Distinct MHC class I-like interacting invariant T cell lineage at the forefront of mycobacterial immunity uncovered in Xenopus

The search to understand the development of the chicken immune system: Differences in expression of MHC class I loci and waves of thymocytes as evolutionary relics?

Chickens are renowned as a model for embryogenesis but have also been responsible for crucial advances in virology, cancer research and immunology. However, chickens are best known as a major source of animal protein for human nutrition, with roughly 80 billion chickens alive each year supplying meat and eggs, the vast majority part of a global poultry industry. As a result, avian immunology been studied intensively for over 60 years, and it has become clear that a major genetic locus in chickens determining resistance to infectious disease and response to vaccines is the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). Compared to typical mammals, the chicken MHC is compact and simple, with only two classical class I genes. A dominantly-expressed class I gene, BF2, is the major ligand for cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), while the other locus, BF1, is much less well-expressed, lacking in some MHC haplotypes, and is a ligand for natural killer (NK) cells. Cell surface class I expression in neonatal chicks is far less than in adults, and one possibility is that BF2 is not well-expressed early in ontogeny. A precedent is found for amphibians: the single classical class I molecule is not expressed in tadpoles of Xenopus frogs, although non-polymorphic (and thus non-classical) class I molecules from the XNC locus are expressed, which are recognised for immune defence by non-canonical NKT lymphocytes. Indeed, three waves of different T cells are produced by the Xenopus thymus: in tadpoles, during metamorphosis and finally as adults. Three waves of thymic emigrants are also found for chickens, and reasoning by analogy, it may be that the waves of thymocytes and the expression of class I molecules during ontogeny of chickens are evolutionary relics. As well as scientific interest in the ontogeny of MHC class I expression and appearance of peripheral T cells, there are potential practical implications, given the importance of vaccination in ovo and in day-old chicks for the poultry industry.

Exploring the Role of a Putative Secondary Metabolite Biosynthesis Pathway in Mycobacterium abscessus Pathogenesis Using a Xenopus laevis Tadpole Model

Mycobacterium abscessus (Mab) is an emerging human pathogen that has a high rate of incidence in immunocompromised individuals. We have found a putative secondary metabolite pathway within Mab, which may be a key factor in its pathogenesis. This novel pathway is encoded in a gene cluster spanning MAB_0284c to 0305 and is related to Streptomyces pathways, producing the secondary metabolites streptonigrin and nybomycin. We constructed an in-frame deletion of the MAB_0295 (phzC) gene and tested it in our Xenopus laevis animal model. We have previously shown that X. laevis tadpoles, which have functional lungs and T cells, can serve as a reliable comparative model for persistent Mab infection and pathogenesis. Here, we report that tadpoles intraperitoneally infected with the ∆phzC mutant exhibit early decreased bacterial loads and significantly increased survival compared with those infected with WT Mab. ∆phzC mutant Mab also induced lower transcript levels of several pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, iNOS, IFN-γ) than those of WT Mab in the liver and lungs. In addition, there was impaired macrophage recruitment and decreased macrophage infection in tadpoles infected with the ∆phzC mutant, by tail wound inoculation, compared to those infected with the WT bacteria, as assayed by intravital confocal microscopy. These data underline the relevance and usefulness of X. laevis tadpoles as a novel comparative animal model to identify genetic determinants of Mab immunopathogenesis, suggesting a role for this novel and uncharacterized pathway in Mab pathogenesis and macrophage recruitment.

Larval T Cells Are Functionally Distinct from Adult T Cells in Xenopus laevis

The amphibian Xenopus laevis tadpole provides a unique comparative experimental organism for investigating the roles of innate-like T (iT) cells in tolerogenic immunity during early development. Unlike mammals and adult frogs, where conventional T cells are dominant, tadpoles rely mostly on several prominent distinct subsets of iT cells interacting with cognate nonpolymorphic MHC class I-like molecules. In the present study, to investigate whole T cell responsiveness ontogenesis in X. laevis, we determined in tadpoles and adult frogs the capacity of splenic T cells to proliferate in vivo upon infection with two different pathogens, ranavirus FV3 and Mycobacterium marinum, as well as in vitro upon PHA stimulation using the thymidine analogous 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine and flow cytometry. We also analyzed by RT-quantitative PCR T cell responsiveness upon PHA stimulation. In vivo tadpole splenic T cells showed limited capacity to proliferate, whereas the in vitro proliferation rate was higher than adult T cells. Gene markers for T cell activation and immediate-early genes induced upon TCR activation were upregulated with similar kinetics in tadpole and adult splenocytes. However, the tadpole T cell signature included a lower amplitude in the TCR signaling, which is a hallmark of mammalian memory-like T cells and iT or "preset" T cells. This study suggests that reminiscent of mammalian neonatal T cells, tadpole T cells are functionally different from their adult counterpart.

Advances in the Xenopus immunome: Diversification, expansion, and contraction

Xenopus is a genus of African clawed frogs including two species, X. tropicalis and X. laevis that are extensively used in experimental biology, immunology, and biomedical studies. The availability of fully sequenced and annotated Xenopus genomes is strengthening genome-wide analyses of gene families and transgenesis to model human diseases. However, inaccuracies in genome annotation for genes involved in the immune system (i.e., immunome) hamper immunogenetic studies. Furthermore, advanced genome technologies (e.g., single-cell and RNA-Seq) rely on well-annotated genomes. The annotation problems of Xenopus immunome include a lack of established orthology across taxa, merged gene models, poor representation in gene pages on Xenbase, misannotated genes and missing gene IDs. The Xenopus Research Resource for Immunobiology in collaboration with Xenbase and a group of investigators are working to resolve these issues in the latest versions of genome browsers. In this review, we summarize the current problems of previously misannotated gene families that we have recently resolved. We also highlight the expansion, contraction, and diversification of previously misannotated gene families.

A perspective into the relationships between amphibian (Xenopus laevis) myeloid cell subsets

Macrophage (Mϕ)-lineage cells are integral to the immune defences of all vertebrates, including amphibians. Across vertebrates, Mϕ differentiation and functionality depend on activation of the colony stimulating factor-1 (CSF1) receptor by CSF1 and interluekin-34 (IL34) cytokines. Our findings to date indicate that amphibian (Xenopus laevis) Mϕs differentiated with CSF1 and IL34 are morphologically, transcriptionally and functionally distinct. Notably, mammalian Mϕs share common progenitor population(s) with dendritic cells (DCs), which rely on fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand (FLT3L) for differentiation while X. laevis IL34-Mϕs exhibit many features attributed to mammalian DCs. Presently, we compared X. laevis CSF1- and IL34-Mϕs with FLT3L-derived X. laevis DCs. Our transcriptional and functional analyses indicated that indeed the frog IL34-Mϕs and FLT3L-DCs possessed many commonalities over CSF1-Mϕs, including transcriptional profiles and functional capacities. Compared to X. laevis CSF1-Mϕs, the IL34-Mϕs and FLT3L-DCs possess greater surface major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I, but not MHC class II expression, were better at eliciting mixed leucocyte responses in vitro and generating in vivo re-exposure immune responses against Mycobacterium marinum. Further analyses of non-mammalian myelopoiesis akin to those described here, will grant unique perspectives into the evolutionarily retained and diverged pathways of Mϕ and DC functional differentiation. This article is part of the theme issue 'Amphibian immunity: stress, disease and ecoimmunology'.

The amphibian immune system

Amphibians are at the forefront of bridging the evolutionary gap between mammals and more ancient, jawed vertebrates. Currently, several diseases have targeted amphibians and understanding their immune system has importance beyond their use as a research model. The immune system of the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, and that of mammals is well conserved. We know that several features of the adaptive and innate immune system are very similar for both, including the existence of B cells, T cells and innate-like T cells. In particular, the study of the immune system at early stages of development is benefitted by studying X. laevis tadpoles. The tadpoles mainly rely on innate immune mechanisms including pre-set or innate-like T cells until after metamorphosis. In this review we lay out what is known about the innate and adaptive immune system of X. laevis including the lymphoid organs as well as how other amphibian immune systems are similar or different. Furthermore, we will describe how the amphibian immune system responds to some viral, bacterial and fungal insults. This article is part of the theme issue 'Amphibian immunity: stress, disease and ecoimmunology'.

Amphibians as a model to study the role of immune cell heterogeneity in host and mycobacterial interactions

Mycobacterial infections represent major concerns for aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates including humans. Although our current knowledge is mostly restricted to Mycobacterium tuberculosis and mammalian host interactions, increasing evidence suggests common features in endo- and ectothermic animals infected with non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTMs) like those described for M. tuberculosis. Importantly, most of the pathogenic and non-pathogenic NTMs detected in amphibians from wild, farmed, and research facilities represent, in addition to the potential economic loss, a rising concern for human health. Upon mycobacterial infection in mammals, the protective immune responses involving the innate and adaptive immune systems are highly complex and therefore not fully understood. This complexity results from the versatility and resilience of mycobacteria to hostile conditions as well as from the immune cell heterogeneity arising from the distinct developmental origins according with the concept of layered immunity. Similar to the differing responses of neonates versus adults during tuberculosis development, the pathogenesis and inflammatory responses are stage-specific in Xenopus laevis during infection by the NTM M. marinum. That is, both in human fetal and neonatal development and in tadpole development, responses are characterized by hypo-responsiveness and a lower capacity to contain mycobacterial infections. Similar to a mammalian fetus and neonates, T cells and myeloid cells in Xenopus tadpoles and axolotls are different from the adult immune cells. Fetal and amphibian larval T cells, which are characterized by a lower T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire diversity, are biased toward regulatory function, and they have distinct progenitor origins from those of the adult immune cells. Some early developing T cells and likely macrophage subpopulations are conserved in adult anurans and mammals, and therefore, they likely play an important role in the host-pathogen interactions from early stages of development to adulthood. Thus, we propose the use of developing amphibians, which have the advantage of being free-living early in their development, as an alternative and complementary model to study the role of immune cell heterogeneity in host-mycobacteria interactions.

γδ T, NKT, and MAIT Cells During Evolution: Redundancy or Specialized Functions?

Innate-like T cells display characteristics of both innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) and mainstream αβ T cells, leading to overlapping functions of innate-like T cells with both subsets. In this review, we show that although innate-like T cells are probably present in all vertebrates, their main characteristics are much better known in amphibians and mammals. Innate-like T cells encompass both γδ and αβ T cells. In mammals, γδ TCRs likely coevolved with molecules of the butyrophilin family they interact with, whereas the semi-invariant TCRs of iNKT and mucosal-associated invariant T cells are evolutionarily locked with their restricting MH1b molecules, CD1d and MR1, respectively. The strong conservation of the Ag recognition systems of innate-like T cell subsets despite similar effector potentialities supports that each one fulfills nonredundant roles related to their Ag specificity.

Genetic approaches for increasing fitness in endangered species

The global rate of wildlife extinctions is accelerating, and the persistence of many species requires conservation breeding programs. A central paradigm of these programs is to preserve the genetic diversity of the founder populations. However, this may preserve original characteristics that make them vulnerable to extinction. We introduce targeted genetic intervention (TGI) as an alternative approach that promotes traits that enable species to persist in the face of threats by changing the incidence of alleles that impact on fitness. The TGI toolkit includes methods with established efficacy in model organisms and agriculture but are largely untried for conservation, such as synthetic biology and artificial selection. We explore TGI approaches as a species-restoration tool for intractable threats including infectious disease and climate change.

Natural Killer T Lymphocytes Integrate Innate Sensory Information and Relay Context to Effector Immune Responses

It is now appreciated that a group of lymphoid lineage cells, collectively called innate-like effector lymphocytes, have evolved to integrate information relayed by the innate sensory immune system about the state of the local tissue environment and to pass on this context to downstream effector innate and adaptive immune responses. Thereby, innate functions engrained into such innate-like lymphoid lineage cells during development can control the quality and magnitude of an immune response to a tissue-altering pathogen and facilitate the formation of memory engrams within the immune system. These goals are accomplished by the innate lymphoid cells that lack antigen-specific receptors, γδ T cell receptor (TCR)-expressing T cells, and several αβ TCR-expressing T cell subsets-such as natural killer T cells, mucosal-associated invariant T cells, et cetera. Whilst we briefly consider the commonalities in the origins and functions of these diverse lymphoid subsets to provide context, the primary topic of this review is to discuss how the semi-invariant natural killer T cells got this way in evolution through lineage commitment and onward ontogeny. What emerges from this discourse is the question: Has a "limbic immune system" emerged (screaming quietly in plain sight!) out of what has been dubbed "in-betweeners"?

Immunological Aspects of Chytridiomycosis

Amphibians are currently the most threatened vertebrate class, with the disease chytridiomycosis being a major contributor to their global declines. Chytridiomycosis is a frequently fatal skin disease caused by the fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). The severity and extent of the impact of the infection caused by these pathogens across modern Amphibia are unprecedented in the history of vertebrate infectious diseases. The immune system of amphibians is thought to be largely similar to that of other jawed vertebrates, such as mammals. However, amphibian hosts are both ectothermic and water-dependent, which are characteristics favouring fungal proliferation. Although amphibians possess robust constitutive host defences, Bd/Bsal replicate within host cells once these defences have been breached. Intracellular fungal localisation may contribute to evasion of the induced innate immune response. Increasing evidence suggests that once the innate defences are surpassed, fungal virulence factors suppress the targeted adaptive immune responses whilst promoting an ineffectual inflammatory cascade, resulting in immunopathology and systemic metabolic disruption. Thus, although infections are contained within the integument, crucial homeostatic processes become compromised, leading to mortality. In this paper, we present an integrated synthesis of amphibian post-metamorphic immunological responses and the corresponding outcomes of infection with Bd, focusing on recent developments within the field and highlighting future directions.

A Glimpse of the Peptide Profile Presentation by Xenopus laevis MHC Class I: Crystal Structure of pXela-UAA Reveals a Distinct Peptide-Binding Groove

The African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis, is a model species for amphibians. Before metamorphosis, tadpoles do not efficiently express the single classical MHC class I (MHC-I) molecule Xela-UAA, but after metamorphosis, adults express this molecule in abundance. To elucidate the Ag-presenting mechanism of Xela-UAA, in this study, the Xela-UAA structure complex (pXela-UAAg) bound with a peptide from a synthetic random peptide library was determined. The amino acid homology between the Xela-UAA and MHC-I sequences of different species is <45%, and these differences are fully reflected in the three-dimensional structure of pXela-UAAg. Because of polymorphisms and interspecific differences in amino acid sequences, pXela-UAAg forms a distinct peptide-binding groove and presents a unique peptide profile. The most important feature of pXela-UAAg is the two-amino acid insertion in the α2-helical region, which forms a protrusion of ∼3.8 Å that is involved in TCR docking. Comparison of peptide-MHC-I complex (pMHC-I) structures showed that only four amino acids in β2-microglobulin that were bound to MHC-I are conserved in almost all jawed vertebrates, and the most unique feature in nonmammalian pMHC-I molecules is that the AB loop bound β2-microglobulin. Additionally, the binding distance between pMHC-I and CD8 molecules in nonmammals is different from that in mammals. These unique features of pXela-UAAg provide enhanced knowledge of T cell immunity and bridge the knowledge gap regarding the coevolutionary progression of the MHC-I complex from aquatic to terrestrial species.

Distinct Host-Mycobacterial Pathogen Interactions between Resistant Adult and Tolerant Tadpole Life Stages of Xenopus laevis

Mycobacterium marinum is a promiscuous pathogen infecting many vertebrates, including humans, whose persistent infections are problematic for aquaculture and public health. Among unsettled aspects of host-pathogen interactions, the respective roles of conventional and innate-like T (iT) cells in host defenses against M. marinum remain unclear. In this study, we developed an infection model system in the amphibian Xenopus laevis to study host responses to M. marinum at two distinct life stages, tadpole and adult. Adult frogs possess efficient conventional T cell-mediated immunity, whereas tadpoles predominantly rely on iT cells. We hypothesized that tadpoles are more susceptible and elicit weaker immune responses to M. marinum than adults. However, our results show that, although anti-M. marinum immune responses between tadpoles and adults are different, tadpoles are as resistant to M. marinum inoculation as adult frogs. M. marinum inoculation triggered a robust proinflammatory CD8+ T cell response in adults, whereas tadpoles elicited only a noninflammatory CD8 negative- and iT cell-mediated response. Furthermore, adult anti-M. marinum responses induced active granuloma formation with abundant T cell infiltration and were associated with significantly reduced M. marinum loads. This is reminiscent of local CD8+ T cell response in lung granulomas of human tuberculosis patients. In contrast, tadpoles rarely exhibited granulomas and tolerated persistent M. marinum accumulation. Gene expression profiling confirmed poor tadpole CD8+ T cell response, contrasting with the marked increase in transcript levels of the anti-M. marinum invariant TCR rearrangement (iVα45-Jα1.14) and of CD4. These data provide novel insights into the critical roles of iT cells in vertebrate antimycobacterial immune response and tolerance to pathogens.

Inferring the "Primordial Immune Complex": Origins of MHC Class I and Antigen Receptors Revealed by Comparative Genomics

Comparative analyses suggest that the MHC was derived from a prevertebrate "primordial immune complex" (PIC). PIC duplicated twice in the well-studied two rounds of genome-wide duplications (2R) early in vertebrate evolution, generating four MHC paralogous regions (predominantly on human chromosomes [chr] 1, 6, 9, 19). Examining chiefly the amphibian Xenopus laevis, but also other vertebrates, we identified their MHC paralogues and mapped MHC class I, AgR, and "framework" genes. Most class I genes mapped to MHC paralogues, but a cluster of Xenopus MHC class Ib genes (xnc), which previously was mapped outside of the MHC paralogues, was surrounded by genes syntenic to mammalian CD1 genes, a region previously proposed as an MHC paralogue on human chr 1. Thus, this gene block is instead the result of a translocation that we call the translocated part of the MHC paralogous region (MHCtrans) Analyses of Xenopus class I genes, as well as MHCtrans, suggest that class I arose at 1R on the chr 6/19 ancestor. Of great interest are nonrearranging AgR-like genes mapping to three MHC paralogues; thus, PIC clearly contained several AgR precursor loci, predating MHC class I/II. However, all rearranging AgR genes were found on paralogues derived from the chr 19 precursor, suggesting that invasion of a variable (V) exon by the RAG transposon occurred after 2R. We propose models for the evolutionary history of MHC/TCR/Ig and speculate on the dichotomy between the jawless (lamprey and hagfish) and jawed vertebrate adaptive immune systems, as we found genes related to variable lymphocyte receptors also map to MHC paralogues.

Impacts of the MHC class I-like XNC10 and innate-like T cells on tumor tolerance and rejection in the amphibian Xenopus

The conditions that lead to antitumor or protumor functions of natural killer T (NKT) cells against mammalian tumors are only partially understood. Therefore, insights into the evolutionary conservation of NKT and their analogs-innate-like T (iT) cells-may reveal factors that contribute to tumor eradication. As such, we investigated the amphibian Xenopus laevis iT cells and interacting MHC class I-like (XNC or mhc1b.L) genes against ff-2 thymic lymphoid tumors. Upon ff-2 intraperitoneal transplantation into syngeneic tadpoles, two iT cell subsets iVα6 and iVα22, characterized by an invariant T-cell receptor α chain rearrangement (Vα6-Jα1.43 and Vα22-Jα1.32 respectively), were recruited to the peritoneum, concomitant with a decreased level of these transcripts in the spleen and thymus. To address the hypothesize that different iT cell subsets have distinct, possibly opposing, roles upon ff-2 tumor challenge, we determined whether ff-2 tumor growth could be manipulated by impairing Vα6 iT cells or by deleting their restricting element, the XNC gene, XNC10 (mhc1b10.1.L), on ff-2 tumors. Accordingly, the in vivo depletion of Vα6 iT cells using XNC10-tetramers enhanced tumor growth, indicating Vα6 iT cell-mediated antitumor activities. However, XNC10-deficient transgenic tadpoles that also lack Vα6 iT cells were resistant to ff-2 tumors, uncovering a potential new function of XNC10 besides Vα6 iT cell development. Furthermore, the CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of XNC10 in ff-2 tumors broke the immune tolerance. Together, our findings demonstrate the relevance of XNC10/iT cell axis in controlling Xenopus tumor tolerance or rejection.

Evolutionary Underpinnings of Innate-Like T Cell Interactions with Cancer

Cancers impose a significant health and economic burden. By harnessing the immune system, current immunotherapies have revolutionized the treatment against human cancers and potentially offer a long-term cure. Among others, innate-like T (iT) cells, including natural killer T cells, are promising candidates for immunotherapies. Unlike conventional T cells, iT cells regulate multiple immune processes and express an invariant T cell receptor that is shared among different individuals. However, the conditions that activate the pro- and antitumor functions of iT cells are partially understood. These gaps in knowledge hamper the use of iT cell in clinics. It might be beneficial to examine the roles of iT cells in an alternative animal model - the amphibian Xenopus whose immune system shares many similarities to that of mammals. Here, we review the iT cell biology in the context of mammalian cancers and discuss the challenges currently found in the field. Next, we introduce the advantages of Xenopus as a model to investigate the role of iT cells and interacting major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like molecules in tumor immunity. In Xenopus, 2 specific iT cell subsets, Vα6 and Vα22 iT cells, recognize and fight tumor cells. Furthermore, our recent data reveal the complex functions of the Xenopus MHC class I-like (XNC) gene XNC10 in tumor immune responses. By utilizing reverse genetics, transgenesis, and MHC tetramers, we have a unique opportunity to uncover the relevance of XNC genes and iT cell in Xenopus tumor immunity.

A Xenopus tadpole alternative model to study innate-like T cell-mediated anti-mycobacterial immunity

Owing to the high incidence of multi-drug resistance and challenges posed by the complex and long duration of treatments, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infections remain a significant clinical burden, which would benefit from development of novel immuno-therapeutic-based treatment strategies. Among early immune effectors, invariant or innate-like (i)T cells are attracting attention because of their potential regulatory activity, which can shape anti-mycobacterial immune responses. Unlike conventional T cells, iT cells express a semi-invariant T cell receptor, and respond rapidly and robustly to molecular patterns presented by MHC class I-like molecules. To date, functional studies of iT cells in vivo has been problematic and the role of iT cells in anti-Mtb responses remains unclear. Here, after reviewing the recent literature on anti-mycobacterial iT cell immunity, we describe a novel alternative model system in the amphibian Xenopus laevis tadpoles during infection with Mycobacterium marinum (Mm). X. laevis tadpoles rely mostly on a few distinct prominent innate-like (i)T cell subsets, whose development and function are governed by distinct MHC class I-like molecules. Thus, X. laevis tadpoles provide a convenient and cost-effective in vivo model uniquely suited to investigate the roles of iT cells during mycobacterial infections. We have developed reverse genetics and MHC tetramer technology to characterize this MHC-like/iT system in tadpoles. Our study in X. laevis provides evidence of a conserved convergent function of iT cells in host defenses against mycobacteria between mammals and amphibians.

Review of the Amphibian Immune Response to Chytridiomycosis, and Future Directions

The fungal skin disease, chytridiomycosis (caused by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and B. salamandrivorans), has caused amphibian declines and extinctions globally since its emergence. Characterizing the host immune response to chytridiomycosis has been a focus of study with the aim of disease mitigation. However, many aspects of the innate and adaptive arms of this response are still poorly understood, likely due to the wide range of species' responses to infection. In this paper we provide an overview of expected immunological responses (with inference based on amphibian and mammalian immunology), together with a synthesis of current knowledge about these responses for the amphibian-chytridiomycosis system. We structure our review around four key immune stages: (1) the naïve immunocompetent state, (2) immune defenses that are always present (constitutive defenses), (3) mechanisms for recognition of a pathogen threat and innate immune defenses, and (4) adaptive immune responses. We also evaluate the current hot topics of immunosuppression and immunopathology in chytridiomycosis, and discuss their respective roles in pathogenesis. Our synthesis reveals that susceptibility to chytridiomycosis is likely to be multifactorial. Susceptible amphibians appear to have ineffective constitutive and innate defenses, and a late-stage response characterized by immunopathology and Bd-induced suppression of lymphocyte responses. Overall, we identify substantial gaps in current knowledge, particularly concerning the entire innate immune response (mechanisms of initial pathogen detection and possible immunoevasion by Bd, degree of activation and efficacy of the innate immune response, the unexpected absence of innate leukocyte infiltration, and the cause and role of late-stage immunopathology in pathogenesis). There are also gaps concerning most of the adaptive immune system (the relative importance of B and T cell responses for pathogen clearance, the capacity and extent of immunological memory, and specific mechanisms of pathogen-induced immunosuppression). Improving our capacity for amphibian immunological research will require selection of an appropriate Bd-susceptible model species, the development of taxon-specific affinity reagents and cell lines for functional assays, and the application of a suite of conventional and emerging immunological methods. Despite current knowledge gaps, immunological research remains a promising avenue for amphibian conservation management.