Use of Sindbis virus-mediated RNA interference to demonstrate a conserved role of Broad-Complex in insect metamorphosis

Evolution of insect metamorphosis - an update

Metamorphosis endowed the insects with properties that enabled them to conquer the Earth. It is a hormonally controlled morphogenetic process that transforms the larva into the adult. Metamorphosis appeared with the origin of wings and flight. The sesquiterpenoid juvenile hormone (JH) suppresses wing morphogenesis and ensures that metamorphosis takes place at the right ontogenetic time. This review explores the origin of insect metamorphosis and the ancestral function of JH. Fossil record shows that the first Paleozoic winged insects had (hemimetabolous) metamorphosis, and their larvae were likely aquatic. In the primitive wingless silverfish that lacks metamorphosis, JH is essential for late embryogenesis and reproduction. JH production after the embryo dorsal closure promotes hatching and terminal tissue maturation.

Pseudogerm of the parasitoid Macrocentrus cingulum suppresses host pupation by degenerating prothoracic gland and inhibiting the expression of Br-C in the host Ostrinia furnacalis

BACKGROUND

Parasitic wasps manipulate host development for successful parasitization. When the host Ostrinia furnacalis is parasitized by the parasitoid Macrocentrus cingulum, its larvae fail to pupate and are consumed as nutrition by the wasp larvae. However, the mechanism by which M. cingulum modulates host pupation remains unclear. This study reports on pseudogerm, a newly discovered parasitic factor derived from M. cingulum, which plays a regulatory role in the pupation process of the host.

RESULTS

Ostrinia furnacalis larvae transplanted with pseudogerms failed to pupate, and their prothoracic gland (PG) cells did not enlarge significantly at the prepupal stage compared to the control. Additionally, the nuclei of PG cells fragmented, the number of secretory vesicles in the cytoplasm decreased markedly, and the intracellular channel system on the cell membrane atrophied. Furthermore, the elevation of the 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) titer at the prepupal stage was also suppressed, indicating that pseudogerm disrupts the ecdysteroid level by causing PG cell degeneration. Additionally, there was a suppression of Broad Complex (Br-C) expression in O. furnacalis larvae before the prepupal stage due to pseudogerms transplantation. When OfBr-C was knocked down by RNA-interference or knocked out by CRISPR/Cas9, approximately 24% and 48.3% of O. furnacalis larvae failed to pupate, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Pseudogerm potentially disrupts the 20E titer by destroying the host's PG and further inhibits the expression of OfBr-C, ultimately preventing host pupation. This study provides new insights into the strategies employed by parasitoids in controlling host development. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Symbiont-mediated antisense RNA delivery controls Nosema ceranae infections in Apis mellifera

Nosema ceranae is a main parasite for honeybees (Apis mellifera) which causes colony collapse in spring. Effective management of N. ceranae infections in bees is imperative for beekeepers. RNA interference (RNAi) has been proven a promising method to control bee pathogens, including IAPV, Varroa destructor, and Nosema. Most studies in this field focused on oral inoculation of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). We developed an easier method with long-term RNAi effects by engineering the bee symbiont, Bacillus subtilis, to deliver single-stranded antisense RNA (asRNA) in the bee guts, targeting N. ceranae genes. We interfered with the expression of a spore wall protein (SWP12) and a polar tube protein (PTP3) of N. ceranae, resulting in a 60.5% increase in bee lifespan and a 72.7% decrease in Nosema spore load. Our research introduced a novel approach to bee parasite control: B. subtilis-mediated asRNA delivery. Our strategy simplifies the procedure of RNAi, presenting a more efficient mechanism with both prophylactic and therapeutic effects on N. ceranae-infected bees.

The genetic determination of alternate stages in polyphenic insects

Molt-based transitions in form are a central feature of insect life that have enabled adaptation to diverse and changing environments. The endocrine regulation of these transitions is well established, but an understanding of their genetic regulation has only recently emerged from insect models. The pupal and adult stages of metamorphosing insects are determined by the stage specifying transcription factors broad-complex (br) and Ecdysone inducible protein 93 (E93), respectively. A probable larval determinant, chronologically inappropriate metamorphosis (chinmo), has just recently been characterized. Expression of these three transcription factors in the metamorphosing insects is regulated by juvenile hormone with ecdysteroid hormones, and by mutual repression between the stage-specific transcription factors. This review explores the hypothesis that variations in the onset, duration, and tissue-specific expression of chinmo, br, and E93 underlie other polyphenisms that have arisen throughout insects, including the castes of social insects, aquatic stages of mayflies, and the neoteny of endoparasites. The mechanisms that constrain how chinmo, br, and E93 expression may vary will also constrain the ways that insect life history may evolve. I find that four types of expression changes are associated with novel insect forms: (1) heterochronic shift in the turnover of expression, (2) expansion or contraction of expression, (3) tissue-specific expression, and (4) redeployment of stage-specific expression. While there is more to be learned about chinmo, br, and E93 function in diverse insect taxa, the studies outlined here show that insect stages are modular units in developmental time and a substrate for evolutionary forces to act upon.

MicroRNA miR-285 modulates the metamorphosis in Galeruca daurica by targeting Br-C

BACKGROUND

Galeruca daurica has become a new pest on the Inner Mongolia grasslands since an abrupt outbreak in 2009 caused serious damage. As a pupa indicator during insect metamorphosis, the early response gene of the ecdysone signaling pathway, Broad-Complex (Br-C), plays a vital role in the growth and development of insects. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs which mediate various biological activities, but it is unknown whether and how Br-C is regulated by miRNAs.

RESULTS

Temporal expression profiles revealed that miR-285 and Br-C basically displayed an opposite trend during larval-adult development, and Br-C was sharply up-regulated on the last day of final-instar larvae while miR-285 was significantly down-regulated. Both dual-luciferase reporter assay and miRNA-mRNA interaction assay indicated that miR-285 interacts with the coding sequence of Br-C and represses its expression. Not only overexpression but also downexpression of miR-285 led to the failure of larval to pupal to adult metamorphosis. In addition, both overexpression of miR-285 and silence of Br-C inhibited the expression of Br-C and other ecdysone signaling pathway genes, including E74, E75, ECR, FTZ-F1, and HR3. On the contrary, suppressing miR-285 obtained opposite results. Further experiments showed that 20-hydroxyecdysone down-regulated miR-285 and up-regulated Br-C and above-mentioned genes, whereas juvenile hormone alalogue (JHA) resulted in opposite effects.

CONCLUSION

Our results reveal that miR-285 is involved in mediating the metamorphosis in G. daurica by targeting Br-C in the ecdysone signaling pathway. miR-285 and its target Br-C could be as a potential target for G. daurica management. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Honeybee symbiont Bombella apis could restore larval-to-pupal transition disrupted by antibiotic treatment

Numerous studies have demonstrated the vital roles of gut microbes in the health, immunity, nutrient metabolism, and behavior of adult worker honeybees. However, a few studies have been conducted on gut microbiota associated with the larval stage of honeybees. In the present study, we explored the role of a gut bacterium in larval development and larval-pupal transition in the Asian honeybee, Apis cerana. First, our examination of gut microbial profiling showed that Bombella apis, a larvae-associated bacterium, was the most dominant bacterium colonized in the fifth instar larvae. Second, we demonstrated that tetracycline, an antibiotic used to treat a honeybee bacterial brood disease, could cause the complete depletion of gut bacteria. This antibiotic-induced gut microbiome depletion in turn, significantly impacted the survivorship, pupation rate and emergence rate of the treated larvae. Furthermore, our analysis of gene expression pattens revealed noteworthy changes in key genes. The expression of genes responsible for encoding storage proteins vitellogenin (vg) and major royal jelly protein 1 (mrjp1) was significantly down-regulated in the tetracycline-treated larvae. Concurrently, the expression of krüppel homolog 1(kr-h1), a pivotal gene in endocrine signaling, increased, whilethe expression of broad-complex (br-c) gene that plays a key role in the ecdysone regulation decreased. These alterations indicated a disruption in the coordination of juvenile hormone and ecdysteroid synthesis. Finally, we cultivated B. apis isolated from the fifth instar worker larval of A. cerana and fed tetracycline-treated larvae with a diet replenished by B. apis. This intervention resulted in a significant improvement in the pupation rate, emergence rate, and overall survival rate of the treated larvae. Our findings demonstrate the positive impact of B. apis on honeybee larvae development, providing new evidence of the functional capacities of gut microbes in honeybee growth and development.

RNA Interference in Insects: From a Natural Mechanism of Gene Expression Regulation to a Biotechnological Crop Protection Promise

Insect pests rank among the major limiting factors in agricultural production worldwide. In addition to direct effect on crops, some phytophagous insects are efficient vectors for plant disease transmission. Large amounts of conventional insecticides are required to secure food production worldwide, with a high impact on the economy and environment, particularly when beneficial insects are also affected by chemicals that frequently lack the desired specificity. RNA interference (RNAi) is a natural mechanism gene expression regulation and protection against exogenous and endogenous genetic elements present in most eukaryotes, including insects. Molecules of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) or highly structured RNA are the substrates of cellular enzymes to produce several types of small RNAs (sRNAs), which play a crucial role in targeting sequences for transcriptional or post-transcriptional gene silencing. The relatively simple rules that underlie RNAi regulation, mainly based in Watson-Crick complementarity, have facilitated biotechnological applications based on these cellular mechanisms. This includes the promise of using engineered dsRNA molecules, either endogenously produced in crop plants or exogenously synthesized and applied onto crops, as a new generation of highly specific, sustainable, and environmentally friendly insecticides. Fueled on this expectation, this article reviews current knowledge about the RNAi pathways in insects, and some other applied questions such as production and delivery of recombinant RNA, which are critical to establish RNAi as a reliable technology for insect control in crop plants.

N6-adenosine (m6A) mRNA methylation is required for Tribolium castaneum development and reproduction

Gene expression is regulated at various levels, including post-transcriptional mRNA modifications, where m6A methylation is the most common modification of mRNA. The m6A methylation regulates multiple stages of mRNA processing, including splicing, export, decay, and translation. How m6A modification is involved in insect development is not well known. We used the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, as a model insect to identify the role of m6A modification in insect development. RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated knockdown of genes coding for m6A writers (m6A methyltransferase complex, depositing m6A to mRNA) and readers (YTH-domain proteins, recognizing and executing the function of m6A) was conducted. Knockdown of most writers during the larval stage caused a failure of ecdysis during eclosion. The loss of m6A machinery sterilized both females and males by interfering with the functioning of reproductive systems. Females treated with dsMettl3, the main m6A methyltransferase, laid significantly fewer and reduced-size eggs than the control insects. In addition, the embryonic development in eggs laid by dsMettl3 injected females was terminated in the early stages. Knockdown studies also showed that the cytosol m6A reader, YTHDF, is likely responsible for executing the function of m6A modifications during insect development. These data suggest that m6A modifications are critical for T. castaneum development and reproduction.

Activation of protein arginine methyltransferase 1 and subsequent extension of moth lifespan is effected by the ROS/JNK/CREB signaling axis

Previous studies have demonstrated that high physiological levels of reactive oxygen species induce pupal diapause and extend lifespan in the moth Helicoverpa armigera. This has been shown to occur via protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (PRMT1) blockade of Akt-mediated phosphorylation of the transcription factor FoxO, after which activated FoxO promotes the initiation of diapause. However, it is unclear how PRMT1 is activated upstream of FoxO activity. Here, we show that high reactive oxygen species levels in the brains of H. armigera diapause-destined pupae activate the expression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase, which subsequently activates the transcription factor cAMP-response element binding protein. We show that cAMP-response element binding protein then directly binds to the PRMT1 promoter and upregulates its expression to prevent Akt-mediated FoxO phosphorylation and downstream FoxO nuclear localization. This novel finding that c-Jun N-terminal kinase promotes FoxO nuclear localization in a PRMT1-dependent manner to regulate pupal diapause reveals a complex regulatory mechanism in extending the healthspan of H. armigera.

MicroRNA let-7 is required for hormonal regulation of metamorphosis in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

The heterochronic microRNA let-7, which was first identified in Caenorhabditis elegans, controls the timing of developmental programs, and let-7 triggers the onset of the juvenile-adult transition in bilaterians. The expression of let-7 is strongly induced during the last larval stage of C. elegans and is highly expressed in the late last instar larvae/nymphs of the fly Drosophila melanogaster and the cockroach Blattella germanica. In the silkworm Bombyx mori, the expression of let-7 remarkably increases in the corpus cardiacum-corpus allatum complex (CC-CA) at the beginning of the last larval instar and is maintained at high levels during this instar. To determine the biological function of let-7 in B. mori, we generated a let-7 knockout line and a transgenic UAS-let-7 line. The let-7 knockout larvae were developmentally arrested in the prepupal stage and became pupal-adult intermediates after apolysis. When let-7 was ubiquitously overexpressed under the transcriptional control of an Actin3-GAL4 driver, developmental timing and growth of larvae were severely impaired in the penultimate (L4) instar, and these larvae underwent precocious metamorphosis from L4. Furthermore, our results showed that reception and signaling of ecdysteroids and juvenile hormones (JHs) normally occurred in the absence of let-7, whereas the biosynthesis of ecdysone and JHs were affected by disruption and overexpression of let-7. Together, the present study demonstrates that let-7 is required for the coordination of the biosynthesis of ecdysone and JH to ensure the developmental transition during the metamorphosis of B. mori.

Kr-h1, a Cornerstone Gene in Insect Life History

Insect life cycle is coordinated by hormones and their downstream effectors. Krüppel homolog1 (Kr-h1) is one of the crucial effectors which mediates the actions of the two critical hormones of insects, the juvenile hormone (JH) and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). It is a transcription factor with a DNA-binding motif of eight C₂H₂ zinc fingers which is found to be conserved among insect orders. The expression of Kr-h1 is fluctuant during insect development with high abundance in juvenile instars and lower levels in the final instar and pupal stage, and reappearance in adults, which is governed by the coordination of JH, 20E, and miRNAs. The dynamic expression pattern of Kr-h1 is closely linked to its function in the entire life of insects. Over the past several years, accumulating studies have advanced our understanding of the role of Kr-h1 during insect development. It acts as a universal antimetamorphic factor in both hemimetabolous and holometabolous species by directly inhibiting the transcription of 20E signaling genes Broad-Complex (Br-C) and Ecdysone induced protein 93F (E93), and steroidogenic enzyme genes involved in ecdysone biosynthesis. Meanwhile, it promotes vitellogenesis and ovarian development in the majority of studied insects. In addition, Kr-h1 regulates insect behavioral plasticity and caste identity, neuronal morphogenesis, maturation of sexual behavior, as well as embryogenesis and metabolic homeostasis. Hence, Kr-h1 acts as a cornerstone regulator in insect life.

U1 small nuclear ribonucleoprotein is essential for early larval development in silkworm, Bombyx mori

U1 small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (U1 snRNP) associates with 5' splice sites in the form of ribonucleoprotein particles and is highly conserved among species. The physiological functions of U1 snRNP in a lepidopteran model insect Bombyx mori is mostly unknown. Here, we showed that U1 snRNP plays an important role in the development of silkworm. Knockout of U1 snRNP in silkworm showed either delayed or stationary 1st instar larva development compared with the wild-type group. U1 snRNP deletion mutants exhibited abnormal cellular phenotypes with enlarged cell nucleus, scant cytoplasm and enlarged nuclei. RNA-seq analysis revealed that genes involved in metabolic pathway, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and steroid hormone biosynthesis were significantly affected by U1 snRNP depletion. Taken together, our study suggests that U1 snRNP homeostasis plays an important role in silkworm development.

Molecular mechanisms underlying metamorphosis in the most-ancestral winged insect

As caterpillars metamorphose to butterflies, insects change their appearance dramatically through metamorphosis. Some insects have an immobile pupal stage for morphological remodeling (homometaboly). Other insects, such as cockroaches, have no pupal stage, and the juveniles and adults are morphologically similar (hemimetaboly). Notably, among the most-ancestral hemimetabolous insects, dragonflies drastically alter their appearance from aquatic nymphs to aerial adults. In dragonflies, we showed that transcription factors Kr-h1 and E93 are essential for regulating metamorphosis as in other insects, while broad, the master gene for pupation in holometabolous insects, regulates a number of both nymph-specific genes and adult-specific genes, providing insight into what evolutionary trajectory the key transcription factor broad has experienced before ending up with governing pupation and holometaboly.

Insects comprise over half of the described species, and the acquisition of metamorphosis must have contributed to their diversity and prosperity. The order Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies) is among the most-ancestral insects with drastic morphological changes upon metamorphosis, in which understanding of the molecular mechanisms will provide insight into the evolution of incomplete and complete metamorphosis in insects. In order to identify metamorphosis-related genes in Odonata, we performed comprehensive RNA-sequencing of the blue-tailed damselfly Ischnura senegalensis at different developmental stages. Comparative RNA-sequencing analyses between nymphs and adults identified eight nymph-specific and seven adult-specific transcripts. RNA interference (RNAi) of these candidate genes demonstrated that three transcription factors, Krüppel homolog 1 (Kr-h1), broad, and E93 play important roles in metamorphosis of both I. senegalensis and a phylogenetically distant dragonfly, Pseudothemis zonata. E93 is essential for adult morphogenesis, and RNAi of Kr-h1 induced precocious metamorphosis in epidermis via up-regulation of E93. Precocious metamorphosis was also induced by RNAi of the juvenile hormone receptor Methoprene-tolerant (Met), confirming that the regulation of metamorphosis by the MEKRE93 (Met-Kr-h1-E93) pathway is conserved across diverse insects including the basal insect lineage Odonata. Notably, RNAi of broad produced unique grayish pigmentation on the nymphal abdominal epidermis. Survey of downstream genes for Kr-h1, broad, and E93 uncovered that unlike other insects, broad regulates a substantial number of nymph-specific and adult-specific genes independently of Kr-h1 and E93. These findings highlight the importance of functional changes and rewiring of the transcription factors Kr-h1, broad, and E93 in the evolution of insect metamorphosis.

A Dicer2 from Scylla paramamosain activates JAK/STAT signaling pathway to restrain mud crab reovirus

A Dicer2 gene from Scylla paramamosain, named SpDicer2, was cloned and characterized. The full length of SpDicer2 mRNA contains a 121 bp 5'untranslated region (UTR), an open reading frame (ORF) of 4518 bp and a 3' UTR of 850 bp. The SpDicer2 protein contains seven characteristic Dicer domains and showed 34%-65% identity and 54%-79% similarity to other Dicer protein domains, respectively. The mRNA of SpDicer2 was high expressed in hemocytes, intestine and gill and low expressed in the eyestalk and muscle. Moreover, expression of SpDicer2 was significantly responsive to challenges by mud crab reovirus (MCRV), Poly(I:C), LPS, Staphylococcus aureus and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. SpDicer2 was dispersedly presented in the cytoplasm except for a small amount in the nucleus. SpDicer2 could activate SpSTAT to translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, and significantly increase the transcription activity of the wsv069 promoter, suggesting that SpDicer2 activated the JAK/STAT pathway. Furthermore, silencing of SpDicer2 in vivo increased the mortality of MCRV infected mud crab and the viral load in tissues and down-regulated the expression of multiple components of Toll, IMD and JAK-STAT pathways and almost all the examined immune effector genes. These results suggested that SpDicer2 could play an important role in defense against MCRV via activating the JAK/STAT signaling pathways in mud crab.

Genome-wide identification of target genes for transcription factor BR-C in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Transcription factor Broad Complex (BR-C) is an ecdysone primary response gene in insects and participates in the regulation of insect growth and development. In this study, we performed a genome-wide identification of BR-C target genes in silkworm (Bombyx mori) using chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq). As a result, a total of 1006 BR-C ChIP peaks were identified, and 15% of peaks were located in the promoter regions of 133 protein-coding genes. Functional annotation revealed that these ChIP peak-associated genes, as potential BR-C targets, were enriched in pathways related to biosynthetic process, metabolic process, and development. Transcriptome analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) examination revealed that developmental changes in expression patterns of a portion of potential BR-C targets, including HR96 and GC-α1, were similar to those of BR-C. ChIP-PCR examination confirmed that BR-C could directly bind to the promoters of potential targets. Further, dual luciferase assays demonstrated that HR96 promoter activity was significantly upregulated following BR-C overexpression, and this upregulation was abolished when the binding motif in the promoter was truncated. This study will be helpful for deciphering the regulatory roles of BR-C during insect growth and development.

Improvement of host-induced gene silencing efficiency via polycistronic-tRNA-amiR expression for multiple target genes and characterization of RNAi mechanism in Mythimna separata

Host-induced gene silencing (HIGS) emerged as a new strategy for pest control. However, RNAi efficiency is reported to be low in Lepidoptera, which are composed of many important crop pests. To address this, we generated transgenic plants to develop HIGS effects in a maize pest, Mythimna separata (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), by targeting chitinase encoding genes. More importantly, we developed an artificial microRNA (amiR) based PTA (polycistronic-tRNA-amiR) system for silencing multiple target genes. Compared with hpRNA (hairpin RNA), transgenic expression of a PTA cassette including an amiR for the gut-specific dsRNA nuclease gene MsREase, resulted in improved knockdown efficiency and caused more pronounced developmental abnormalities in recipient insects. When target gene siRNAs were analysed after HIGS and direct dsRNA/siRNA feeding, common features such as sense polarity and siRNA hotspot regions were observed, however, they differed in siRNA transitivity and major 20-24nt siRNA species. Core RNAi genes were identified in M. separata, and biochemical activities of MsAGO2, MsSID1 and MsDcr2 were confirmed by EMSA (electrophoretic mobility shift assay) and dsRNA cleavage assays, respectively. Taken together, we provide compelling evidence for the existence of the RNAi mechanism in M. separata by analysis of both siRNA signatures and RNAi machinery components, and the PTA system could potentially be useful for future RNAi control of lepidopteran pests.

How stage identity is established in insects: the role of the Metamorphic Gene Network

Proper formation of adult insects requires the integration of spatial and temporal regulatory axes. Whereas spatial information confers identity to each tissue, organ and appendage, temporal information specifies at which stage of development the animal is. Regardless of the type of post-embryonic development, either hemimetabolous or holometabolous, temporal specificity is achieved through interactions between the temporal identity genes Kr-h1, E93 and Br-C, whose sequential expression is controlled by the two major developmental hormones, 20-hydroxyecdysone and Juvenile hormone. Given the intimate regulatory connection between these three factors to specify life stage identity, we dubbed the regulatory axis that comprises these genes as the Metamorphic Gene Network (MGN). In this review, we survey the molecular mechanisms underlying the control by the MGN of stage identity and progression in hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects.

Upregulation of E93 Gene Expression Acts as the Trigger for Metamorphosis Independently of the Threshold Size in the Beetle Tribolium castaneum

Body size in holometabolous insects is determined by the size at which the juvenile larva undergoes metamorphosis to the pupal stage. To undergo larva-pupa transition, larva must reach a critical developmental checkpoint, the threshold size (TS); however, the molecular mechanisms through which the TS cues this transition remain to be fully characterized. Here, we use the flour beetle Tribolium castaneum to characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying entry into metamorphosis. We found that T. castaneum reaches a TS at the beginning of the last larval instar, which is associated with the downregulation of TcKr-h1 and the upregulation of TcE93 and TcBr-C. Unexpectedly, we found that while there is an association between TS and TcE93 upregulation, it is the latter that constitutes the molecular trigger for metamorphosis initiation. In light of our results, we evaluate the interactions that control the larva-pupa transition and suggest alternative models.

Silencing Br-C impairs larval development and chitin synthesis in Lymantria dispar larvae

In insects, 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) mediates developmental transitions and regulates molting processes through activation of a series of transcription factors. Broad-Complex (Br-C), a vital gene in the 20E signalling pathway, plays crucial roles during insect growth processes. However, whether Br-C affects chitin synthesis in insects remains unclear. In the present study, the Br-C gene from Lymantria dispar, a notorious defoliator of forestry, was identified based on transcriptome data, and subjected to bioinformatic analysis. The regulatory functions of LdBr-C in chitin synthesis and metabolism in L. dispar larvae were analysed by RNA interference (RNAi). The full-length LdBr-C gene (1431 bp) encodes a 477 amino acid (aa) polypeptide containing a common BRcore region (391 aa) at the N-terminus and a C-terminal Zinc finger domain (56 aa) harbouring two characteristic C2H2 motifs (CXXC and HXXXXH). Phylogenetic analyses showed that LdBr-C shares highest homology and identity with Br-C isoform 7 (83.12%) of Helicoverpa armigera. Expression profiles indicate that LdBr-C was expressed throughout larval and pupal stages, and highly expressed in prepupal and pupal stages. Furthermore, LdBr-C expression was strongly induced by exogenous 20E, and suppressed dramatically after application of dsLdBr-C. Bioassay results showed that knockdown of LdBr-C caused larval developmental deformity, significant weight loss, and a mortality rate of 67.18%. Knockdown of LdBr-C significantly down-regulated transcription levels of eight critical genes (LdTre1, LdTre2, LdG6PI, LdUAP, LdCHS1, LdCHS2, LdTPS and LdCHT) related to chitin synthesis and metabolism, thereby lowering the chitin content in the midgut and epidermis. Our findings demonstrate that Br-C knockdown impairs larval development and chitin synthesis in L. dispar.

Comparative transcriptomic analysis of deep- and shallow-water barnacle species (Cirripedia, Poecilasmatidae) provides insights into deep-sea adaptation of sessile crustaceans

BACKGROUND

Barnacles are specialized marine organisms that differ from other crustaceans in possession of a calcareous shell, which is attached to submerged surfaces. Barnacles have a wide distribution, mostly in the intertidal zone and shallow waters, but a few species inhabit the deep-sea floor. It is of interest to investigate how such sessile crustaceans became adapted to extreme deep-sea environments. We sequenced the transcriptomes of a deep-sea barnacle, Glyptelasma gigas collected at a depth of 731 m from the northern area of the Zhongjiannan Basin, and a shallow-water coordinal relative, Octolasmis warwicki. The purpose of this study was to provide genetic resources for investigating adaptation mechanisms of deep-sea barnacles.

RESULTS

Totals of 62,470 and 51,585 unigenes were assembled for G. gigas and O. warwicki, respectively, and functional annotation of these unigenes was made using public databases. Comparison of the protein-coding genes between the deep- and shallow-water barnacles, and with those of four other shallow-water crustaceans, revealed 26 gene families that had experienced significant expansion in G. gigas. Functional annotation showed that these expanded genes were predominately related to DNA repair, signal transduction and carbohydrate metabolism. Base substitution analysis on the 11,611 single-copy orthologs between G. gigas and O. warwicki indicated that 25 of them were distinctly positive selected in the deep-sea barnacle, including genes related to transcription, DNA repair, ligand binding, ion channels and energy metabolism, potentially indicating their importance for survival of G. gigas in the deep-sea environment.

CONCLUSIONS

The barnacle G. gigas has adopted strategies of expansion of specific gene families and of positive selection of key genes to counteract the negative effects of high hydrostatic pressure, hypoxia, low temperature and food limitation on the deep-sea floor. These expanded gene families and genes under positive selection would tend to enhance the capacities of G. gigas for signal transduction, genetic information processing and energy metabolism, and facilitate networks for perceiving and responding physiologically to the environmental conditions in deep-sea habitats. In short, our results provide genomic evidence relating to deep-sea adaptation of G. gigas, which provide a basis for further biological studies of sessile crustaceans in the deep sea.

Krüppel homolog 1 and E93: The doorkeeper and the key to insect metamorphosis

Insect metamorphosis is regulated by two main hormones: ecdysone (20E), which promotes molting, and juvenile hormone (JH), which inhibits adult morphogenesis. The transduction mechanisms for the respective hormonal signals include the transcription factors Krüppel homolog 1 (Kr-h1) and E93, which are JH- and 20E-dependent, respectively. Kr-h1 is the main effector of the antimetamorphic action of JH, while E93 is a key promoter of metamorphosis. The ancestral regulatory axis of metamorphosis, which operates in insects with hemimetabolan (gradual) metamorphosis and is known as the MEKRE93 pathway, is based on Kr-h1 repression of E93. In the last juvenile stage, when the production of JH dramatically decreases, Kr-h1 expression is almost completely interrupted, E93 becomes upregulated and metamorphosis proceeds. The holometabolan (complete) metamorphosis mode of development includes the peculiar pupal stage, a sort of intermediate between the final larval instar and the adult stage. In holometabolan species, Broad-Complex (BR-C) transcription factors determine the pupal stage and E93 stimulates the expression of BR-C in the prepupa. The MEKRE93 pathway is conserved in holometabolan insects, which have added the E93/BR-C interaction loop to the ancestral (hemimetabolan) pathway during the evolution from hemimetaboly to holometaboly.

The Roles of Four Novel P450 Genes in Pesticides Resistance in Apis cerana cerana Fabricius: Expression Levels and Detoxification Efficiency

Cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s) are widely distributed multifunctional enzymes that play crucial roles in insecticide detoxification or activation. In this study, to ascertain the molecular mechanisms of P450s in the detoxification of Chinese honeybees, Apis cerana cerana Fabricius (A. c. cerana), we isolated and characterized four new P450 genes (Acc301A1, Acc303A1, Acc306A1, and Acc315A1). The open reading frames of the four genes are 1263 to 1608 bp in length and encode four predicted polypeptides of 499 to 517 amino acids in length. Real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) results showed that expression of all four genes was observed in all developmental stages. In addition, Western blot assays further indicated the RT-qPCR results that showed that the four genes were induced by pesticide (thiamethoxam, deltamethrin, dichlorovos, and paraquat) treatments. Furthermore, we also used double-stranded RNA-mediated RNA interference to investigate the functions of Acc301A1, Acc303A1,and Acc306A1 in the antioxidant defense of honeybees. RNA interference targeting Acc301A1, Acc303A1, and Acc306A1 significantly increased the mortality rate of A. c. cerana upon pesticide treatment. These results provide important evidence about the role of the four P450 genes involved in detoxification.

Impairment of pupation by RNA interference-aided knockdown of Broad-Complex gene in Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say)

Dietary delivery of bacterially expressed double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) has a great potential for management of Leptinotarsa decemlineata. An important first step is to discover possible RNA-interference (RNAi)-target genes effective against larvae, especially the old larvae. In the present paper, five putative Broad-Complex (BrC) cDNAs (Z1-Z4, and Z6) were identified in L. decemlineata. The expression of the five LdBrC isoforms was suppressed by juvenile hormone signaling, whereas the transcription was upregulated by 20-hydroxyecdysone signaling at the fourth (final) instar larval stage. Feeding of bacterially expressed dsBrC (derived from a common fragment of the five LdBrC variants) in the third- and fourth-instar larvae successfully knocked down the target mRNAs. For the fourth-instar LdBrC RNAi hypomorphs, they had a higher larval mortality compared with the controls. Moreover, most dsBrC-fed beetles did not pupate normally. After removal of the apolysed larval cuticle, a miniature adult was found. The adult head, compound eyes, prothorax, mesothorax, metathorax were found on the dorsal view. Distinct adult cuticle pigmentation was seen on the prothorax. The mouthparts, forelegs, midlegs, and hindlegs could be observed on the ventral view of the miniature adults. For the third-instar LdBrC RNAi specimens, around 20% moribund beetles remained as prepupae and finally died. Therefore, LdBrC is among the most attractive candidate genes for RNAi to control the fourth-instar larvae in L. decemlineata.

Regulatory mechanisms underlying the specification of the pupal-homologous stage in a hemimetabolous insect

Juvenile hormones and the genetic interaction between the transcription factors Krüppel homologue 1 (Kr-h1) and Broad (Br) regulate the transformation of insects from immature to adult forms in both types of metamorphosis (holometaboly with a pupal stage versus hemimetaboly with no pupal stage); however, knowledge about the exact instar in which this occurs is limited. Using the hemimetabolous cricket Gryllus bimaculatus (Gb), we demonstrate that a genetic interaction occurs among Gb'Kr-h1, Gb'Br and the adult-specifier transcription factor Gb'E93 from the sixth to final (eighth) nymphal instar. Gb'Kr-h1 and Gb'Br mRNAs were strongly expressed in the abdominal tissues of sixth instar nymphs, with precocious adult moults being induced by Gb'Kr-h1 or Gb'Br knockdown in the sixth instar. The depletion of Gb'Kr-h1 or Gb'Br upregulates Gb'E93 in the sixth instar. By contrast, Gb'E93 knockdown at the sixth instar prevents nymphs transitioning to adults, instead producing supernumerary nymphs. Gb'E93 also represses Gb'Kr-h1 and Gb'Br expression in the penultimate nymphal instar, demonstrating its important role in adult differentiation. Our results suggest that the regulatory mechanisms underlying the pupal transition in holometabolous insects are evolutionarily conserved in hemimetabolous G. bimaculatus, with the penultimate and final nymphal periods being equivalent to the pupal stage. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of complete metamorphosis'.

Where did the pupa come from? The timing of juvenile hormone signalling supports homology between stages of hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects

Insect metamorphosis boasts spectacular cases of postembryonic development when juveniles undergo massive morphogenesis before attaining the adult form and function; in moths or flies the larvae do not even remotely resemble their adult parents. A selective advantage of complete metamorphosis (holometaboly) is that within one species the two forms with different lifestyles can exploit diverse habitats. It was the environmental adaptation and specialization of larvae, primarily the delay and internalization of wing development, that eventually required an intermediate stage that we call a pupa. It is a long-held and parsimonious hypothesis that the holometabolous pupa evolved through modification of a final juvenile stage of an ancestor developing through incomplete metamorphosis (hemimetaboly). Alternative hypotheses see the pupa as an equivalent of all hemimetabolous moulting cycles (instars) collapsed into one, and consider any preceding holometabolous larval instars free-living embryos stalled in development. Discoveries on juvenile hormone signalling that controls metamorphosis grant new support to the former hypothesis deriving the pupa from a final pre-adult stage. The timing of expression of genes that repress and promote adult development downstream of hormonal signals supports homology between postembryonic stages of hemimetabolous and holometabolous insects. This article is part of the theme issue 'The evolution of complete metamorphosis'.

Molecular cloning, expression profiling, and functional analysis of a broad-complex isoform 2/3 (Br-Z2/Z3) transcription factor in the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.)

The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), is a widespread and destructive pest of cruciferous crops. New strategies for controlling it are needed because it is rapidly developing resistance to conventional pesticides. In insects, transcription factors (TFs) including broad-complex (Br-C) are thought to be useful for insecticide development because they are able to regulate the transcription of functional genes involved in responses to external stimuli including insecticides. In the present study, we cloned and sequenced the open reading frames (ORFs) of three BTB-ZF encoding genes from the diamondback moth deposited in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) database under accessions MG753773, MG288674, and MG753772. The lengths of these ORFs were 1,680, 1,428, and 1,647 bp, respectively. The phylogenetic analysis based on the predicted amino acid sequences of ZF domains showed that MG753773 and MG288674 belonged to Z2/Z3 and Z7 of Br-C while MG753772 belonged to Ttk types. In the agreement, the highest expression level of MG753773 occurred during the prepupal stage, MG288674 and MG753772 were expressed during all stages and peaked in the adult and egg stages, respectively. RNA interference silencing of MG753773 in the late third instar larvae significantly decreased survival and pupation of the insects. With precocene II, transcription of MG753773 increased (4×) in the fourth instar larva 24 hr later; 48 hr later the rate of prepupation and pupation was significantly higher. These findings will contribute to the development of new regulators of the growth and development for diamondback moth control.

Isoform specific roles of Broad-Complex in larval development in Leptinotarsa decemlineata

Broad-Complex (BrC) is a downstream target of both 20-hydroxyecdysone and juvenile hormone signalling. BrC regulates morphogenetic changes between nymphal instars in hemimetabolans, whereas it controls pupal commitment, pupal morphogenesis and inhibits adult differentiation in holometabolans. Among five BrC cDNAs (Z1-Z4 and Z6) identified in the Colorado potato beetle, we found in this work that Z1, Z2 and Z6 were mainly expressed at the last (fourth) instar and prepupal stages, whereas the levels of Z3 and Z4 increased during the penultimate (third) instar stage, peaked at the last instar larval phase and gradually decreased at the prepupal and pupal periods. When knocking down all BrC isoforms by RNA interference (RNAi) at the penultimate instar stage, around 20% of the resultant larvae remained as moribund beetles. These moribund BrC RNAi larvae were completely or partially wrapped in old cuticle. Likewise, a portion of larvae treated for a single double-stranded RNA of Z3, Z4 or Z6 displayed a degree of similar aberrancies, increasing in the order of isoforms Z6 < Z3 < Z4. When silencing all BrC isoforms at the last instar period, most of the RNAi larvae did not normally pupate or emerge as adults. Separately silencing each of the five zinc finger domains revealed that approximately 70% of the Z1 RNAi larvae remained as prepupae, around 60% of the Z6 RNAi specimens formed aberrant prepupae or pupae and about 60% of the Z2 RNAi beetles became deformed pupae. After removal of the old exuviae, these deformed larvae in which either Z1, Z2 or Z6 was depleted possessed adult prothorax and mesothorax, developing antenna, mouthparts and wing discs. Moreover, less than 50% of the resultant pupae finally emerged as adults when either of Z1, Z2 or Z6 was knocked down. Therefore, our findings reveal, for the first time, that the two roles of BrC in insect groups (ie directing morphogenetic changes during juvenile development and regulating larval-pupal-adult metamorphosis) are played by different BrC isoforms in Leptinotarsa decemlineata.

RNAi-knockdown of the Locusta migratoria nuclear export factor protein results in insect mortality and alterations in gut microbiome

BACKGROUND

The migratory locust Locusta migratoria is one of the most important agricultural pests worldwide. The nuclear export factor 1 (NXF1) protein plays a crucial role in mediating mRNA transport from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. This study evaluates whether NXF1 could be a potential target for RNAi-mediated pest control of L. migratoria.

RESULTS

We cloned and characterized the nuclear export factor lm-nxf1 of L. migratoria. Lm-nxf1 was expressed in all tissues examined, including head, fat body, hemolymph, trunk, leg and midgut, with high expression observed in the hemolymph and fat body. Injection of lm-nxf1 dsRNA into hemolymph resulted in inhibition of mRNA export in hemocytes, which were used as a target for observing mRNA export. Total hemocyte levels were reduced by ca. 97% in lm-nxf1-dsRNA-treated locusts, and high insect mortality occurred with LT₅₀ = 7.75 day as compared with 18.15 day for gfp-dsRNA-treated controls. Further, the locust intestine became atrophy, and the opportunistic pathogens Enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Enterobacter asburiae were specifically detected in midgut after lm-nxf1 dsRNA treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

The results reveal that knockdown of the lm-nxf1 gene affects the survival of L. migratoria, indicating that lm-nxf1 is a potential target for RNAi-mediated pest control. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

RNA Interference in Insects: Protecting Beneficials and Controlling Pests

Insects constitute the largest and most diverse group of animals on Earth with an equally diverse virome. The main antiviral immune system of these animals is the post-transcriptional gene-silencing mechanism known as RNA(i) interference. Furthermore, this process can be artificially triggered via delivery of gene-specific double-stranded RNA molecules, leading to specific endogenous gene silencing. This is called RNAi technology and has important applications in several fields. In this paper, we review RNAi mechanisms in insects as well as the potential of RNAi technology to contribute to species-specific insecticidal strategies. Regarding this aspect, we cover the range of strategies considered and investigated so far, as well as their limitations and the most promising approaches to overcome them. Additionally, we discuss patterns of viral infection, specifically persistent and acute insect viral infections. In the latter case, we focus on infections affecting economically relevant species. Within this scope, we review the use of insect-specific viruses as bio-insecticides. Last, we discuss RNAi-based strategies to protect beneficial insects from harmful viral infections and their potential practical application. As a whole, this manuscript stresses the impact of insect viruses and RNAi technology in human life, highlighting clear lines of investigation within an exciting and promising field of research.

The crustacean ecdysone cassette: A gatekeeper for molt and metamorphosis

Arthropods have long been utilized as models to explore molecular function, and the findings derived from them can be applied throughout metazoa, including as a basis for medical research. This has led to the adoption of many representative insect models beyond Drosophila, as each lends its own unique perspective to questions in endocrinology and genetics. However, non-insect arthropods are yet to be realised for the potential insight they may provide in such studies. The Crustacea are among the most ancient arthropods from which insects descended, comprising a huge variety of life histories and ecological roles. Of the events in a typical crustacean development, metamorphosis is perhaps the most ubiquitous, challenging and highly studied. Despite this, our knowledge of the endocrinology which underpins metamorphosis is rudimentary at best; although several key molecules have been identified and studied in depth, the link between them is quite nebulous and leans heavily on well-explored insect models, which diverged from the Pancrustacea over 450 million years ago. As omics technologies become increasingly accessible, they bring the prospect of explorative molecular research which will allow us to uncover components and pathways unique to crustaceans. This review reconciles known components of crustacean metamorphosis and reflects on our findings in insects to outline a future search space, with focus given to the ecdysone cascade. To expand our knowledge of this ubiquitous endocrine system not only aids in our understanding of crustacean metamorphosis, but also provides a deeper insight into the adaptive capacity of arthropods throughout evolution.

E93 expression and links to the juvenile hormone in hemipteran mealybugs with insights on female neoteny

Insect metamorphosis produces reproductive adults and is commonly accompanied with the direct or indirect development of wings. In some winged insects, the imago is altered by life history changes. For instance, in scale insects and mealybugs, reproductive females retain juvenile features and are wingless. The transcription factor E93 triggers metamorphosis and plays in concert with the juvenile hormone pathway to guarantee the successful transition from juvenile to adult. We previously provided evidence of an atypical down-regulation of the juvenile hormone pathway during female development in the Japanese mealybug. Here, we further investigate how E93 is involved in the production of neotenic wingless females, by identifying its isoforms, assessing their expression patterns and evaluating the effect of exogenous juvenile hormone mimic treatment on E93. This study identifies three E93 isoforms on the 5' end, based on Japanese mealybug cDNA and shows that female development occurs with the near absence of E93 transcripts, as opposed to male metamorphosis. Additionally, while male development is typically affected by exogenous juvenile hormone mimic treatments, females seem to remain insensitive to the treatment, and up-regulation of the juvenile hormone signaling is not observed. Furthermore, juvenile hormone mimic treatment on female nymphs did not have an obvious effect on E93 transcription, while treatment on male prepupae resulted in depleted E93 transcripts. In this study, we emphasize the importance in examining atypical cases of metamorphosis as complementary systems to provide a better understanding on the molecular mechanisms underlying insect metamorphosis. For instance, the factors regulating the expression of E93 are largely unclear. Investigating the regulatory mechanism of E93 transcription could provide clues towards identifying the factors that induce or suppress E93 transcription, in turn triggering male adult development or female neoteny.

The expression of ecdysteroid UDP-glucosyltransferase enhances cocoon shell ratio by reducing ecdysteroid titre in last-instar larvae of silkworm, Bombyx mori

Ecdysteroid UDP glucosyltransferase (EGT) is a baculovirus-encoded protein which can hinder the normal molting of insects by inactivating 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). Here we expressed EGT in the last-instar silkworm larvae using the GAL4/ UAS system. Compared with the control, for the EGT overexpressed silkworm, the hemolymph 20E content was significantly decreased, the feeding and spinning periods of the last-instar silkworm larvae were extended, the cocoon shell ratio was significantly increased, and the transformation from silkworm larvae to pupa was blocked. Increasing EGT expression resulted in the decrease of 20E content in the hemolymph of silkworm larvae, treating the EGT overexpressed male silkworm with 20E decreased the larval weight and cocoon shell ratio, confirming that the increase in the availability of nutrients to the cocoon and an increase in the cocoon shell weight in the hybrid transgenic silkworms is because of the EGT-induced reduction in active 20E content. Furthermore, though the sericin and flavonoid contents were increased in the cocoon of the EGT overexpressing silkworm, the production of silk fibroin didn’t change.

Broad-complex Z3 contributes to the ecdysone-mediated transcriptional regulation of the vitellogenin gene in Bombus lantschouensis

During reproduction, vitellogenin (Vg), as an egg yolk precursor, is critical in sexually mature females of oviparous species including some insects. The transcription of Vg is usually mediated by hormones such as juvenile hormone (JH), ecdysteroids and some neuropeptides. In this study, the structure of the Vg gene from the bumblebee Bombus lantschouensis, (BlVg) was determined by sequencing and assembly. BlVg was found to be expressed at higher levels in reproductive queens than in virgins by quantitative real-time PCR analysis. Tissue-specific expression analysis showed that BlVg was expressed at the highest levels in the fat bodies of both virgin and reproductive queens. Prediction of the BlVg promoter revealed the presence of ecdysteroid-responsive cis-regulatory elements (CREs) containing one Broad-Complex zinc-finger isoform 3 (BR-C Z3), and one ecdysone-induced protein 74A (E74A). In addition, luciferase reporter expression, driven by the 5' -regulatory region of the BlVg gene, from -1517 bp to +895 bp downstream of the start codon, was induced by treatment with 20-hydroxyecdysone (20-E). Moreover, the luciferase activity of the BlVg promoter was elevated by only BlBrC-Z3 when Sf9 cells were cotransfected with four BlBrC isoforms respectively. BlVg promoter-mediated luciferase activation was significantly reduced when the putative BrC-Z3 CRE in the promoter was mutated. In summary, this report describes the first study of vitellogenin gene regulation at the transcriptional level in bumblebees and demonstrates that the ecdysone-induced transcription of the BlVg gene is mediated by the binding of BlBrC-Z3 to the BrC-Z3 CRE in the BlVg promoter in bumblebees.

Differential expression of the adult specifier E93 in the strepsipteran Xenos vesparum Rossi suggests a role in female neoteny

Holometaboly is a key evolutionary innovation that has facilitated the spectacular radiation of insects. Despite the undeniable advantage of complete metamorphosis, the female of some holometabolous species have lost the typical holometabolous development through neoteny. In Xenos vesparum Rossi (Strepsiptera: Stylopidae), a derived species of the holometabolous endoparasitic order Strepsiptera, neotenic females reach sexual maturity without the pupal and the imaginal stages, thus retaining their larval morphology (with the exception of the anterior part of the body or cephalothorax), while males undergo normal pupal-based metamorphosis. Expression of the “adult-specifier” E93 factor has been shown to be required for proper metamorphosis in holometabolous insects. Here, we investigated the involvement of E93 in female neoteny by cloning XvE93. Interestingly, while we detected a clear up-regulation of XvE93 expression in pupal and adult stages of males, persistent low levels of XvE93 were detected in X. vesparum females. However, a specific up-regulation of XvE93 was observed in the cephalothorax of late 4^th female instar larva, which correlates with the occurrence of neotenic-specific features in the anterior part of the female body. Moreover, the same expression dynamic in the cephalothorax and abdomen was also observed for other two critical metamorphic regulators, the anti-metamorphic XvKr-h1 and the pupal specifier XvBr-C. The specific up-regulation of XvE93 and XvBr-C in the female cephalothorax seems to be the result of an increase in 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) signaling in this region for we detected higher expression levels of the 20E-dependent nuclear receptors XvHR3 and XvE75 in the cephalothorax. Overall, our results detect a sex-specific expression pattern of critical metamorphic genes in X. vesparum, suggesting that neoteny in Strepsiptera results from the modification of the normal expression of E93, Br-C and Kr-h1 genes.

Susceptibility of Tsetse Species to Glossina pallidipes Salivary Gland Hypertrophy Virus (GpSGHV)

Salivary gland hytrosaviruses (SGHVs, family Hytrosaviridae) are non-occluded dsDNA viruses that are pathogenic to some dipterans. SGHVs primarily replicate in salivary glands (SG), thereby inducing overt salivary gland hypertrophy (SGH) symptoms in their adult hosts. SGHV infection of non-SG tissues results in distinct pathobiologies, including reproductive dysfunctions in tsetse fly, Glossina pallidipes (Diptera: Glossinidae) and house fly. Infection with the G. pallidipes virus (GpSGHV) resulted in the collapse of several laboratory colonies, which hindered the implementation of area wide integrated pest management (AW-IPM) programs that had a sterile insect technique (SIT) component. Although the impact of GpSGHV infection has been studied in some detail in G. pallidipes, the impact of the virus infection on other tsetse species remains largely unknown. In the current study, we assessed the susceptibility of six Glossina species (G. pallidipes, G. brevipalpis, G. m. morsitans, G. m. centralis, G. f. fuscipes, and G. p. gambiensis) to GpSGHV infections, and the impact of the viral infection on the fly pupation rate, adult emergence, and virus replication and transmission from the larval to adult stages. We also evaluated the ability of the virus to infect conspecific Glossina species through serial passages. The results indicate that the susceptibility of Glossina to GpSGHV varied widely amongst the tested species, with G. pallidipes and G. brevipalpis being the most susceptible and most refractory to the virus, respectively. Further, virus injection into the hemocoel of teneral flies led to increased viral copy number over time, while virus injection into the third instar larvae delayed adult eclosion. Except in G. pallidipes, virus injection either into the larvae or teneral adults did not induce any detectable SGH symptoms, although virus infections were PCR-detectable in the fly carcasses. Taken together, our results indicate that although GpSGHV may only cause minor damage in the mass-rearing of tsetse species other than G. pallidipes, preventive control measures are required to avoid viral contamination and transmission in the fly colonies, particularly in the facilities where multiple tsetse species are reared.

MicroRNA-14 regulates larval development time in Bombyx mori

MicroRNAs (miRNA) regulate multiple physiological processes including development and metamorphosis in insects. In the current study, we demonstrate that a conserved invertebrate miRNA-14 (miR-14) plays an important role in ecdysteroid regulated development in the silkworm Bombyx mori, a lepidopteran model insect. Ubiquitous transgenic overexpression of miR-14 using the GAL4/UAS system resulted in delayed silkworm larval development and smaller body size of larva and pupa with decrease in ecdysteriod titers. On the contrary, miR-14 disruption using the transgenic CRISPR/Cas9 system led to a precocious wandering stage with increase in ecdysteriod titers. We identified that the hormone receptor E75 (E75) and the ecdysone receptor isoform B (ECR-B), which both serve as essential mediators in the ecdysone signaling pathway, as putative target genes of miR-14 by in silico target prediction. Dual-luciferase reporter assays confirmed the binding of miR-14 to the 3'UTRs of E75 and ECR-B in a mammalian HEK293T cell line. Furthermore, transcription levels of E75 and ECR-B were significantly affected in both miR-14 overexpression and knockout transgenic animals. Taken together, our data suggested that the canonical invertebrate miR-14 is a general regulator in maintaining ecdysone homeostasis for normal development and metamorphosis in B. mori.

Differentiation of lepidoptera scale cells from epidermal stem cells followed by ecdysone-regulated DNA duplication and scale secreting

Integuments are the first line to protect insects from physical damage and pathogenic infection. In lepidopteran insects, they undergo distinct morphology changes such as scale formation during metamorphosis. However, we know little about integument development and scale formation during this stage. Here, we use the silkworm, Bombyx mori, as a model and show that stem cells in the integument of each segment, but not intersegmental membrane, divide into two scale precursor cells during the spinning stage. In young pupae, the scale precursor cell divides again. One of the daughter cells becomes a mature scale-secreting cell that undergoes several rounds of DNA duplication and the other daughter cell undergoes apoptosis later on. This scale precursor cell division is crucial to the development and differentiation of scale-secreting cells because scale production can be blocked after treatment with the cell division inhibitor paclitaxel. Subsequently, the growth of scale-secreting cells is under the control of 20-hydroxyecdysone but not juvenile hormone since injection of 20-hydroxyecdysone inhibited scale formation. Further work demonstrated that 20-hydroxyecdysone injection inhibits DNA duplication in scale-secreting cells while the expression of scale-forming gene ASH1 was down-regulated by BR-C Z2. Therefore, this research demonstrates that the scale cells of the silkworm develops through stem cell division prior to pupation and then another wave of cell division differentiates these cells into scale secreting cells soon after entrance into the pupal stage. Additionally, DNA duplication and scale production in the scale-secreting cells were found to be under the regulation of 20-hydroxyecdysone.

Implantation assays using the integument of early stage Bombyx larvae: Insights into the mechanisms underlying the acquisition of competence for metamorphosis

It is widely accepted that the anti-metamorphic action of insect juvenile hormones (JHs) is required to inhibit larval-pupal metamorphosis. However, recent studies using RNAi or knockout techniques reveal that larval status may be maintained independently of JHs during the early larval stages. To investigate why larvae of very early instars do not have competence to metamorphose and how they acquire this competence through larval development, we revisited the classic experiments of Piepho (ca. 1930s) and performed implantation assays using the integument of very young larvae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Here, we demonstrate that when the integuments of neonate larvae or newly molted second instar larvae are implanted into last instar host larvae, they are able to directly produce pupal cuticle at the time of pupal metamorphosis of the host. To investigate whether the pupal commitment of implants from the neonate first instar larvae is repressed by JHs, the integuments of Met1 knockout larvae lacking a functional JH receptor were implanted into penultimate instar larvae. We found that the implants of Met1 knockout neonate larvae produced patched pupal cuticles after the host larval molt, whereas those of the wild-type strain produced only larval cuticle without any trace of pupal cuticle. Taken together, our results suggest that the epidermis of very early instar larvae can be pupally committed when provided with unidentified blood-borne factor(s) present in final-instar larvae, and that JHs can block the action of that factor(s) to prolong the feeding period until larvae attain a size appropriate for metamorphosis.

Viral Delivery of dsRNA for Control of Insect Agricultural Pests and Vectors of Human Disease: Prospects and Challenges

RNAi is applied as a new and safe method for pest control in agriculture but efficiency and specificity of delivery of dsRNA trigger remains a critical issue. Various agents have been proposed to augment dsRNA delivery, such as engineered micro-organisms and synthetic nanoparticles, but the use of viruses has received relatively little attention. Here we present a critical view of the potential of the use of recombinant viruses for efficient and specific delivery of dsRNA. First of all, it requires the availability of plasmid-based reverse genetics systems for virus production, of which an overview is presented. For RNA viruses, their application seems to be straightforward since dsRNA is produced as an intermediate molecule during viral replication, but DNA viruses also have potential through the production of RNA hairpins after transcription. However, application of recombinant virus for dsRNA delivery may not be straightforward in many cases, since viruses can encode RNAi suppressors, and virus-induced silencing effects can be determined by the properties of the encoded RNAi suppressor. An alternative is virus-like particles that retain the efficiency and specificity determinants of natural virions but have encapsidated non-replicating RNA. Finally, the use of viruses raises important safety issues which need to be addressed before application can proceed.

Influence of various stressors on the expression of core genes of the small interfering RNA pathway in the oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis

RNA interference (RNAi)-based technology has emerged as a potential tool for controlling insect pests, however, previous studies found that the efficiency of RNAi in Bactrocera dorsalis was variable. In nature, insects often meet various challenges, such as pathogen infections, extreme temperatures, lack of nutrition and heavy metals. To better understand the association of the stressors with efficiency of RNAi, in the current study we tested the expression of three core genes, dicer2 (Bddcr2), r2d2 (Bdr2d2) and argonaute2 (Bdago2), of the small interfering RNA (siRNA) pathway of B. dorsalis upon various stressors. Our results showed that all three genes were upregulated by the infection of invertebrate iridescent virus 6, which suggested a function of the siRNA pathway against viral infection. The loading of FeCl₃ could also increase the expression of Bddcr2. The treatments of Escherichia coli, extremely high (40°C) and low (0°C) temperatures, as well as starvation, could negatively influence the expression of Bddcr2 and/or Bdago2. In total, our results showed that various stressors could influence the expression of core components of B. dorsalis siRNA pathway. This highlights further speculation on the RNAi efficiency upon these stressors. Considering the complexity and variation of RNAi efficiency in different conditions, these results provide initial aspects in possible environmental stressors to influence the activity of the siRNA pathway, but the real impact of RNAi efficiency posed by these stressors requires further studies.

Ecdysone Receptor Agonism Leading to Lethal Molting Disruption in Arthropods: Review and Adverse Outcome Pathway Development

Molting is critical for growth, development, reproduction, and survival in arthropods. Complex neuroendocrine pathways are involved in the regulation of molting and may potentially become targets of environmental endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). Based on several known ED mechanisms, a wide range of pesticides has been developed to combat unwanted organisms in food production activities such as agriculture and aquaculture. Meanwhile, these chemicals may also pose hazards to nontarget species by causing molting defects, and thus potentially affecting the health of the ecosystems. The present review summarizes the available knowledge on molting-related endocrine regulation and chemically mediated disruption in arthropods (with special focus on insects and crustaceans), to identify research gaps and develop a mechanistic model for assessing environmental hazards of these compounds. Based on the review, multiple targets of EDCs in the molting processes were identified and the link between mode of action (MoA) and adverse effects characterized to inform future studies. An adverse outcome pathway (AOP) describing ecdysone receptor agonism leading to incomplete ecdysis associated mortality was developed according to the OECD guideline and subjected to weight of evidence considerations by evolved Bradford Hill Criteria. This review proposes the first invertebrate ED AOP and may serve as a knowledge foundation for future environmental studies and AOP development.

Knockdown of Broad-Complex Gene Expression of Bombyx mori by Oligopyrrole Carboxamides Enhances Silk Production

Bombyx mori (B. mori) is important due to its major role in the silk production. Though DNA binding ligands often influence gene expression, no attempt has been made to exploit their use in sericulture. The telomeric heterochromatin of B. mori is enriched with 5'-TTAGG-3' sequences. These sequences were also found to be present in several genes in the euchromatic regions. We examined three synthetic oligopyrrole carboxamides that target 5'-TTAGG-3' sequences in controlling the gene expression in B. mori. The ligands did not show any defect or feeding difference in the larval stage, crucial for silk production. The ligands caused silencing of various isoforms of the broad-complex transcription factor and cuticle proteins which resulted in late pupal developmental defects. Furthermore, treatment with such drugs resulted in statistically enhanced cocoon weight, shell weight, and silk yield. This study shows for the first time use of oligopyrrole carboxamide drugs in controlling gene expression in B. mori and their long term use in enhancing silk production.

Larval diapause termination in the bamboo borer, Omphisa fuscidentalis

In insects, juvenile hormone (JH) and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) regulate larval growth and molting. However, little is known about how this cooperative control is terminating larval diapause especially in the bamboo borer, Omphisa fuscidentalis. In both in vivo and in vitro experiments, we here measured the expression levels of genes which were affected by juvenile hormone analogue (JHA: S-methoprene) and 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E) in diapausing O. fuscidentalis larvae. Corresponding mRNA expression changes in the subesophageal ganglion (SG) and prothoracic gland (PG) were evaluated using qRT-PCR. The data showed similar response patterns of JH receptor gene (OfMet), diapause hormone gene (OfDH-PBAN), ecdysone receptor genes (OfEcR-A and OfEcR-B1) and ecdysone inducible genes (OfBr-C, OfE75A, OfE75B, OfE75C and OfHR3). JHA induced the expressions of OfMet and OfDH-PBAN in both SG and PG, whereas ecdysone receptor genes and ecdysone inducible genes were induced by JHA only in PG. For 20E treatment group, expressions of ecdysone receptor genes and ecdysone inducible genes in both SG and PG were increased by 20E injection. In addition, the in vitro experiments showed that OfMet and OfDH-PBAN were up-regulated by JHA alone, but ecdysone receptor genes and ecdysone inducible genes were up-regulated by JHA and 20E. However, OfMet and OfDH-PBAN in the SG was expressed faster than OfMet and OfDH-PBAN in the PG and the expression of ecdysone receptor genes and ecdysone inducible genes induced by JHA was much later than observed for 20E. These results indicate that JHA might stimulate the PG indirectly via factors (OfMet and OfDH-PBAN) in the SG, which might be a regulatory mechanism for larval diapause termination in O. fuscidentalis.

20-hydroxyecdysone enhances the expression of the chitinase 5 via Broad-Complex Zinc-Finger 4 during metamorphosis in silkworm, Bombyx mori

Insect chitinases are hydrolytic enzymes required for the degradation of chitin. They are essential for insect moulting and metamorphosis. In this study, the regulation mechanism of a chitinase gene, Bombyx mori chitinase 5 (BmCHT5), was studied. Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) analysis showed that BmCHT5 was up-regulated during the larval-larval and larval-pupa transitions and notably induced by 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E). Analysis of the BmCHT5 promoter revealed the presence of one Bombyx mori Broad-Complex Zinc-Finger Isoform 4 (BR-C Z4), two BR-C Z2 and two ecdysone-induced protein 74A (E74A) cis-regulatory elements (CREs) that are related to 20E. qRT-PCR showed that the expression of both BmBR-C Z4 and BmBR-C Z2 during metamorphosis, and when induced by 20E, was anastomotic with the variations in BmCHT5 mRNA level. In contrast, BmE74A did not follow this trend. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay did not retrieve a binding partner for the two BR-C Z2 CREs in the BmN cell line nuclear extract, whereas BR-C Z4 CRE specifically bound to BmBR-C Z4. Besides, luciferase activity analysis confirmed that BmBR-C Z4 could enhance the activity of the BmCHT5 promoter with BR-C Z4 CRE and could not enhance the promoter activity by mutating BR-C Z4 CRE. Taken together, these data suggest that the transcription factor BmBR-C Z4 enhances the expression of BmCHT5 during metamorphosis.

The Occurrence of the Holometabolous Pupal Stage Requires the Interaction between E93, Krüppel-Homolog 1 and Broad-Complex

Complete metamorphosis (Holometaboly) is a key innovation that underlies the spectacular success of holometabolous insects. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that Holometabola form a monophyletic group that evolved from ancestors exhibiting hemimetabolous development (Hemimetaboly). However, the nature of the changes underlying this crucial transition, including the occurrence of the holometabolan-specific pupal stage, is poorly understood. Using the holometabolous beetle Tribolium castaneum as a model insect, here we show that the transient up-regulation of the anti-metamorphic Krüppel-homolog 1 (TcKr-h1) gene at the end of the last larval instar is critical in the formation of the pupa. We find that depletion of this specific TcKr-h1 peak leads to the precocious up-regulation of the adult-specifier factor TcE93 and, hence, to a direct transformation of the larva into the adult form, bypassing the pupal stage. Moreover, we also find that the TcKr-h1-dependent repression of TcE93 is critical to allow the strong up-regulation of Broad-complex (TcBr-C), a key transcription factor that regulates the correct formation of the pupa in holometabolous insects. Notably, we show that the genetic interaction between Kr-h1 and E93 is also present in the penultimate nymphal instar of the hemimetabolous insect Blattella germanica, suggesting that the evolution of the pupa has been facilitated by the co-option of regulatory mechanisms present in hemimetabolan metamorphosis. Our findings, therefore, contribute to the molecular understanding of insect metamorphosis, and indicate the evolutionary conservation of the genetic circuitry that controls hemimetabolan and holometabolan metamorphosis, thereby shedding light on the evolution of complete metamorphosis.

BmBR-C Z4 is an upstream regulatory factor of BmPOUM2 controlling the pupal specific expression of BmWCP4 in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

20-hydroxyecdysone (20E)-induced expression of the wing disc cuticle protein gene BmWCP4 was mediated by the transcription factor BmPOUM2, which binds to the cis-response elements (CREs) of BmWCP4 gene in Bombyx mori. In this study we report the regulation of BmPOUM2. RT-PCR analysis indicated that in response to 20E, BmPOUM2 was expressed at higher levels in the wing discs during the pre-pupal and mid-pupal stages than other stages and the expression pattern of BmBR-C Z1, BmBR-C Z2 and BmBR-C Z4 was in tandem with the expression of BmPOUM2. BmBR-C Z4 was induced by 20E in the wing discs, whereas BmBR-C Z1 and BmBR-C Z2 were not. Three potential BR-C Z4 cis-response elements (CREs) were identified in the promoter region of BmPOUM2. The expression of BmPOUM2 mRNA and protein was increased by the over-expression of BmBR-C Z4 in BmN cells, which acted at the promoter of BmPOUM2. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and the luciferase activity analysis under the control of wild-type and mutants of the BR-C Z4 CREs suggested that BmBR-C Z4 protein bound to the predicted BRC-Z4 CRE C (-684 ∼ -660). Taken together the data suggest that BmBR-C Z4 is a direct upstream regulator of BmPOUM2 and regulates the pupal-specific expression of BmWCP4 through BmPOUM2.

Transcriptomic variation of hepatopancreas reveals the energy metabolism and biological processes associated with molting in Chinese mitten crab, Eriocheir sinensis

Molting is a critical developmental process for crustaceans, yet the underlying molecular mechanism is unknown. In this study, we used RNA-Seq to investigate transcriptomic profiles of the hepatopancreas and identified differentially expressed genes at four molting stages of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis). A total of 97,398 transcripts were assembled, with 31,900 transcripts annotated. Transcriptomic comparison revealed 1,189 genes differentially expressed amongst different molting stages. We observed a pattern associated with energy metabolism and physiological responses during a molting cycle. In specific, differentially expressed genes enriched in postmolt were linked to energy consumption whereas genes enriched in intermolt were related to carbohydrates, lipids metabolic and biosynthetic processes. In premolt, a preparation stage for upcoming molting and energy consumption, highly expressed genes were enriched in response to steroid hormone stimulus and immune system development. The expression profiles of twelve functional genes detected via RNA-Seq were corroborated through real-time RT-PCR assay. Together, our results, including assembled transcriptomes, annotated functional elements and enriched differentially expressed genes amongst different molting stages, provide novel insights into the functions of the hepatopancreas in energy metabolism and biological processes pertaining to molting in crustaceans.

Knockout silkworms reveal a dispensable role for juvenile hormones in holometabolous life cycle

Insect juvenile hormones (JHs) prevent precocious metamorphosis and allow larvae to undergo multiple rounds of status quo molts. However, the roles of JHs during the embryonic and very early larval stages have not been fully understood. We generated and characterized knockout silkworms (Bombyx mori) with null mutations in JH biosynthesis or JH receptor genes using genome-editing tools. We found that embryonic growth and morphogenesis are largely independent of JHs in Bombyx and that, even in the absence of JHs or JH signaling, pupal characters are not formed in first- or second-instar larvae, and precocious metamorphosis is induced after the second instar at the earliest. We also show by mosaic analysis that a pupal specifier gene broad, which is dramatically up-regulated in the late stage of the last larval instar, is essential for pupal commitment in the epidermis. Importantly, the mRNA expression level of broad, which is thought to be repressed by JHs, remained at very low basal levels during the early larval instars of JH-deficient or JH signaling-deficient knockouts. Therefore, our study suggests that the long-accepted paradigm that JHs maintain the juvenile status throughout larval life should be revised because the larval status can be maintained by a JH-independent mechanism in very early larval instars. We propose that the lack of competence for metamorphosis during the early larval stages may result from the absence of an unidentified broad-inducing factor, i.e., a competence factor.

Alphaviruses in gene therapy

Alphavirus vectors present an attractive approach for gene therapy applications due to the rapid and simple recombinant virus particle production and their broad range of mammalian host cell transduction. Mainly three types of alphavirus vectors, namely naked RNA, recombinant particles and DNA/RNA layered vectors, have been subjected to preclinical studies with the goal of achieving prophylactic or therapeutic efficacy, particularly in oncology. In this context, immunization with alphavirus vectors has provided protection against challenges with tumor cells. Moreover, alphavirus intratumoral and systemic delivery has demonstrated substantial tumor regression and significant prolonged survival rates in various animal tumor models. Recent discoveries of the strong association of RNA interference and disease have accelerated gene therapy based approaches, where alphavirus-based gene delivery can play an important role.

Transcriptional regulation of cuticular protein glycine-rich13 gene expression in wing disc of Bombyx mori, Lepidoptera

Cuticular protein genes are good models to study the molecular mechanisms of signaling by ecdysteroids, which regulate molting and metamorphosis in insects. The present research demonstrates on hormonal regulation and analysis of the regulatory sequences and transcription factors important for Bombyx mori cuticular protein glycine-rich13 (CPG13) gene expression. Expression of CPG13 was strong at prepupal stage in wing tissues of B. mori. CPG13 expression was induced by the addition of 20E, which was inhibited by cycloheximide in the wing disc. The upstream region of the CPG13 gene was analyzed using a transient reporter assay with a gene gun system and identified two BR-Z2 binding sites to be important cis-acting elements for the transcription activation of the luciferase reporter gene by an ecdysone pulse. Site-directed mutagenesis of these sites, followed by introduction into wing discs, significantly decreased the reporter activity. It was found that the regions carrying the binding sites for the ecdysone-responsive transcription factor BR-Z2 were responsible for the hormonal enhancement of the reporter gene activity in wing discs. Mutation of the BR-Z2 binding sites decreased the reporter activity suggesting that the BR-Z2 isoform can bind to the upstream region of the cuticle protein gene, CPG13 and activates its expression.