a review of alternative data on recursive mind reading, prosociality, imitation and cumulative culture. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1157137. [PMID: 37901066 PMCID: PMC10613111 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1157137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans have an irresistible inclination to coordinate actions with others, leading to species-unique forms of cooperation. According to the highly influential Shared Intentionality Theory (SITh), human cooperation is made possible by shared intentionality (SI), typically defined as a suite of socio-cognitive and motivational traits for sharing psychological states with others, thereby enabling individuals to engage in joint action in the mutually aware pursuit of shared goals. SITh theorises that SI evolved as late as 400,000 years ago, when our ancestors (in particular, Homo heidelbergensis) turned to a kind of food procurement that obligatorily required joint coordinated action. SI is, thus, hypothesized to be absent in other extant species, including our closest genetic relatives, the nonhuman great apes ("apes"). According to SITh, ape psychology is exclusively driven by individualistic motivations, as opposed to human psychology which is uniquely driven by altruistic motivations. The evolutionary scenario proposed by SITh builds on a series of findings from socio-cognitive research with apes and human children, and on the assumption that abilities expressed early in human development are human universals, unlikely to have been shaped by socio-cultural influences. Drawing on the primatological and developmental literature, we provide a systematic - albeit selective - review of SITh-inconsistent findings concerning psychological and behavioural traits theorised to be constitutive of SI. The findings we review pertain to all three thematic clusters typically addressed in SITh: (i) recursive mind reading; (ii) prosociality; (iii) imitation and cumulative culture. We conclude that such alternative data undermine two core SITh claims: the late evolutionary emergence of SI and the radical divide between ape and human psychology. We also discuss several conceptual and methodological limitations that currently hamper reliable comparative research on SI, in particular those engendered by Western-centric biases in the social sciences, where an overreliance on Western samples has promoted the formulation of Western-centric conceptualisations, operationalisations and methodologies.
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Gonzalez-Cabrera I. A lineage explanation of human normative guidance: the coadaptive model of instrumental rationality and shared intentionality. SYNTHESE 2022; 200:493. [PMID: 36438177 PMCID: PMC9681693 DOI: 10.1007/s11229-022-03925-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This paper aims to contribute to the existing literature on normative cognition by providing a lineage explanation of human social norm psychology. This approach builds upon theories of goal-directed behavioral control in the reinforcement learning and control literature, arguing that this form of control defines an important class of intentional normative mental states that are instrumental in nature. I defend the view that great ape capacities for instrumental reasoning and our capacity (or family of capacities) for shared intentionality coadapted to each other and argue that the evolution of this capacity has allowed the representation of social norms and the emergence of our capacity for normative guidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Gonzalez-Cabrera
- Institute of Philosophy, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 49, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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Williams L, Shultz S, Jensen K. The primate workplace: Cooperative decision-making in human and non-human primates. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.887187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The success of group foraging in primates is not only determined by ecological and social factors. It is also influenced by cognition. Group foraging success is constrained, for instance, by the challenges of coordination, synchrony and decision-making, and it is enhanced by the ability to share, learn from others and coordinate actions. However, what we currently know about the cognition of individuals in groups comes primarily from experiments on dyads, and what we know of the effect of ecological factors on group dynamics comes from larger wild groups. Our current knowledge of primate group behaviour is thus incomplete. In this review, we identify a gap in our knowledge of primate group dynamics between the dyadic studies on primate cooperation and the large group observational studies of behavioural ecology. We highlight the potential for controlled experimental studies on coordination and cooperation in primate groups. Currently, these exist primarily as studies of dyads, and these do not go far enough in testing limits of group-level behaviours. Controlled studies on primate groups beyond the dyad would be highly informative regarding the bounds of non-human primate collaboration. We look to the literature on how humans behave in groups, specifically from organisational psychology, draw parallels between human and non-human group dynamics and highlight approaches that could be applied across disciplines. Organisational psychology is explicitly concerned with the interactions between individuals in a group and the emergent properties at the group-level of these decisions. We propose that some of the major shortfalls in our understanding of primate social cognition and group dynamics can be filled by using approaches developed by organisational psychologists, particularly regarding the effects of group size and composition on group-level cooperation. To illustrate the potential applications, we provide a list of research questions drawn from organisational psychology that could be applied to non-human primates.
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Brooks J, Yamamoto S. The evolution of group-mindedness: comparative research on top-down and bottom-up group cooperation in bonobos and chimpanzees. Curr Opin Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Bard KA, Keller H, Ross KM, Hewlett B, Butler L, Boysen ST, Matsuzawa T. Joint Attention in Human and Chimpanzee Infants in Varied Socio-Ecological Contexts. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev 2022; 86:7-217. [PMID: 35355281 DOI: 10.1111/mono.12435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Joint attention (JA) is an early manifestation of social cognition, commonly described as interactions in which an infant looks or gestures to an adult female to share attention about an object, within a positive emotional atmosphere. We label this description the JA phenotype. We argue that characterizing JA in this way reflects unexamined assumptions which are, in part, due to past developmental researchers' primary focus on western, middle-class infants and families. We describe a range of cultural variations in caregiving practices, socialization goals, and parenting ethnotheories as an essential initial step in viewing joint attention within inclusive and contextualized perspectives. We begin the process of conducting a decolonized study of JA by considering the core construct of joint attention (i.e., triadic connectedness) and adopting culturally inclusive definitions (labeled joint engagement [JE]). Our JE definitions allow for attention and engagement to be expressed in visual and tactile modalities (e.g., for infants experiencing distal or proximal caregiving), with various social partners (e.g., peers, older siblings, mothers), with a range of shared topics (e.g., representing diverse socialization goals, and socio-ecologies with and without toys), and with a range of emotional tone (e.g., for infants living in cultures valuing calmness and low arousal, and those valuing exuberance). Our definition of JE includes initiations from either partner (to include priorities for adult-led or child-led interactions). Our next foundational step is making an ecological commitment to naturalistic observations (Dahl, 2017, Child Dev Perspect, 11(2), 79-84): We measure JE while infants interact within their own physical and social ecologies. This commitment allows us to describe JE as it occurs in everyday contexts, without constraints imposed by researchers. Next, we sample multiple groups of infants drawn from diverse socio-ecological settings. Moreover, we include diverse samples of chimpanzee infants to compare with diverse samples of human infants, to investigate the extent to which JE is unique to humans, and to document diversity both within and between species. We sampled human infants living in three diverse settings. U.K. infants (n = 8) were from western, middle-class families living near universities in the south of England. Nso infants (n = 12) were from communities of subsistence farmers in Cameroon, Africa. Aka infants (n = 10) were from foraging communities in the tropical rain forests of Central African Republic, Africa. We coded behavioral details of JE from videotaped observations (taken between 2004 and 2010). JE occurred in the majority of coded intervals (Mdn = 68%), supporting a conclusion that JE is normative for human infants. The JA phenotype, in contrast, was infrequent, and significantly more common in the U.K. (Mdn = 10%) than the other groups (Mdn < 3%). We found significant within-species diversity in JE phenotypes (i.e., configurations of predominant forms of JE characteristics). We conclude that triadic connectedness is very common in human infants, but there is significant contextualization of behavioral forms of JE. We also studied chimpanzee infants living in diverse socio-ecologies. The PRI/Zoo chimpanzee infants (n = 7) were from captive, stable groups of mixed ages and sexes, and included 4 infants from the Chester Zoo, U.K. and 3 from the Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Japan. The Gombe chimpanzee infants (n = 12) were living in a dynamically changing, wild community in the Gombe National Park, Tanzania, Africa. Additionally, we include two Home chimpanzee infants who were reared from birth by a female scientist, in the combined U.S., middle-class contexts of home and university cognition laboratory. JE was coded from videotaped observations (taken between 1993 and 2006). JE occurred during the majority of coded intervals (Mdn = 64%), consistent with the position that JE is normative for chimpanzee infants. The JA phenotype, in contrast, was rare, but more commonly observed in the two Home chimpanzee infants (in 8% and 2% of intervals) than in other chimpanzee groups (Mdns = 0%). We found within-species diversity in the configurations comprising the JE phenotypes. We conclude that triadic connectedness is very common in chimpanzee infants, but behavioral forms of joint engagement are contextualized. We compared JE across species, and found no species-uniqueness in behavioral forms, JE characteristics, or JE phenotypes. Both human and chimpanzee infants develop contextualized social cognition. Within-species diversity is embraced when triadic connectedness is described with culturally inclusive definitions. In contrast, restricting definitions to the JA phenotype privileges a behavioral form most valued in western, middle-class socio-ecologies, irrespective of whether the interactions involve human or chimpanzee infants. Our study presents a model for how to decolonize an important topic in developmental psychology. Decolonization is accomplished by defining the phenomenon inclusively, embracing diversity in sampling, challenging claims of human-uniqueness, and having an ecological commitment to observe infant social cognition as it occurs within everyday socio-ecological contexts. It is essential that evolutionary and developmental theories of social cognition are re-built on more inclusive and decolonized empirical foundations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim A Bard
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth
| | - Heidi Keller
- Department of Human Sciences, Osnabrück University
| | | | - Barry Hewlett
- Department of Anthropology, Washington State University, Vancouver
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Lin KY, Schank JC. Small group size promotes more egalitarian societies as modeled by the hawk-dove game. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0279545. [PMID: 36574418 PMCID: PMC9794044 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The social organization of groups varies greatly across primate species, ranging from egalitarian to despotic. Moreover, the typical or average size of groups varies greatly across primate species. Yet we know little about how group size affects social organization across primate species. Here we used the hawk-dove game (HDG) to model the evolution of social organization as a function of maximum group size and used the evolved frequency of hawks as a measure of egalitarian/despotism in societies. That is, the lower the frequency of hawks, the more egalitarian a society is, and the higher the frequency of hawks, the more despotic it is. To do this, we built an agent-based model in which agents live in groups and play the HDG with fellow group members to obtain resources to reproduce offspring. Offspring inherit the strategy of their parent (hawk or dove) with a low mutation rate. When groups reach a specified maximum size, they are randomly divided into two groups. We show that the evolved frequency of hawks is dramatically lower for relatively small maximum group sizes than predicted analytically for the HDG. We discuss the relevance of group size for understanding and modeling primate social systems, including the transition from hunter-gather societies to agricultural societies of the Neolithic era. We conclude that group size should be included in our theoretical understanding of the organization of primate social systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Yin Lin
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey C. Schank
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Yokoyama C, Autio JA, Ikeda T, Sallet J, Mars RB, Van Essen DC, Glasser MF, Sadato N, Hayashi T. Comparative connectomics of the primate social brain. Neuroimage 2021; 245:118693. [PMID: 34732327 PMCID: PMC9159291 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Social interaction is thought to provide a selection pressure for human intelligence, yet little is known about its neurobiological basis and evolution throughout the primate lineage. Recent advances in neuroimaging have enabled whole brain investigation of brain structure, function, and connectivity in humans and non-human primates (NHPs), leading to a nascent field of comparative connectomics. However, linking social behavior to brain organization across the primates remains challenging. Here, we review the current understanding of the macroscale neural mechanisms of social behaviors from the viewpoint of system neuroscience. We first demonstrate an association between the number of cortical neurons and the size of social groups across primates, suggesting a link between neural information-processing capacity and social capabilities. Moreover, by capitalizing on recent advances in species-harmonized functional MRI, we demonstrate that portions of the mirror neuron system and default-mode networks, which are thought to be important for representation of the other's actions and sense of self, respectively, exhibit similarities in functional organization in macaque monkeys and humans, suggesting possible homologies. With respect to these two networks, we describe recent developments in the neurobiology of social perception, joint attention, personality and social complexity. Together, the Human Connectome Project (HCP)-style comparative neuroimaging, hyperscanning, behavioral, and other multi-modal investigations are expected to yield important insights into the evolutionary foundations of human social behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Yokoyama
- Laboratory for Brain Connectomics Imaging, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, 6-7-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan.
| | - Joonas A Autio
- Laboratory for Brain Connectomics Imaging, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, 6-7-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
| | - Takuro Ikeda
- Laboratory for Brain Connectomics Imaging, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, 6-7-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan
| | - Jérôme Sallet
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Experimental Psychology, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom; University of Lyon, Université Lyon 1, Inserm, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Bron, France
| | - Rogier B Mars
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain (FMRIB), Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, John Radcliffe Hospital, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - David C Van Essen
- Departments of Neuroscience, Washington University Medical School, St Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Matthew F Glasser
- Departments of Neuroscience, Washington University Medical School, St Louis, MO, United States of America; Department of Radiology, Washington University Medical School, St Louis, MO, United States of America
| | - Norihiro Sadato
- National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan; The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (SOKENDAI), Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Takuya Hayashi
- Laboratory for Brain Connectomics Imaging, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, 6-7-3 Minatojima-minamimachi, Chuo-ku, Kobe 650-0047, Japan; School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
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Pougnault L, Levréro F, Leroux M, Paulet J, Bombani P, Dentressangle F, Deruti L, Mulot B, Lemasson A. Social pressure drives "conversational rules" in great apes. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 97:749-765. [PMID: 34873806 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade, two hypotheses, one on the evolution of animal vocal communication in general and the other on the origins of human language, have gained ground. The first hypothesis argues that the complexity of communication co-evolved with the complexity of sociality. Species forming larger groups with complex social networks have more elaborate vocal repertoires. The second hypothesis posits that the core of communication is represented not only by what can be expressed by an isolated caller, but also by the way that vocal interactions are structured, language being above all a social act. Primitive forms of conversational rules based on a vocal turn-taking principle are thought to exist in primates. To support and bring together these hypotheses, more comparative studies of socially diverse species at different levels of the primate phylogeny are needed. However, the majority of available studies focus on monkeys, primates that are distant from the human lineage. Great apes represent excellent candidates for such comparative studies because of their phylogenetic proximity to humans and their varied social lives. We propose that studying vocal turn-taking in apes could address several major gaps regarding the social relevance of vocal turn-taking and the evolutionary trajectory of this behaviour among anthropoids. Indeed, how the social structure of a species may influence the vocal interaction patterns observed among group members remains an open question. We gathered data from the literature as well as original unpublished data (where absent in the literature) on four great ape species: chimpanzees Pan troglodytes, bonobos Pan paniscus, western lowland gorillas Gorilla gorilla gorilla and Bornean orang-utans Pongo pygmaeus. We found no clear-cut relationship between classical social complexity metrics (e.g. number of group members, interaction rates) and vocal complexity parameters (e.g. repertoire size, call rates). Nevertheless, the nature of the society (i.e. group composition, diversity and valence of social bonds) and the type of vocal interaction patterns (isolated calling, call overlap, turn-taking-based vocal exchanges) do appear to be related. Isolated calling is the main vocal pattern found in the species with the smallest social networks (orang-utan), while the other species show vocal interactions that are structured according to temporal rules. A high proportion of overlapping vocalisations is found in the most competitive species (chimpanzee), while vocal turn-taking predominates in more tolerant bonobos and gorillas. Also, preferentially interacting individuals and call types used to interact are not randomly distributed. Vocal overlap ('chorusing') and vocal exchange ('conversing') appear as possible social strategies used to advertise/strengthen social bonds. Our analyses highlight that: (i) vocal turn-taking is also observed in non-human great apes, revealing universal rules for conversing that may be deeply rooted in the primate lineage; (ii) vocal interaction patterns match the species' social lifestyle; (iii) although limited to four species here, adopting a targeted comparative approach could help to identify the multiple and subtle factors underlying social and vocal complexity. We believe that vocal interaction patterns form the basis of a promising field of investigation that may ultimately improve our understanding of the socially driven evolution of communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loïc Pougnault
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, 263 avenue du Général Leclerc, Rennes, 35042, France.,Université de Lyon/Saint-Etienne, CNRS, Equipe Neuro-Ethologie Sensorielle, ENES/CRNL, UMR5292, INSERM UMR_S 1028, 23 rue Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, 42023, France.,ZooParc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, Avenue du Blanc, Saint Aignan, 41110, France
| | - Florence Levréro
- Université de Lyon/Saint-Etienne, CNRS, Equipe Neuro-Ethologie Sensorielle, ENES/CRNL, UMR5292, INSERM UMR_S 1028, 23 rue Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, 42023, France
| | - Maël Leroux
- Department of Comparative Linguistics, University of Zürich, Thurgauerstrasse 30, Zürich-Oerlikon, 8050, Switzerland.,Budongo Conservation Field Station, Masindi, Uganda.,Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Language Evolution (ISLE), University of Zürich, Plattenstrasse 54, Zürich, 8032, Switzerland
| | - Julien Paulet
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, 263 avenue du Général Leclerc, Rennes, 35042, France
| | - Pablo Bombani
- NGO Mbou-Mon-Tour, Nkala, Territoire de Bolodo, Maï-Ndombe, Democratic Republic of the Congo
| | - Fabrice Dentressangle
- Université de Lyon/Saint-Etienne, CNRS, Equipe Neuro-Ethologie Sensorielle, ENES/CRNL, UMR5292, INSERM UMR_S 1028, 23 rue Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, 42023, France
| | - Laure Deruti
- Université de Lyon/Saint-Etienne, CNRS, Equipe Neuro-Ethologie Sensorielle, ENES/CRNL, UMR5292, INSERM UMR_S 1028, 23 rue Paul Michelon, Saint-Etienne, 42023, France
| | - Baptiste Mulot
- ZooParc de Beauval & Beauval Nature, Avenue du Blanc, Saint Aignan, 41110, France
| | - Alban Lemasson
- Univ Rennes, Normandie Univ, CNRS, EthoS (Éthologie animale et humaine) - UMR 6552, 263 avenue du Général Leclerc, Rennes, 35042, France.,Institut Universitaire de France, 1 rue Descartes, Paris, 75231, France
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Li LL, Plotnik JM, Xia SW, Meaux E, Quan RC. Cooperating elephants mitigate competition until the stakes get too high. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001391. [PMID: 34582437 PMCID: PMC8478180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Cooperation is ubiquitous in the animal kingdom as it aims to maximize benefits through joint action. Selection, however, may also favor competitive behaviors that could violate cooperation. How animals mitigate competition is hotly debated, with particular interest in primates and little attention paid thus far to nonprimates. Using a loose-string pulling apparatus, we explored cooperative and competitive behavior, as well as mitigation of the latter, in semi-wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Our results showed that elephants first maintained a very high cooperation rate (average = 80.8% across 45 sessions). Elephants applied “block,” “fight back,” “leave,” “move side,” and “submission” as mitigation strategies and adjusted these strategies according to their affiliation and rank difference with competition initiators. They usually applied a “fight back” mitigation strategy as a sanction when competition initiators were low ranking or when they had a close affiliation, but were submissive if the initiators were high ranking or when they were not closely affiliated. However, when the food reward was limited, the costly competitive behaviors (“monopoly” and “fight”) increased significantly, leading to a rapid breakdown in cooperation. The instability of elephant cooperation as a result of benefit reduction mirrors that of human society, suggesting that similar fundamental principles may underlie the evolution of cooperation across species. This study shows that in a task requiring coordinated pulling, elephants compete for access to food but work to mitigate competition in order to maintain cooperation. If the cost of competition becomes too high, however, cooperation breaks down entirely. This behavior mirrors that seen in humans and other great apes, suggesting that certain cooperative mechanisms are not unique to primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Li Li
- Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China and Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Joshua M. Plotnik
- Department of Psychology, Hunter College, City University of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JMP); (R-CQ)
| | - Shang-Wen Xia
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China
| | - Estelle Meaux
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Rui-Chang Quan
- Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China and Southeast Asia Biodiversity Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nay Pyi Taw, Myanmar
- Center of Conservation Biology, Core Botanical Gardens, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, China
- * E-mail: (JMP); (R-CQ)
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Tison R, Poirier P. Active Inference and Cooperative Communication: An Ecological Alternative to the Alignment View. Front Psychol 2021; 12:708780. [PMID: 34456822 PMCID: PMC8397515 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.708780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We present and contrast two accounts of cooperative communication, both based on Active Inference, a framework that unifies biological and cognitive processes. The mental alignment account, defended in Vasil et al., takes the function of cooperative communication to be the alignment of the interlocutor's mental states, and cooperative communicative behavior to be driven by an evolutionarily selected adaptive prior belief favoring the selection of action policies that promote such an alignment. We argue that the mental alignment account should be rejected because it neglects the action-oriented nature of cooperative communication, which skews its view of the dynamics of communicative interaction. We introduce our own conception of cooperative communication, inspired by a more radical ecological interpretation of the active inference framework. Cooperative communication, on our ecological conception, serves to guide and constrain the dynamics of the cooperative interaction via the construction and restructuring of shared fields of affordances, in order to reach the local goals of the joint actions in which episodes of cooperative communication are embedded. We argue that our ecological conception provides a better theoretical standpoint to account for the action-oriented nature of cooperative communication in the active inference framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi Tison
- Department of Philosophy, Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM), Montreal, QC, Canada
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14
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Bründl AC, Tkaczynski PJ, Nohon Kohou G, Boesch C, Wittig RM, Crockford C. Response to the commentary 'Becoming uniquely human? Comparing chimpanzee to human infancy'. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13143. [PMID: 34196441 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aisha C Bründl
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Department of Neuropsychology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Patrick J Tkaczynski
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Grégoire Nohon Kohou
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Christophe Boesch
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Catherine Crockford
- Department of Human Behavior, Ecology and Culture, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, Centre Suisse de Recherches Scientifiques, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire.,The Great Ape Social Mind Lab, Institut des Sciences Cognitives, CNRS, Lyon, France
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15
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Sánchez-Amaro A, Ball R, Rossano F. Gibbon strategies in a food competition task. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9312. [PMID: 33927301 PMCID: PMC8085081 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88804-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Social primates face conflicts of interest with other partners when their individual and collective interests collide. Despite living in small, primarily bonded, groups compared to other social primates, gibbons are not exempt from these conflicts in their everyday lives. In the current task, we asked whether dyads of gibbons would solve a conflict of interest over food rewards. We presented dyads of gibbons with a situation in which they could decide whether to take an active role and pull a handle to release food rewards at a distance or take a passive role and avoid action. In this situation, the passive partner could take an advantageous position to obtain the rewards over the active partner. Gibbons participated in three conditions: a control condition with no food rewards, a test condition with indirect food rewards and a test condition with direct food rewards. In both test conditions, five rewards were released at a distance from the handle. In addition, the active individual could obtain one extra food reward from the handle in the direct food condition. We found that gibbons acted more often in the two conditions involving food rewards, and waited longer in the indirect compared to the direct food condition, thus suggesting that they understood the task contingencies. Surprisingly, we found that in a majority of dyads, individuals in the active role obtained most of the payoff compared to individuals in the passive role in both food conditions. Furthermore, in some occasions individuals in the active role did not approach the location where the food was released. These results suggest that while gibbons may strategize to maximize benefits in a competitive food task, they often allowed their partners to obtain better rewards. Our results highlight the importance of social tolerance and motivation as drivers promoting cooperation in these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Sánchez-Amaro
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA ,grid.419518.00000 0001 2159 1813Department of Comparative Cultural Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Robert Ball
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA ,grid.212340.60000000122985718The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, USA
| | - Federico Rossano
- grid.266100.30000 0001 2107 4242Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, USA
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16
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Anthropological Prosociality via Sub-Group Level Selection. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2021; 56:180-205. [PMID: 33893612 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-021-09606-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
A perennial challenge of evolutionary psychology is explaining prosocial traits such as a preference for fairness rather than inequality, compassion towards suffering, and an instinctive ability to coordinate within small teams. Considering recent fossil evidence and a novel logical test, we deem present explanations insufficiently explanatory of the divergence of hominins. In answering this question, we focus on the divergence of hominins from the last common ancestor (LCA) shared with Pan. We consider recent fossil discoveries that indicate the LCA was bipedal, which reduces the cogency of this explanation for hominin development. We also review evolutionary theory that claims to explain how hominins developed into modern humans, however it is found that no mechanism differentiates hominins from other primates. Either the mechanism was available to the last common ancestor (LCA) (with P. troglodytes as its proxy), or because early hominins had insufficient cognition to utilise the mechanism. A novel mechanism, sub-group level selection (sGLS) is hypothesised by triangulating two pieces of data rarely considered by evolutionary biologists. These are behavioural dimorphism of Pan (chimpanzees and bonobos) that remain identifiable in modern humans, and the social behaviour of primate troops in a savannah ecology. We then contend that sGLS supplied an exponential effect which was available to LCA who left the forest, but was not sufficiently available to any other primates. In conclusion, while only indirectly supported by various evidence, sGLS is found to be singularly and persuasively explanatory of human's unique evolutionary story.
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17
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Kea, Nestor notabilis, achieve cooperation in dyads, triads, and tetrads when dominants show restraint. Learn Behav 2021; 49:36-53. [PMID: 33532988 PMCID: PMC7979628 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-021-00462-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Animal cooperation in the wild often involves multiple individuals that must tolerate each other in close proximity. However, most cooperation experiments in the lab are done with two animals, that are often also physically separated. Such experiments are useful for answering some pertinent questions, for example about the understanding of the role of the partner and strategies of partner control, but say little about factors determining successful cooperation with multiple partners in group settings. We explored the influence of dominance, rank distance, tolerance, affiliation, and coordination by testing kea parrots with a box requiring two, three, or four chains to be pulled simultaneously to access food rewards. The reward could be divided unevenly, but not monopolized completely. Eventually dyadic, triadic, and tetradic cooperation tasks were solved, showing that non-human animals are capable of tetradic cooperation in an experimental setup. Starting with two chains, we found that in a dyad monopolization of the box by the highest-ranking bird was the largest obstacle preventing successful cooperation. High-ranking birds learned to restrain themselves from monopolizing the box during a single session in which monopolization was hindered by the presence of a large number of birds. Thereafter, restraint by dominants remained the strongest factor determining success in the first trial in dyadic, triadic, and tetradic setups. The probability of success increased with the degree of restraint shown by all dominant subjects present. Previous experience with the task contributed to success in subsequent sessions, while increasing rank distance reduced success notably in the four-chain setup.
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18
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van Leeuwen EJC, DeTroy SE, Kaufhold SP, Dubois C, Schütte S, Call J, Haun DBM. Chimpanzees behave prosocially in a group-specific manner. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:7/9/eabc7982. [PMID: 33627415 PMCID: PMC7904267 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abc7982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Chimpanzees act cooperatively in the wild, but whether they afford benefits to others, and whether their tendency to act prosocially varies across communities, is unclear. Here, we show that chimpanzees from neighboring communities provide valuable resources to group members at personal cost, and that the magnitude of their prosocial behavior is group specific. Provided with a resource-donation experiment allowing free (partner) choice, we observed an increase in prosocial acts across the study period in most of the chimpanzees. When group members could profit (test condition), chimpanzees provided resources more frequently and for longer durations than when their acts produced inaccessible resources (control condition). Strikingly, chimpanzees' prosocial behavior was group specific, with more socially tolerant groups acting more prosocially. We conclude that chimpanzees may purposely behave prosocially toward group members, and that the notion of group-specific sociality in nonhuman animals should crucially inform discussions on the evolution of prosocial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin J C van Leeuwen
- University of St Andrews, Westburn Lane, KY16 9JP St Andrews, Scotland.
- Behavioral Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
- Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, K. Astridplein 26, B 2018 Antwerp, Belgium
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sarah E DeTroy
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Leipzig Research Centre for Early Child Development & Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59 04109, Germany
| | - Stephan P Kaufhold
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Clara Dubois
- Leipzig Research Centre for Early Child Development & Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59 04109, Germany
| | - Sebastian Schütte
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Josep Call
- University of St Andrews, Westburn Lane, KY16 9JP St Andrews, Scotland
| | - Daniel B M Haun
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Leipzig Research Centre for Early Child Development & Department for Early Child Development and Culture, Faculty of Education, Leipzig University, Jahnallee 59 04109, Germany
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19
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Giacolini T, Conversi D, Alcaro A. The Brain Emotional Systems in Addictions: From Attachment to Dominance/Submission Systems. Front Hum Neurosci 2021; 14:609467. [PMID: 33519403 PMCID: PMC7843379 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2020.609467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Human development has become particularly complex during the evolution. In this complexity, adolescence is an extremely important developmental stage. Adolescence is characterized by biological and social changes that create the prerequisites to psychopathological problems, including both substance and non-substance addictive behaviors. Central to the dynamics of the biological changes during adolescence are the synergy between sexual and neurophysiological development, which activates the motivational/emotional systems of Dominance/Submission. The latter are characterized by the interaction between the sexual hormones, the dopaminergic system and the stress axis (HPA). The maturation of these motivational/emotional systems requires the integration with the phylogenetically more recent Attachment/CARE Systems, which primarily have governed the subject's relationships until puberty. The integration of these systems is particularly complex in the human species, due to the evolution of the process of competition related to sexual selection: from a simple fight between two individuals (of the same genus and species) to a struggle for the acquisition of a position in rank and the competition between groups. The latter is an important evolutionary acquisition and believed to be the variable that has most contributed to enhancing the capacity for cooperation in the human species. The interaction between competition and cooperation, and between competition and attachment, characterizes the entire human relational and emotional structure and the unending work of integration to which the BrainMind is involved. The beginning of the integration of the aforementioned motivational/emotional systems is currently identified in the prepubertal period, during the juvenile stage, with the development of the Adrenarche-the so-called Adrenal Puberty. This latter stage is characterized by a low rate of release of androgens, the hormones released by the adrenal cortex, which activate the same behaviors as those observed in the PLAY system. The Adrenarche and the PLAY system are biological and functional prerequisites of adolescence, a period devoted to learning the difficult task of integrating the phylogenetically ancient Dominance/Submission Systems with the newer Attachment/CARE Systems. These systems accompany very different adaptive goals which can easily give rise to mutual conflict and can in turn make the balance of the BrainMind precarious and vulnerable to mental suffering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teodosio Giacolini
- Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - David Conversi
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio Alcaro
- Department of Psychology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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20
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Abstract
The field of comparative behavioural economics investigates decisions about the acquisition and exchange of goods and services. It does so in both humans and other species on the assumption that the cognition and emotions involved have a shared evolutionary background. This preface roughly defines the field and reviews a few selected early studies and concepts to offer a taste of what economic behaviour means in relation to species other than our own. This article is part of the theme issue 'Existence and prevalence of economic behaviours among non-human primates'.
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21
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Campbell MW, Watzek J, Suchak M, Berman SM, de Waal FBM. Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) tolerate some degree of inequity while cooperating but refuse to donate effort for nothing. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23084. [PMID: 31894611 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In cooperative hunting, a carcass cannot be divided equally, and hunts may be unsuccessful. We studied how chimpanzees respond to these two variables, working for unequal rewards and no rewards, which have been rarely included in experimental cooperative tasks. We presented chimpanzees with a task requiring three chimpanzees to work together and varied the reward structure in two separate experiments. In Experiment 1, two individuals received more rewards than the third, making the outcome unequal. We wanted to know if cooperation would continue or break down, and what mechanisms might maintain performance. Experiment 2 used equal rewards, but this time one or more locations were left unbaited on a proportion of trials. Thus, there was a chance of individuals working to receive nothing. In Experiment 1, the chimpanzees worked at a high rate, tolerating the unequal outcomes, with rank appearing to determine who got access to the higher-value locations. However, equal outcomes (used as a control) enhanced cooperative performance, most likely through motivational processes rather than the absence of inequity aversion. In Experiment 2, performance dropped off dramatically when the chimpanzees were not rewarded on every trial. Their strategy was irrational as donating effort would have led to more rewards in the long run for each individual. Our results lead to a hierarchy of performances by condition with equity > inequity > donating effort. Chimpanzees therefore tolerate mild inequity, but cannot tolerate receiving nothing when others are rewarded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew W Campbell
- Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- California State University Channel Island, Camarillo, California
| | - Julia Watzek
- Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Malini Suchak
- Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
- Canisius College, Buffalo, New York
| | - Sarah M Berman
- Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Frans B M de Waal
- Living Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia
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22
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Massen JJ, Behrens F, Martin JS, Stocker M, Brosnan SF. A comparative approach to affect and cooperation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 107:370-387. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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23
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Abstract
Intergroup variation (IGV) refers to variation between different groups of the same species. While its existence in the behavioural realm has been expected and evidenced, the potential effects of IGV are rarely considered in studies that aim to shed light on the evolutionary origins of human socio-cognition, especially in our closest living relatives—the great apes. Here, by taking chimpanzees as a point of reference, we argue that (i) IGV could plausibly explain inconsistent research findings across numerous topics of inquiry (experimental/behavioural studies on chimpanzees), (ii) understanding the evolutionary origins of behaviour requires an accurate assessment of species' modes of behaving across different socio-ecological contexts, which necessitates a reliable estimation of variation across intraspecific groups, and (iii) IGV in the behavioural realm is increasingly likely to be expected owing to the progressive identification of non-human animal cultures. With these points, and by extrapolating from chimpanzees to generic guidelines, we aim to encourage researchers to explicitly consider IGV as an explanatory variable in future studies attempting to understand the socio-cognitive and evolutionary determinants of behaviour in group-living animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan P Kaufhold
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, San Diego, CA 92093, USA
| | - Edwin J C van Leeuwen
- Behavioral Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium.,Centre for Research and Conservation, Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp, K. Astridplein 26, 2018 Antwerp, Belgium.,Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Wundtlaan 1, 6525 XD Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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24
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Schweinfurth MK, Call J. Revisiting the possibility of reciprocal help in non-human primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 104:73-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.06.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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25
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Abstract
Understanding intraspecific variation in sociality is essential for characterizing the flexibility and evolution of social systems, yet its study in nonhuman animals is rare. Here, we investigated whether chimpanzees exhibit population-level differences in sociality that cannot be easily explained by differences in genetics or ecology. We compared social proximity and grooming tendencies across four semiwild populations of chimpanzees living in the same ecological environment over three consecutive years, using both linear mixed models and social network analysis. Results indicated temporally stable, population-level differences in dyadic-level sociality. Moreover, group cohesion measures capturing network characteristics beyond dyadic interactions (clustering, modularity, and social differentiation) showed population-level differences consistent with the dyadic indices. Subsequently, we explored whether the observed intraspecific variation in sociality could be attributed to cultural processes by ruling out alternative sources of variation including the influences of ecology, genetics, and differences in population demographics. We conclude that substantial variation in social behavior exists across neighboring populations of chimpanzees and that this variation is in part shaped by cultural processes.
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26
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Hall K, Smith M, Russell JL, Lambeth SP, Schapiro SJ, Brosnan SF. Chimpanzees Rarely Settle on Consistent Patterns of Play in the Hawk Dove, Assurance, and Prisoner's Dilemma Games, in a Token Exchange Task. ANIMAL BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION 2019; 6:48-70. [PMID: 31245532 PMCID: PMC6594705 DOI: 10.26451/abc.06.01.04.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Games derived from experimental economics can be used to directly compare decision-making behavior across primate species, including humans. For example, the use of coordination games, such as the Assurance game, has shown that a variety of primate species can coordinate; however, the mechanism by which they do so appears to differ across species. Recently, these games have been extended to explore anti-coordination and cooperation in monkeys, with evidence that they play the Nash equilibria in sequential games in these other contexts. In the current paper, we use the same methods to explore chimpanzees' behavior in the Assurance Game; an anti-coordination game, the Hawk Dove game; and a cooperation game with a temptation to defect, the Prisoner's Dilemma game. We predicted that they would consistently play the Nash equilibria, as do the monkeys, and that, as in previous work, the subjects' level of experience with cognitive experiments would impact performance. Surprisingly, few of our pairs consistently played the same outcome (i.e., no statistically significant preferences), although those who did showed evidence consistent with Nash equilibria play, the same pattern seen more consistently in the monkeys. We consider reasons for their inconsistent performance; for instance, perhaps it was due to lack of interest in a task that rewarded them almost every trial no matter what option they chose, although this does not explain why they were inconsistent when the monkeys were not. A second goal of our study was to ascertain the effects of exogenous oxytocin in their decision making in one population. In line with recent work showing complex effects of oxytocin on social behavior, we found no effect on subjects' outcomes. We consider possible explanations for this as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie Hall
- Center for the Science of Animal Care and Welfare, Chicago Zoological Society – Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, IL
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, National Center for Chimpanzee Care, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Mackenzie Smith
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
| | | | - Susan P. Lambeth
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, National Center for Chimpanzee Care, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
| | - Steven J. Schapiro
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, National Center for Chimpanzee Care, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen
| | - Sarah F. Brosnan
- Michale E. Keeling Center for Comparative Medicine and Research, National Center for Chimpanzee Care, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX
- Language Research Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
- Neuroscience Institute and Center for Behavioral Neuroscience, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
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27
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Abstract
The study of inequity aversion in animals debuted with a report of the behaviour in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). This report generated many debates following a number of criticisms. Ultimately, however, the finding stimulated widespread interest, and multiple studies have since attempted to demonstrate inequity aversion in various other non-human animal species, with many positive results in addition to many studies in which no response to inequity was found. Domestic dogs represent an interesting case as, unlike many primates, they do not respond negatively to inequity in reward quality but do, however, respond negatively to being unrewarded in the presence of a rewarded partner. Numerous studies have been published on inequity aversion in dogs in recent years. Combining three tasks and seven peer-reviewed publications, over 140 individual dogs have been tested in inequity experiments. Consequently, dogs are one of the best studied species in this field and could offer insights into inequity aversion in other non-human animal species. In this review, we summarise and critically evaluate the current evidence for inequity aversion in dogs. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive discussion of two understudied aspects of inequity aversion, the underlying mechanisms and the ultimate function, drawing on the latest findings on these topics in dogs while also placing these developments in the context of what is known, or thought to be the case, in other non-human animal species. Finally, we highlight gaps in our understanding of inequity aversion in dogs and thereby identify potential avenues for future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim McGetrick
- Comparative Cognition Unit, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Medical University of Vienna & University of Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria.
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Savoyenstraße 1a, 1160, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Friederike Range
- Comparative Cognition Unit, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Medical University of Vienna & University of Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Savoyenstraße 1a, 1160, Vienna, Austria
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28
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Maldonado-Chaparro AA, Alarcón-Nieto G, Klarevas-Irby JA, Farine DR. Experimental disturbances reveal group-level costs of social instability. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:20181577. [PMID: 30429300 PMCID: PMC6253379 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In group-living species, social stability is an important trait associated with the evolution of complex behaviours such as cooperation. While the drivers of stability in small groups are relatively well studied, little is known about the potential impacts of unstable states on animal societies. Temporary changes in group composition, such as a social group splitting and recombining (i.e. a disturbance event), can result in individuals having to re-establish their social relationships, thus taking time away from other tasks such as foraging or vigilance. Here, we experimentally split socially stable groups of captive zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata), and quantified the effects of repeated disturbance events on (1) group foraging efficiency, and (2) co-feeding associations when subgroups were recombined. We found that the efficiency of groups to deplete a rich, but ephemeral, resource patch decreased after just a single short disturbance event. Automated tracking of individuals showed that repeated disturbances reduced efficiency by causing social relationships to become more differentiated and weaker, resulting in fewer individuals simultaneously accessing the patch. Our experiment highlights how short-term disturbances can severely disrupt social structure and group functionality, revealing potential costs associated with group instability that can have consequences for the evolution of animal societies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Maldonado-Chaparro
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Chair of Biodiversity and Collective Behaviour, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - G Alarcón-Nieto
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Chair of Biodiversity and Collective Behaviour, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - J A Klarevas-Irby
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Chair of Biodiversity and Collective Behaviour, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - D R Farine
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Chair of Biodiversity and Collective Behaviour, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
- Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology, Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
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Lind J. What can associative learning do for planning? ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:180778. [PMID: 30564390 PMCID: PMC6281940 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.180778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
There is a new associative learning paradox. The power of associative learning for producing flexible behaviour in non-human animals is downplayed or ignored by researchers in animal cognition, whereas artificial intelligence research shows that associative learning models can beat humans in chess. One phenomenon in which associative learning often is ruled out as an explanation for animal behaviour is flexible planning. However, planning studies have been criticized and questions have been raised regarding both methodological validity and interpretations of results. Due to the power of associative learning and the uncertainty of what causes planning behaviour in non-human animals, I explored what associative learning can do for planning. A previously published sequence learning model which combines Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning was used to simulate two planning studies, namely Mulcahy & Call 2006 'Apes save tools for future use.' Science 312, 1038-1040 and Kabadayi & Osvath 2017 'Ravens parallel great apes in flexible planning for tool-use and bartering.' Science 357, 202-204. Simulations show that behaviour matching current definitions of flexible planning can emerge through associative learning. Through conditioned reinforcement, the learning model gives rise to planning behaviour by learning that a behaviour towards a current stimulus will produce high value food at a later stage; it can make decisions about future states not within current sensory scope. The simulations tracked key patterns both between and within studies. It is concluded that one cannot rule out that these studies of flexible planning in apes and corvids can be completely accounted for by associative learning. Future empirical studies of flexible planning in non-human animals can benefit from theoretical developments within artificial intelligence and animal learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Lind
- Centre for Cultural Evolution, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Abstract
Operating rooms (ORs) are inhabited by hierarchical, mixed-gender clinical teams that are often prone to conflict. In evolutionary terms, one expects more within- than between-gender rivalries, especially since the OR is a place where all sorts of social interactions occur, not merely technical communications. To document the full range of behavior, the present study used ethological observation techniques, recording live all social behavior by the team. Using an ethogram, 6,348 spontaneous social interactions and nontechnical communications were timestamped during 200 surgical procedures. Cooperation sequences (59.0%) were more frequent than conflict sequences (2.8%), which ranged from constructive differences of opinion to discord and distraction that could jeopardize patient safety. Behavior varied by clinical role and with the gender composition in the OR. Conflict was initiated mostly down the hierarchy between individuals several ranks apart. Cooperation tended to increase with a rising proportion of females in the OR, but the most pronounced effect concerned the interaction between both genders. If the attending surgeon's gender differed from that of the majority of other personnel in the OR, cooperation was significantly more common.
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Abstract
This article discusses three major, but related, controversies surrounding the idea of morality. Is the complete pattern of features defining human morality unique to this species? How context dependent are moral beliefs and the emotions that often follow a violation of a moral standard? What developmental sequence establishes a moral code? This essay suggests that human morality rests on a combination of cognitive and emotional processes that are missing from the repertoires of other species. Second, the moral evaluation of every behavior, whether by self or others, depends on the agent, the action, the target of the behavior, and the context. The ontogeny of morality, which begins with processes that apes possess but adds language, inference, shame, and guilt, implies that humans are capable of experiencing blends of thoughts and feelings for which no semantic term exists. As a result, conclusions about a person's moral emotions based only on questionnaires or interviews are limited to this evidence.
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Abstract
Activity in a network of areas spanning the superior temporal sulcus, dorsomedial frontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex is concerned with how nonhuman primates negotiate the social worlds in which they live. Central aspects of these circuits are retained in humans. Activity in these areas codes for primates' interactions with one another, their attempts to find out about one another, and their attempts to prevent others from finding out too much about themselves. Moreover, important features of the social world, such as dominance status, cooperation, and competition, modulate activity in these areas. We consider the degree to which activity in these regions is simply encoding an individual's own actions and choices or whether this activity is especially and specifically concerned with social cognition. Recent advances in comparative anatomy and computational modeling may help us to gain deeper insights into the nature and boundaries of primate social cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco K Wittmann
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, OX1 3UD Oxford, United Kingdom; , , .,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Oxford Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, OX1 3UD Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia L Lockwood
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, OX1 3UD Oxford, United Kingdom; , , .,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Oxford Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, OX1 3UD Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew F S Rushworth
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, OX1 3UD Oxford, United Kingdom; , , .,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Oxford Centre for Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, OX1 3UD Oxford, United Kingdom
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Preschool children and chimpanzees incur costs to watch punishment of antisocial others. Nat Hum Behav 2017; 2:45-51. [DOI: 10.1038/s41562-017-0264-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Suchak M, Watzek J, Quarles LF, de Waal FBM. Novice chimpanzees cooperate successfully in the presence of experts, but may have limited understanding of the task. Anim Cogn 2017; 21:87-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1142-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Importance of a species' socioecology: Wolves outperform dogs in a conspecific cooperation task. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:11793-11798. [PMID: 29078337 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1709027114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of domestication hypotheses suggest that dogs have acquired a more tolerant temperament than wolves, promoting cooperative interactions with humans and conspecifics. This selection process has been proposed to resemble the one responsible for our own greater cooperative inclinations in comparison with our closest living relatives. However, the socioecology of wolves and dogs, with the former relying more heavily on cooperative activities, predicts that at least with conspecifics, wolves should cooperate better than dogs. Here we tested similarly raised wolves and dogs in a cooperative string-pulling task with conspecifics and found that wolves outperformed dogs, despite comparable levels of interest in the task. Whereas wolves coordinated their actions so as to simultaneously pull the rope ends, leading to success, dogs pulled the ropes in alternate moments, thereby never succeeding. Indeed in dog dyads it was also less likely that both members simultaneously engaged in other manipulative behaviors on the apparatus. Different conflict-management strategies are likely responsible for these results, with dogs' avoidance of potential competition over the apparatus constraining their capacity to coordinate actions. Wolves, in contrast, did not hesitate to manipulate the ropes simultaneously, and once cooperation was initiated, rapidly learned to coordinate in more complex conditions as well. Social dynamics (rank and affiliation) played a key role in success rates. Results call those domestication hypotheses that suggest dogs evolved greater cooperative inclinations into question, and rather support the idea that dogs' and wolves' different social ecologies played a role in affecting their capacity for conspecific cooperation and communication.
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Louis M, de Polavieja G. Collective Behavior: Social Digging in Drosophila Larvae. Curr Biol 2017; 27:R1010-R1012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Cronin KA, Jacobson SL, Bonnie KE, Hopper LM. Studying primate cognition in a social setting to improve validity and welfare: a literature review highlighting successful approaches. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3649. [PMID: 28791199 PMCID: PMC5545107 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studying animal cognition in a social setting is associated with practical and statistical challenges. However, conducting cognitive research without disturbing species-typical social groups can increase ecological validity, minimize distress, and improve animal welfare. Here, we review the existing literature on cognitive research run with primates in a social setting in order to determine how widespread such testing is and highlight approaches that may guide future research planning. SURVEY METHODOLOGY Using Google Scholar to search the terms "primate" "cognition" "experiment" and "social group," we conducted a systematic literature search covering 16 years (2000-2015 inclusive). We then conducted two supplemental searches within each journal that contained a publication meeting our criteria in the original search, using the terms "primate" and "playback" in one search and the terms "primate" "cognition" and "social group" in the second. The results were used to assess how frequently nonhuman primate cognition has been studied in a social setting (>3 individuals), to gain perspective on the species and topics that have been studied, and to extract successful approaches for social testing. RESULTS Our search revealed 248 unique publications in 43 journals encompassing 71 species. The absolute number of publications has increased over years, suggesting viable strategies for studying cognition in social settings. While a wide range of species were studied they were not equally represented, with 19% of the publications reporting data for chimpanzees. Field sites were the most common environment for experiments run in social groups of primates, accounting for more than half of the results. Approaches to mitigating the practical and statistical challenges were identified. DISCUSSION This analysis has revealed that the study of primate cognition in a social setting is increasing and taking place across a range of environments. This literature review calls attention to examples that may provide valuable models for researchers wishing to overcome potential practical and statistical challenges to studying cognition in a social setting, ultimately increasing validity and improving the welfare of the primates we study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine A. Cronin
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
| | - Sarah L. Jacobson
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
| | - Kristin E. Bonnie
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
- Department of Psychology, Beloit College, Beloit, WI, United States of America
| | - Lydia M. Hopper
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, IL, United States of America
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The difference between ice cream and Nazis: Moral externalization and the evolution of human cooperation. Behav Brain Sci 2017; 41:e95. [PMID: 28679458 DOI: 10.1017/s0140525x17001911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
A range of empirical findings is first used to more precisely characterize our distinctive tendency to objectify or externalize moral demands and obligations, and it is then argued that this salient feature of our moral cognition represents a profound puzzle for evolutionary approaches to human moral psychology that existing proposals do not help resolve. It is then proposed that such externalization facilitated a broader shift to a vastly more cooperative form of social life by establishing and maintaining a connection between the extent to which an agent is herself motivated by a given moral norm and the extent to which she uses conformity to that same norm as a criterion in evaluating candidate partners in social interaction generally. This connection ensures the correlated interaction necessary to protect those prepared to adopt increasingly cooperative, altruistic, and other prosocial norms of interaction from exploitation, especially as such norms were applied in novel ways and/or to novel circumstances and as the rapid establishment of new norms allowed us to reap still greater rewards from hypercooperation. A wide range of empirical findings is then used to support this hypothesis, showing why the status we ascribe to moral demands and considerations exhibits the otherwise puzzling combination of objective and subjective elements that it does, as well as showing how the need to effectively advertise our externalization of particular moral commitments generates features of our social interaction so familiar that they rarely strike us as standing in need of any explanation in the first place.
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Sánchez-Amaro A, Duguid S, Call J, Tomasello M. Chimpanzees, bonobos and children successfully coordinate in conflict situations. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 284:20170259. [PMID: 28592680 PMCID: PMC5474066 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2017.0259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Social animals need to coordinate with others to reap the benefits of group-living even when individuals' interests are misaligned. We compare how chimpanzees, bonobos and children coordinate their actions with a conspecific in a Snowdrift game, which provides a model for understanding how organisms coordinate and make decisions under conflict. In study 1, we presented pairs of chimpanzees, bonobos and children with an unequal reward distribution. In the critical condition, the preferred reward could only be obtained by waiting for the partner to act, with the risk that if no one acted, both would lose the rewards. Apes and children successfully coordinated to obtain the rewards. Children used a 'both-partner-pull' strategy and communicated during the task, while some apes relied on an 'only-one-partner-pulls' strategy to solve the task, although there were also signs of strategic behaviour as they waited for their partner to pull when that strategy led to the preferred reward. In study 2, we presented pairs of chimpanzees and bonobos with the same set-up as in study 1 with the addition of a non-social option that provided them with a secure reward. In this situation, apes had to actively decide between the unequal distribution and the alternative. In this set-up, apes maximized their rewards by taking their partners' potential actions into account. In conclusion, children and apes showed clear instances of strategic decision-making to maximize their own rewards while maintaining successful coordination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro Sánchez-Amaro
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Shona Duguid
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Josep Call
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Michael Tomasello
- Department of Developmental and Comparative Psychology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, USA
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Reply to Schmidt and Tomasello: Chimpanzees as natural team-players. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E6730. [PMID: 27791163 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1614598113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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How chimpanzees cooperate: If dominance is artificially constrained. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2016; 113:E6728-E6729. [PMID: 27791161 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1614378113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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