Glial ensheathment of the somatodendritic compartment regulates sensory neuron structure and activity

Epithelial UNC-23 limits mechanical stress to maintain glia-neuron architecture in C. elegans

For an organ to maintain correct architecture and function, its diverse cellular components must coordinate their size and shape. Although cell-intrinsic mechanisms driving homotypic cell-cell coordination are known, it is unclear how cell shape is regulated across heterotypic cells. We find that epithelial cells maintain the shape of neighboring sense-organ glia-neuron units in adult Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Hsp co-chaperone UNC-23/BAG2 prevents epithelial cell shape from deforming, and its loss causes head epithelia to stretch aberrantly during animal movement. In the sense-organ glia, amphid sheath (AMsh), this causes progressive fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR)-dependent disruption of the glial apical cytoskeleton. Resultant glial cell shape alteration causes concomitant shape change in glia-associated neuron endings. Epithelial UNC-23 maintenance of glia-neuron shape is specific both spatially, within a defined anatomical zone, and temporally, in a developmentally critical period. As all molecular components uncovered are broadly conserved across central and peripheral nervous systems, we posit that epithelia may similarly regulate glia-neuron architecture cross-species.

Glia instruct axon regeneration via a ternary modulation of neuronal calcium channels in Drosophila

A neuron's regenerative capacity is governed by its intrinsic and extrinsic environment. Both peripheral and central neurons exhibit cell-type-dependent axon regeneration, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. Glia provide a milieu essential for regeneration. However, the routes of glia-neuron signaling remain underexplored. Here, we show that regeneration specificity is determined by the axotomy-induced Ca2+ transients only in the fly regenerative neurons, which is mediated by L-type calcium channels, constituting the core intrinsic machinery. Peripheral glia regulate axon regeneration via a three-layered and balanced modulation. Glia-derived tumor necrosis factor acts through its neuronal receptor to maintain calcium channel expression after injury. Glia sustain calcium channel opening by enhancing membrane hyperpolarization via the inwardly-rectifying potassium channel (Irk1). Glia also release adenosine which signals through neuronal adenosine receptor (AdoR) to activate HCN channels (Ih) and dampen Ca2+ transients. Together, we identify a multifaceted glia-neuron coupling which can be hijacked to promote neural repair.

Systematic analysis of YFP traps reveals common mRNA/protein discordance in neural tissues

While post-transcriptional control is thought to be required at the periphery of neurons and glia, its extent is unclear. Here, we investigate systematically the spatial distribution and expression of mRNA at single molecule sensitivity and their corresponding proteins of 200 YFP trap lines across the intact Drosophila nervous system. 97.5% of the genes studied showed discordance between the distribution of mRNA and the proteins they encode in at least one region of the nervous system. These data suggest that post-transcriptional regulation is very common, helping to explain the complexity of the nervous system. We also discovered that 68.5% of these genes have transcripts present at the periphery of neurons, with 9.5% at the glial periphery. Peripheral transcripts include many potential new regulators of neurons, glia, and their interactions. Our approach is applicable to most genes and tissues and includes powerful novel data annotation and visualization tools for post-transcriptional regulation.

Gliotransmission and adenosine signaling promote axon regeneration

How glia control axon regeneration remains incompletely understood. Here, we investigate glial regulation of regenerative ability differences of closely related Drosophila larval sensory neuron subtypes. Axotomy elicits Ca2+ signals in ensheathing glia, which activates regenerative neurons through the gliotransmitter adenosine and mounts axon regenerative programs. However, non-regenerative neurons do not respond to glial stimulation or adenosine. Such neuronal subtype-specific responses result from specific expressions of adenosine receptors in regenerative neurons. Disrupting gliotransmission impedes axon regeneration of regenerative neurons, and ectopic adenosine receptor expression in non-regenerative neurons suffices to activate regenerative programs and induce axon regeneration. Furthermore, stimulating gliotransmission or activating the mammalian ortholog of Drosophila adenosine receptors in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) promotes axon regrowth after optic nerve crush in adult mice. Altogether, our findings demonstrate that gliotransmission orchestrates neuronal subtype-specific axon regeneration in Drosophila and suggest that targeting gliotransmission or adenosine signaling is a strategy for mammalian central nervous system repair.

Drosophila glia take shape to sculpt the nervous system

The importance of glial cells has become increasingly apparent over the past 20 years, yet compared to neurons we still know relatively little about these essential cells. Most critical glial cell functions are conserved in Drosophila glia, often using the same key molecular players as their vertebrate counterparts. The relative simplicity of the Drosophila nervous system, combined with a vast array of powerful genetic tools, allows us to further dissect the molecular composition and functional roles of glia in ways that would be much more cumbersome or not possible in higher vertebrate systems. Importantly, Drosophila genetics allow for in vivo manipulation, and their transparent body wall enables in vivo imaging of glia in intact animals throughout early development. Here we discuss recent advances in Drosophila glial development detailing how these cells take on their mature morphologies and interact with neurons to perform their important functional roles in the nervous system.

Neuron-glia interaction at the receptor level affects olfactory perception in adult Drosophila

Some types of glia play an active role in neuronal signaling by modifying their activity although little is known about their role in sensory information signaling at the receptor level. In this research, we report a functional role for the glia that surround the soma of the olfactory receptor neurons (OSNs) in adult Drosophila. Specific genetic modifications have been targeted to this cell type to obtain live individuals who are tested for olfactory preference and display changes both increasing and reducing sensitivity. A closer look at the antenna by Ca²⁺ imaging shows that odor activates the OSNs, which subsequently produce an opposite and smaller effect in the glia that partially counterbalances neuronal activation. Therefore, these glia may play a dual role in preventing excessive activation of the OSNs at high odorant concentrations and tuning the chemosensory window for the individual according to the network structure in the receptor organ.

Shear stress activates nociceptors to drive Drosophila mechanical nociception

Mechanical nociception is essential for animal survival. However, the forces involved in nociceptor activation and the underlying mechanotransduction mechanisms remain elusive. Here, we address these problems by investigating nocifensive behavior in Drosophila larvae. We show that strong poking stimulates nociceptors with a mixture of forces including shear stress and stretch. Unexpectedly, nociceptors are selectively activated by shear stress, but not stretch. Both the shear stress responses of nociceptors and nocifensive behavior require transient receptor potential A1 (TrpA1), which is specifically expressed in nociceptors. We further demonstrate that expression of mammalian or Drosophila TrpA1 in heterologous cells confers responses to shear stress but not stretch. Finally, shear stress activates TrpA1 in a membrane-delimited manner, through modulation of membrane fluidity. Together, our study reveals TrpA1 as an evolutionarily conserved mechanosensitive channel specifically activated by shear stress and suggests a critical role of shear stress in activating nociceptors to drive mechanical nociception.

A photo-switchable assay system for dendrite degeneration and repair in Drosophila melanogaster

Neurodegeneration arising from aging, injury, or diseases has devastating health consequences. Whereas neuronal survival and axon degeneration have been studied extensively, much less is known about how neurodegeneration affects dendrites, in part due to the limited assay systems available. To develop an assay for dendrite degeneration and repair, we used photo-switchable caspase-3 (caspase-Light-Oxygen-Voltage-sensing [caspase-LOV]) in peripheral class 4 dendrite arborization (c4da) neurons to induce graded neurodegeneration by adjusting illumination duration during development and adulthood in Drosophila melanogaster. We found that both developing and mature c4da neurons were able to survive while sustaining mild neurodegeneration induced by moderate caspase-LOV activation. Further, we observed active dendrite addition and dendrite regeneration in developing and mature c4da neurons, respectively. Using this assay, we found that the mouse Wallerian degeneration slow (Wld^S) protein can protect c4da neurons from caspase-LOV-induced dendrite degeneration and cell death. Furthermore, our data show that Wld^S can reduce dendrite elimination without affecting dendrite addition. In summary, we successfully established a photo-switchable assay system in both developing and mature neurons and used Wld^S as a test case to study the mechanisms underlying dendrite regeneration and repair.

Satellite glia modulate sympathetic neuron survival, activity, and autonomic function

Satellite glia are the major glial cells in sympathetic ganglia, enveloping neuronal cell bodies. Despite this intimate association, the extent to which sympathetic functions are influenced by satellite glia in vivo remains unclear. Here, we show that satellite glia are critical for metabolism, survival, and activity of sympathetic neurons and modulate autonomic behaviors in mice. Adult ablation of satellite glia results in impaired mTOR signaling, soma atrophy, reduced noradrenergic enzymes, and loss of sympathetic neurons. However, persisting neurons have elevated activity, and satellite glia-ablated mice show increased pupil dilation and heart rate, indicative of enhanced sympathetic tone. Satellite glia-specific deletion of Kir4.1, an inward-rectifying potassium channel, largely recapitulates the cellular defects observed in glia-ablated mice, suggesting that satellite glia act in part via K⁺-dependent mechanisms. These findings highlight neuron–satellite glia as functional units in regulating sympathetic output, with implications for disorders linked to sympathetic hyper-activity such as cardiovascular disease and hypertension.

Steroid hormone signaling activates thermal nociception during Drosophila peripheral nervous system development

Sensory neurons enable animals to detect environmental changes and avoid harm. An intriguing open question concerns how the various attributes of sensory neurons arise in development. Drosophila melanogaster larvae undergo a behavioral transition by robustly activating a thermal nociceptive escape behavior during the second half of larval development (third instar). The Class IV dendritic arborization (C4da) neurons are multimodal sensors which tile the body wall of Drosophila larvae and detect nociceptive temperature, light, and mechanical force. In contrast to the increase in nociceptive behavior in the third instar, we find that ultraviolet light-induced Ca2+ activity in C4da neurons decreases during the same period of larval development. Loss of ecdysone receptor has previously been shown to reduce nociception in third instar larvae. We find that ligand-dependent activation of ecdysone signaling is sufficient to promote nociceptive responses in second instar larvae and suppress expression of subdued (encoding a TMEM16 channel). Reduction of subdued expression in second instar C4da neurons not only increases thermal nociception but also decreases the response to ultraviolet light. Thus, steroid hormone signaling suppresses subdued expression to facilitate the sensory switch of C4da neurons. This regulation of a developmental sensory switch through steroid hormone regulation of channel expression raises the possibility that ion channel homeostasis is a key target for tuning the development of sensory modalities.

Transparent Touch: Insights From Model Systems on Epidermal Control of Somatosensory Innervation

Somatosensory neurons (SSNs) densely innervate our largest organ, the skin, and shape our experience of the world, mediating responses to sensory stimuli including touch, pressure, and temperature. Historically, epidermal contributions to somatosensation, including roles in shaping innervation patterns and responses to sensory stimuli, have been understudied. However, recent work demonstrates that epidermal signals dictate patterns of SSN skin innervation through a variety of mechanisms including targeting afferents to the epidermis, providing instructive cues for branching morphogenesis, growth control and structural stability of neurites, and facilitating neurite-neurite interactions. Here, we focus onstudies conducted in worms (Caenorhabditis elegans), fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), and zebrafish (Danio rerio): prominent model systems in which anatomical and genetic analyses have defined fundamental principles by which epidermal cells govern SSN development.

Commonalities between Copper Neurotoxicity and Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease, a highly prevalent form of dementia, targets neuron function beginning from the hippocampal region and expanding outwards. Alzheimer's disease is caused by elevated levels of heavy metals, such as lead, zinc, and copper. Copper is found in many areas of daily life, raising a concern as to how this metal and Alzheimer's disease are related. Previous studies have not identified the common pathways between excess copper and Alzheimer's disease etiology. Our review corroborates that both copper and Alzheimer's disease target the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and brainstem, affecting motor skills and critical thinking. Additionally, Aβ plaque formation was analyzed beginning from synthesis at the APP parent protein site until Aβ plaque formation was completed. Structural changes were also noted. Further analysis revealed a relationship between amyloid-beta plaques and copper ion concentration. As copper ion levels increased, it bound to the Aβ monomer, expediting the plaque formation process, and furthering neurodegeneration. These conclusions can be utilized in the medical community to further research on the etiology of Alzheimer's disease and its relationships to copper and other metal-induced neurotoxicity.

Cytosolic calcium regulates cytoplasmic accumulation of TDP-43 through Calpain-A and Importin α3

Cytoplasmic accumulation of TDP-43 in motor neurons is the most prominent pathological feature in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). A feedback cycle between nucleocytoplasmic transport (NCT) defect and TDP-43 aggregation was shown to contribute to accumulation of TDP-43 in the cytoplasm. However, little is known about cellular factors that can control the activity of NCT, thereby affecting TDP-43 accumulation in the cytoplasm. Here, we identified via FRAP and optogenetics cytosolic calcium as a key cellular factor controlling NCT of TDP-43. Dynamic and reversible changes in TDP-43 localization were observed in Drosophila sensory neurons during development. Genetic and immunohistochemical analyses identified the cytosolic calcium-Calpain-A-Importin α3 pathway as a regulatory mechanism underlying NCT of TDP-43. In C9orf72 ALS fly models, upregulation of the pathway activity by increasing cytosolic calcium reduced cytoplasmic accumulation of TDP-43 and mitigated behavioral defects. Together, these results suggest the calcium-Calpain-A-Importin α3 pathway as a potential therapeutic target of ALS.

Schwann cell development: From neural crest to myelin sheath

Vertebrate nervous system function requires glial cells, including myelinating glia that insulate axons and provide trophic support that allows for efficient signal propagation by neurons. In vertebrate peripheral nervous systems, neural crest-derived glial cells known as Schwann cells (SCs) generate myelin by encompassing and iteratively wrapping membrane around single axon segments. SC gliogenesis and neurogenesis are intimately linked and governed by a complex molecular environment that shapes their developmental trajectory. Changes in this external milieu drive developing SCs through a series of distinct morphological and transcriptional stages from the neural crest to a variety of glial derivatives, including the myelinating sublineage. Cues originate from the extracellular matrix, adjacent axons, and the developing SC basal lamina to trigger intracellular signaling cascades and gene expression changes that specify stages and transitions in SC development. Here, we integrate the findings from in vitro neuron-glia co-culture experiments with in vivo studies investigating SC development, particularly in zebrafish and mouse, to highlight critical factors that specify SC fate. Ultimately, we connect classic biochemical and mutant studies with modern genetic and visualization tools that have elucidated the dynamics of SC development. This article is categorized under: Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling Nervous System Development > Vertebrates: Regional Development.

Sensory Glia Detect Repulsive Odorants and Drive Olfactory Adaptation

Glia are typically considered as supporting cells for neural development and synaptic transmission. Here, we report an active role of a glia in olfactory transduction. As a polymodal sensory neuron in C. elegans, the ASH neuron is previously known to detect multiple aversive odorants. We reveal that the AMsh glia, a sheath for multiple sensory neurons including ASH, cell-autonomously respond to aversive odorants via G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) distinct from those in ASH. Upon activation, the AMsh glia suppress aversive odorant-triggered avoidance and promote olfactory adaptation by inhibiting the ASH neuron via GABA signaling. Thus, we propose a novel two-receptor model where the glia and sensory neuron jointly mediate adaptive olfaction. Our study reveals a non-canonical function of glial cells in olfactory transduction, which may provide new insights into the glia-like supporting cells in mammalian sensory procession.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders Caused by Defective Chromatin Remodeling: Phenotypic Complexity Is Highlighted by a Review of ATRX Function

The ability to determine the genetic etiology of intellectual disability (ID) and neurodevelopmental disorders (NDD) has improved immensely over the last decade. One prevailing metric from these studies is the large percentage of genes encoding epigenetic regulators, including many members of the ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling enzyme family. Chromatin remodeling proteins can be subdivided into five classes that include SWI/SNF, ISWI, CHD, INO80, and ATRX. These proteins utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to alter nucleosome positioning and are implicated in many cellular processes. As such, defining their precise roles and contributions to brain development and disease pathogenesis has proven to be complex. In this review, we illustrate that complexity by reviewing the roles of ATRX on genome stability, replication, and transcriptional regulation and how these mechanisms provide key insight into the phenotype of ATR-X patients.

Microtubules originate asymmetrically at the somatic golgi and are guided via Kinesin2 to maintain polarity within neurons

Neurons contain polarised microtubule arrays essential for neuronal function. How microtubule nucleation and polarity are regulated within neurons remains unclear. We show that γ-tubulin localises asymmetrically to the somatic Golgi within Drosophila neurons. Microtubules originate from the Golgi with an initial growth preference towards the axon. Their growing plus ends also turn towards and into the axon, adding to the plus-end-out microtubule pool. Any plus ends that reach a dendrite, however, do not readily enter, maintaining minus-end-out polarity. Both turning towards the axon and exclusion from dendrites depend on Kinesin-2, a plus-end-associated motor that guides growing plus ends along adjacent microtubules. We propose that Kinesin-2 engages with a polarised microtubule network within the soma to guide growing microtubules towards the axon; while at dendrite entry sites engagement with microtubules of opposite polarity generates a backward stalling force that prevents entry into dendrites and thus maintains minus-end-out polarity within proximal dendrites.

Neuron-glia interaction in the Drosophila nervous system

Animals are able to move and react in manifold ways to external stimuli. Thus, environmental stimuli need to be detected, information must be processed, and, finally, an output decision must be transmitted to the musculature to get the animal moving. All these processes depend on the nervous system which comprises an intricate neuronal network and many glial cells. Glial cells have an equally important contribution in nervous system function as their neuronal counterpart. Manifold roles are attributed to glia ranging from controlling neuronal cell number and axonal pathfinding to regulation of synapse formation, function, and plasticity. Glial cells metabolically support neurons and contribute to the blood-brain barrier. All of the aforementioned aspects require extensive cell-cell interactions between neurons and glial cells. Not surprisingly, many of these processes are found in all phyla executed by evolutionarily conserved molecules. Here, we review the recent advance in understanding neuron-glia interaction in Drosophila melanogaster to suggest that work in simple model organisms will shed light on the function of mammalian glial cells, too.

DeTerm: Software for automatic detection of neuronal dendritic branch terminals via an artificial neural network

Dendrites of neurons receive and process synaptic or sensory inputs. The Drosophila class IV dendritic arborization (da) neuron is an established model system to explore molecular mechanisms of dendrite morphogenesis. The total number of dendritic branch terminals is one of the frequently employed parameters to characterize dendritic arborization complexity of class IV neurons. This parameter gives a useful phenotypic readout of arborization during neurogenesis, and it is typically determined by laborious manual analyses of numerous images. Ideally, an automated analysis would greatly reduce the workload; however, it is challenging to automatically discriminate dendritic branch terminals from signals of surrounding tissues in whole-mount live larvae. Here, we describe our newly developed software, called DeTerm, which automatically recognizes and quantifies dendrite branch terminals via an artificial neural network. Once we input an image file of a neuronal dendritic arbor and its region of interest information, DeTerm is capable of labeling terminals of larval class IV neurons with high precision, and it also provides positional data of individual terminals. We further show that DeTerm is applicable to other types of neurons, including mouse cerebellar Purkinje cells. DeTerm is freely available on the web and was successfully tested on Mac, Windows and Linux.