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Zhang H, Zhang Y, Zhang C, Yu H, Ma Y, Li Z, Shi N. Recent Advances of Cell-Penetrating Peptides and Their Application as Vectors for Delivery of Peptide and Protein-Based Cargo Molecules. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2093. [PMID: 37631307 PMCID: PMC10459450 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15082093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Peptides and proteins, two important classes of biomacromolecules, play important roles in the biopharmaceuticals field. As compared with traditional drugs based on small molecules, peptide- and protein-based drugs offer several advantages, although most cannot traverse the cell membrane, a natural barrier that prevents biomacromolecules from directly entering cells. However, drug delivery via cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) is increasingly replacing traditional approaches that mediate biomacromolecular cellular uptake, due to CPPs' superior safety and efficiency as drug delivery vehicles. In this review, we describe the discovery of CPPs, recent developments in CPP design, and recent advances in CPP applications for enhanced cellular delivery of peptide- and protein-based drugs. First, we discuss the discovery of natural CPPs in snake, bee, and spider venom. Second, we describe several synthetic types of CPPs, such as cyclic CPPs, glycosylated CPPs, and D-form CPPs. Finally, we summarize and discuss cell membrane permeability characteristics and therapeutic applications of different CPPs when used as vehicles to deliver peptides and proteins to cells, as assessed using various preclinical disease models. Ultimately, this review provides an overview of recent advances in CPP development with relevance to applications related to the therapeutic delivery of biomacromolecular drugs to alleviate diverse diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huifeng Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China; (H.Z.); (Y.Z.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (Y.M.)
| | - Yanfei Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China; (H.Z.); (Y.Z.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (Y.M.)
| | - Chuang Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China; (H.Z.); (Y.Z.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (Y.M.)
| | - Huan Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China; (H.Z.); (Y.Z.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (Y.M.)
| | - Yinghui Ma
- School of Pharmacy, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China; (H.Z.); (Y.Z.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (Y.M.)
| | - Zhengqiang Li
- Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, China;
| | - Nianqiu Shi
- School of Pharmacy, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China; (H.Z.); (Y.Z.); (C.Z.); (H.Y.); (Y.M.)
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Yanbian University, Yanji 133002, China
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Gallo M, Defaus S, Andreu D. 1988-2018: Thirty years of drug smuggling at the nano scale. Challenges and opportunities of cell-penetrating peptides in biomedical research. Arch Biochem Biophys 2018; 661:74-86. [PMID: 30447207 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 11/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In 1988, two unrelated papers reported the discovery of peptide vectors with innate cell translocation properties, setting the ground for a new area of research that over the years has grown into considerable therapeutic potential. The vectors, named cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), constitute a now large and diversified family, sharing the extraordinary ability to diffuse unaltered across cell membranes while ferrying diverse associated cargos. Such properties have made CPPs ideal tools for delivery of nucleic acids, proteins and other therapeutic/diagnostic molecules to cells and tissues via covalent conjugation or complexation. This year 2018 marks the 30th anniversary of a peptide research landmark opening new perspectives in drug delivery. Given its vastness, exhaustive coverage of the main features and accomplishments in the CPP field is virtually impossible. Hence this manuscript, after saluting the above 30th jubilee, focuses by necessity on the most recent contributions, providing a comprehensive list of recognized CPPs and their latest-reported applications over the last two years. In addition, it thoroughly reviews three areas of peptide vector research of particular interest to us, namely (i) efficient transport of low-bioavailability drugs into the brain; (ii) CPP-delivered disruptors of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCRs) heteromers related to several disorders, and (iii) CPP-mediated delivery of useful but poorly internalized drugs into parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Gallo
- Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona Biomedical Research Park, 08003 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sira Defaus
- Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona Biomedical Research Park, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - David Andreu
- Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona Biomedical Research Park, 08003 Barcelona, Spain.
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3
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Bakka TA, Gautun OR. Simple generalized reaction conditions for the conversion of primary aliphatic amines to surfactant-like guanidine salts with 1H-pyrazole carboxamidine hydrochloride. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2016.1257724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. A. Bakka
- Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - O. R. Gautun
- Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
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Oller-Salvia B, Teixidó M, Giralt E. From venoms to BBB shuttles: Synthesis and blood-brain barrier transport assessment of apamin and a nontoxic analog. Biopolymers 2016; 100:675-86. [PMID: 24281722 DOI: 10.1002/bip.22257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Venoms are currently the focus of many drug discovery programs because they contain highly bioactive and selective components. Among them, apamin, a peptide found in bee venom, has received considerable attention because of its affinity for certain potassium channels and also because of its interesting structure and high stability to extreme pH and temperatures. Although apamin has long been claimed to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), only a few studies have been performed producing controversial results. In this article, it is shown that not only apamin is indeed able to penetrate the BBB in a cell-based model but also that an analog reported to be nontoxic passes through this barrier. Furthermore, the permeability values obtained, together with some evidence of an active transport mechanism and an amazing stability to serum proteases, make these peptides promising candidates for BBB shuttles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamí Oller-Salvia
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona) Barcelona Science Park, Baldiri Reixac 10, Barcelona, 08028, Spain
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5
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Oller-Salvia B, Sánchez-Navarro M, Ciudad S, Guiu M, Arranz-Gibert P, Garcia C, Gomis RR, Cecchelli R, García J, Giralt E, Teixidó M. MiniAp-4: A Venom-Inspired Peptidomimetic for Brain Delivery. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 55:572-5. [PMID: 26492861 PMCID: PMC4736446 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201508445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Drug delivery across the blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a formidable challenge for therapies targeting the central nervous system. Although BBB shuttle peptides enhance transport into the brain non‐invasively, their application is partly limited by lability to proteases. The present study proposes the use of cyclic peptides derived from venoms as an affordable way to circumvent this drawback. Apamin, a neurotoxin from bee venom, was minimized by reducing its complexity, toxicity, and immunogenicity, while preserving brain targeting, active transport, and protease resistance. Among the analogues designed, the monocyclic lactam‐bridged peptidomimetic MiniAp‐4 was the most permeable. This molecule is capable of translocating proteins and nanoparticles in a human‐cell‐based BBB model. Furthermore, MiniAp‐4 can efficiently deliver a cargo across the BBB into the brain parenchyma of mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamí Oller-Salvia
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Macarena Sánchez-Navarro
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Sonia Ciudad
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Marc Guiu
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Pol Arranz-Gibert
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Cristina Garcia
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Roger R Gomis
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain).,ICREA (Spain)
| | - Roméo Cecchelli
- University of Artois, Faculté Jean Perrin, Jean Souvraz-SP 18, 62307 Lens (France)
| | - Jesús García
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain)
| | - Ernest Giralt
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain). .,University of Barcelona, Department of Organic Chemistry (Spain).
| | - Meritxell Teixidó
- Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona (Spain).
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Oller-Salvia B, Sánchez-Navarro M, Ciudad S, Guiu M, Arranz-Gibert P, Garcia C, Gomis RR, Cecchelli R, García J, Giralt E, Teixidó M. MiniAp-4: A Venom-Inspired Peptidomimetic for Brain Delivery. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201508445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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7
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Moreno M, Giralt E. Three valuable peptides from bee and wasp venoms for therapeutic and biotechnological use: melittin, apamin and mastoparan. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:1126-50. [PMID: 25835385 PMCID: PMC4417959 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7041126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 210] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
While knowledge of the composition and mode of action of bee and wasp venoms dates back 50 years, the therapeutic value of these toxins remains relatively unexploded. The properties of these venoms are now being studied with the aim to design and develop new therapeutic drugs. Far from evaluating the extensive number of monographs, journals and books related to bee and wasp venoms and the therapeutic effect of these toxins in numerous diseases, the following review focuses on the three most characterized peptides, namely melittin, apamin, and mastoparan. Here, we update information related to these compounds from the perspective of applied science and discuss their potential therapeutic and biotechnological applications in biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Moreno
- Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri i Reixac, 10, Barcelona 08028, Spain.
| | - Ernest Giralt
- Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), Baldiri i Reixac, 10, Barcelona 08028, Spain.
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Witkowska E, Kubik K, Krosnicka J, Grabowska K, Niescioruk A, Wilenska B, Misicka A. Microwave-assisted guanidinylation in solid phase peptide synthesis: comparison of various reagents. Tetrahedron Lett 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2014.09.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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9
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Sandberg BE, Ragnarsson U. SOLID PHASE SYNTHESIS OF APAMIN, THE PRINCIPAL NEUROTOXIN IN BEE VENOM*. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.1978.tb02844.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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10
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MARCHIORI FERNANDO, BORIN GIANFRANCO, FILIPPI BRUNO, MORETTO VITTORIO, BONORA GIANMARIA, TONIOLO CLAUDIO. PROTAMINES. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.1979.tb01737.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Bahekar RH, Jain MR, Goel A, Patel DN, Prajapati VM, Gupta AA, Jadav PA, Patel PR. Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of substituted-N-(thieno[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)-guanidines, N-(1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)-guanidines, and N-(1H-indol-3-yl)-guanidines. Bioorg Med Chem 2007; 15:3248-65. [PMID: 17339113 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2007.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2006] [Revised: 02/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Sulfonylureas stimulate insulin secretion independent of the blood glucose concentration and therefore cause hypoglycemia in type 2 diabetic patients. Over the last years, a number of aryl-imidazoline derivatives have been identified that stimulate insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner. In the present study, we have developed three series of substituted N-(thieno[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)-guanidine (2a-l), N-(1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridin-3-yl)-guanidine (3a-l), and N-(1H-indol-3-yl)-guanidine (4a-l) as new class of antidiabetic agents. In vitro glucose-dependent insulinotropic activity of test compounds 2a-l, 3a-l, and 4a-l was evaluated using RIN5F (Rat Insulinoma cell) based assay. All the test compounds showed concentration-dependent insulin secretion, only in presence of glucose load (16.7mmol). Some of the test compounds (2c, 3c, and 4c) from each series were found to be equipotent to BL 11282 (standard aryl-imidazoline), which indicated that the guanidine group acts as a bioisostere of imidazoline ring system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh H Bahekar
- Zydus Research Centre, Cadila Healthcare Ltd., Sarkhej-Bavala N.H. 8A, Moraiya, Ahmedabad 382210, India
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12
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Devaux C, Knibiehler M, Defendini ML, Mabrouk K, Rochat H, Van Rietschoten J, Baty D, Granier C. Recombinant and chemical derivatives of apamin. Implication of post-transcriptional C-terminal amidation of apamin in biological activity. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1995; 231:544-50. [PMID: 7649153 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1995.tb20730.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The use of the colicin A lysis protein to direct the extracellular release of a fusion protein from Escherichia coli was investigated as an approach for the preparation of recombinant animal toxins. Apamin, a bee venom neurotoxin, was used as the model toxin. It is reticulated by two disulfide bridges and interacts with small conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels. Substantial amounts of free recombinant apamin were obtained by CNBr cleavage of the fusion protein [col-(1-171)-apa] and HPLC purification. It was recognized by conformation-dependent monoclonal antibodies with a K0.5 value close to that for natural apamin, indicating that folding was correct. In toxicity and binding experiments, the recombinant apamin displayed low activity. The recombinant and natural molecules differed by the amidation of the C-terminal histidine residue. Previous structure/activity relationship studies do not implicate this C-terminal residue in activity but the role of its amidation was not investigated. An apamin analog with a non-amidated C-terminal residue was then chemically synthesized. The biological properties of both recombinant and chemical molecules were determined. Amidation of the C-terminal alpha-carboxyl of apamin appears to be essential for full expression of its biological activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Devaux
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie des Protéines, CNRS URA 1455, IFR Jean Roche, Faculté de Médecine-Nord, Marseille, France
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14
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Apamin: A Probe for Small-Conductance, Calcium-Activated Potassium Channels. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-185266-5.50007-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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15
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Garcia ML, Galvez A, Garcia-Calvo M, King VF, Vazquez J, Kaczorowski GJ. Use of toxins to study potassium channels. J Bioenerg Biomembr 1991; 23:615-46. [PMID: 1917911 DOI: 10.1007/bf00785814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Potassium channels comprise groups of diverse proteins which can be distinguished according to each member's biophysical properties. Some types of K+ channels are blocked with high affinity by specific peptidyl toxins. Three toxins, charybdotoxin, iberiotoxin, and noxiustoxin, which display a high degree of homology in their primary amino acid sequences, have been purified to homogeneity from scorpion venom. While charybdotoxin and noxiustoxin are known to inhibit more than one class of channel (i.e., several Ca(2+)-activated and voltage-dependent K+ channels), iberiotoxin appears to be a selective blocker of the high-conductance, Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel that is present in muscle and neuroendocrine tissue. A distinct class of small-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel is blocked by two other toxins, apamin and leiurotoxin-1, that share no sequence homology with each other. A family of homologous toxins, the dendrotoxins, have been purified from venom of various related species of snakes. These toxins inhibit several inactivating voltage-dependent K+ channels. Although molecular biology approaches have been employed to identify and characterize several species of voltage-gated K+ channels, toxins directed against a particular channel can still be useful in defining the physiological role of that channel in a particular tissue. In addition, for those K+ channels which are not yet successfully probed by molecular biology techniques, toxins can be used as biochemical tools with which to purify the target protein of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Garcia
- Department of Membrane Biochemistry and Biophysics, Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research, Rahway, New Jersey 07065
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Labbé-Jullié C, Granier C, Albericio F, Defendini ML, Ceard B, Rochat H, Van Rietschoten J. Binding and toxicity of apamin. Characterization of the active site. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1991; 196:639-45. [PMID: 2013287 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1991.tb15860.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The structural features of apamin, a natural octadecapeptide from bee venom, enabling binding to its receptor and the expression of toxicity in mice, have been delineated by studying the effects on binding and toxicity of chemical modifications and amino acid substitutions in synthetic analogues. The results obtained indicate that the only hydrophobic residue, leucine at position 10, can be changed to alanine without a significant decrease in the specific activity. The need for a correct conformation has been established and also the importance of Gln-17 and the side chains of Arg-13 and Arg-14 (besides the charge effects). The interaction of apamin with its receptor, a calcium-activated potassium channel, is thus mediated by a precise topology around these three residues. Due to the ability to detect very low specific activities for some of the analogues, it has been shown that, individually, none of these interactions constitute an essential criteria for binding per se, but that their presence is necessary for the high specific activity of the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Labbé-Jullié
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UA 1179, Faculté de Médecine Secteur Nord, Marseille, France
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Pease JH, Storrs RW, Wemmer DE. Folding and activity of hybrid sequence, disulfide-stabilized peptides. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990; 87:5643-7. [PMID: 2377603 PMCID: PMC54383 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.87.15.5643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptides have been synthesized that have hybrid sequences, partially derived from the bee venom peptide apamin and partially from the S peptide of ribonuclease A. The hybrid peptides were demonstrated by NMR spectroscopy to fold, forming the same disulfides and basic three-dimensional structure as native apamin, containing a beta-turn and an alpha-helix. These hybrids were active in complementing S protein, reactivating nuclease activity. In addition, the hybrid peptide was effective in inducing antibodies that cross-react with the RNase, without conjugation to a carrier protein. The stability of the folded structure of this peptide suggests that it should be possible to elicit antibodies that will react not only with a specific sequence, but also with a specific secondary structure. Hybrid sequence peptides also provide opportunities to study separately nucleation and propagation steps in formation of secondary structure. We show that in S peptide the alpha-helix does not end abruptly but rather terminates gradually over four or five residues. In general, these hybrid sequence peptides, which fold predictably because of disulfide bond formation, can provide opportunities for examining structure-function relationships for many biologically active sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Pease
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley 94720
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18
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Moczydlowski E, Lucchesi K, Ravindran A. An emerging pharmacology of peptide toxins targeted against potassium channels. J Membr Biol 1988; 105:95-111. [PMID: 2464066 DOI: 10.1007/bf02009164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Voltage-dependent ion channels are a difficult class of proteins to approach biochemically. Many such channels are present at low density in relevant tissues and exist as multiple subtypes that can be distinguished electrophysiologically. In particular, K channels appear to be a diverse family of proteins characterized by many different conductance properties, gating behaviors and regulatory phenomena. Fortunately, specific peptide toxins for K channels are present in the venoms of insects, scorpions, snakes and possibly other species. The available sequences of these peptides define several different families of toxins. Electrophysiological and radioligand binding studies suggest that these toxins can be used to distinguish subclasses of K channels that share similar toxin binding sites. The growing databank of sequence homologies for both toxins and channels is, in essence, a codebook for identifying common elements of structure and function. The continuing development of toxins as biochemical probes should help to uncover the molecular basis and physiological significance of K-channel diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Moczydlowski
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06510
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19
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Barany G, Kneib-Cordonier N, Mullen DG. Solid-phase peptide synthesis: a silver anniversary report. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN RESEARCH 1987; 30:705-39. [PMID: 3326854 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.1987.tb03385.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
It has been a quarter of a century since Merrifield's initial report on solid-phase peptide synthesis. The field has matured significantly in recent years with a better understanding of the underlying chemistry. This is reflected by new, milder orthogonal protection schemes and more efficient coupling methods, some of which have been incorporated into automated systems. Advances in purification, especially high performance liquid chromatography, have had a major impact. The efficacy of these improvements has been demonstrated by an impressive litany of applications to biological problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Barany
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
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20
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Abstract
The kinetics of hydrogen exchange of the 11 most protected backbone amides of bee venom apamin have been measured between pH 1 and pH 8.5 by using time-resolved and saturation-transfer NMR spectroscopy. The five amides most protected from base-catalyzed exchange, those of residues 5 and 12-15, show highly correlated exchange behavior in the base-catalyzed regime. It is proposed that the intramolecular hydrogen bonds stabilizing these amides define a stable cooperative unit of secondary structure in apamin (a C-terminal helix and an N-terminal beta-turn). This conformational unit is further stabilized (by 5-6 kJ mol-1) on titration of the Glu-7 side-chain carboxyl group. The relative contributions of specific intramolecular interactions to this conformational stabilization are estimated. The pHminima in the pH-dependent single amide exchange curves are compared with values predicted by correcting for sequence-dependent contributions to amide exchange rates [Molday, R. S., Englander, S. W., & Kallen, R. G. (1972) Biochemistry 11, 150-158]. The lack of correlation suggests that the "open" conformers from which amide exchange occurs are nonrandom. This conclusion is dependent on the assumption that acid-catalyzed exchange occurs via N-protonation so that residual conformational effects on exchange rates in the open conformers will affect acid- and base-catalyzed rates in approximately equal and opposite ways. A strong correlation between the measured pHminima and the amide proton chemical shifts is observed, however, and this may be most easily accommodated if acid-catalyzed exchange occurs by the imidic acid mechanism (via amide O-protonation).
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Albericio F, Granier C, Labbe-Jullie C, Seagar M, Couraud F, Van Rietschoten J. Solid phase synthesis and hplc purification of the protected 1-12 sequence of apamin for rapid synthesis of apamin analogues differing in the c-terminal region. Tetrahedron 1984. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(01)98806-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Hugues M, Duval D, Kitabgi P, Lazdunski M, Vincent JP. Preparation of a pure monoiodo derivative of the bee venom neurotoxin apamin and its binding properties to rat brain synaptosomes. J Biol Chem 1982. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)81028-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Bystrov VF, Okhanov VV, Miroshnikov AI, Ovchinnikov YA. Solution spatial structure of apamin as derived from NMR study. FEBS Lett 1980; 119:113-7. [PMID: 6253315 DOI: 10.1016/0014-5793(80)81010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Basische Peptide des Bienengifts, V. Synthese von vier Peptidfragmenten aus der Sequenz des Apamins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1980. [DOI: 10.1515/bchm2.1980.361.1.515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Sandberg BE. Solid phase synthesis of 13-lysine-apamin, 14-lysine-apamin and the corresponding guanidinated derivatives. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN RESEARCH 1979; 13:327-33. [PMID: 429106 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.1979.tb01887.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In order to study the importance of arginine residues 13 and 14 in apamin, the bee venom neurotoxin, four analogues, [Lys13]-apamin, [Lys14]-apamin, [Har4, Har13]-apamin and [Har4, har14]-apamin were synthesized and tested with respect to their neurotoxicity. The two lysine-apamins were prepared by the solid phase method on benzhydrylamine resins. Before oxidation to disulphides, the (S-Acm)4-peptides were isolated and characterized. Portions of the purified lysin peptides were converted to homoarginine analogues by guanidination. The four apamin analogues were lethal, but the lethal doses differed significantly. The results demonstrate that the arginine residue at position 14 is more important for the high toxicity than is the one at position 13. The circular dichroism (CD) spectrum of [Lys13]-apamin was identical with that of apamin itself, whereas the spectrum of [Lys14]-apamin showed certain deviations.
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Wade JD, Ng FM, Bornstein J. Diabetogenic action of human growth hormone. Synthesis and activity of C-terminal fragments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PEPTIDE AND PROTEIN RESEARCH 1979; 13:195-200. [PMID: 429095 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3011.1979.tb01868.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Three peptides corresponding to the C-terminal region of human growth hormone have been synthesized by the solid-phase method: HGH-(177--191), HGH-(178--191) and HGH-(179--191). The diabetogenic activities of these synthetic peptides are reported. The data indicate that extension of HGH-(179--191) at its NH2-terminus is required for in vivo activity. The reduced and S-carbamidomethylated form of HGH-(177--191) was also active, indicating that the disulphide bond is possibly not a prerequisite for biological activity.
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Granier C, Pedroso Muller E, Van Rietschoten J. Use of synthetic analogs for a study on the structure-activity relationship of apamin. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1978; 82:293-9. [PMID: 620675 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1978.tb12023.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
[Lys13,Lys14]Apamin, [Lys13]apamin and [Lys14]apamin, three structural analogs of the bee venom neurotoxin, have been obtained by solid-phase peptide synthesis while an attempt to obtain [Cit13]apamin failed, probably at the step of reoxidation of cysteines. After the chemical purity of these three derivatives had been assessed, further chemical modifications led to three new peptides: [Ac-Cys1,Lys(Ac)4,Lys(Ac)13]apamin, [Ac-Cys1,Lys(Ac)4,Lys(Ac)14]apamin and [Har4,Har13,Har14]apamin. These six analogs have been tested for their neurotoxicity, i.e. determination of LD50 for mouse by subcutaneous injection. A lethal potency is observed only when the region 13-14 of the sequence contains a double positive charge. One arginyl residue is necessary for a high biological activity, while its location in position 13 or 14 is of minor importance. When homoarginine (Har) replaces arginyl residues the neurotoxicity is lowered.
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