Reversal of natural killing susceptibility in target cells expressing transfected class I HLA genes

KIR2DS2+ NK cells in cancer patients demonstrate high activation in response to tumour-targeting antibodies

Strategies to mobilise natural killer (NK) cells against cancer include tumour-targeting antibodies, NK cell engagers (NKCEs) and the adoptive transfer of ex vivo expanded healthy donor-derived NK cells. Genetic and functional studies have revealed that expression of the activating killer immunoglobulin-like receptor KIR2DS2 is associated with enhanced function in NK cells from healthy donors and improved outcome in several different malignancies. The optimal strategy to leverage KIR2DS2+ NK cells therapeutically is however currently unclear. In this study, we therefore evaluated the response of KIR2DS2-expressing NK cells to activation against cancer with clinically relevant tumour-targeting antibodies and following ex vivo expansion. We identified that KIR2DS2high NK cells from patients with chronic lymphocytic leukaemia and hepatocellular carcinoma had enhanced activation in response to tumour-targeting antibodies compared to KIR2DS2- NK cells. However, the superior function of healthy donor derived KIR2DS2high NK cells was lost following ex vivo expansion which is required for adoptive transfer-based therapeutic strategies. These data provide evidence that targeting KIR2DS2 directly in cancer patients may allow for the utilisation of their enhanced effector function, however such activity may be lost following their ex vivo expansion.

Engineering human pluripotent stem cell lines to evade xenogeneic transplantation barriers

Successful allogeneic human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived therapies must overcome immunological rejection by the recipient. To build reagents to define these barriers, we genetically ablated β2M, TAP1, CIITA, CD74, MICA, and MICB to limit expression of HLA-I, HLA-II, and natural killer (NK) cell activating ligands in hPSCs. Transplantation of these cells that also expressed covalent single chain trimers of Qa1 and H2-Kb to inhibit NK cells and CD55, Crry, and CD59 to inhibit complement deposition led to persistent teratomas in wild-type mice. Transplantation of HLA-deficient hPSCs into mice genetically deficient in complement and depleted of NK cells also led to persistent teratomas. Thus, T cell, NK cell, and complement evasion are necessary to prevent immunological rejection of hPSCs and their progeny. These cells and versions expressing human orthologs of immune evasion factors can be used to define cell type-specific immune barriers and conduct preclinical testing in immunocompetent mouse models.

Engineering Human Pluripotent Stem Cell Lines to Evade Xenogeneic Transplantation Barriers

Allogeneic human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived cells and tissues for therapeutic transplantation must necessarily overcome immunological rejection by the recipient. To define these barriers and to create cells capable of evading rejection for preclinical testing in immunocompetent mouse models, we genetically ablated β2m, Tap1, Ciita, Cd74, Mica, and Micb to limit expression of HLA-I, HLA-II, and natural killer cell activating ligands in hPSCs. Though these and even unedited hPSCs readily formed teratomas in cord blood-humanized immunodeficient mice, grafts were rapidly rejected by immunocompetent wild-type mice. Transplantation of these cells that also expressed covalent single chain trimers of Qa1 and H2-Kb to inhibit natural killer cells and CD55, Crry, and CD59 to inhibit complement deposition led to persistent teratomas in wild-type mice. Expression of additional inhibitory factors such as CD24, CD47, and/or PD-L1 had no discernible impact on teratoma growth or persistence. Transplantation of HLA-deficient hPSCs into mice genetically deficient in complement and depleted of natural killer cells also led to persistent teratomas. Thus, T cell, NK cell, and complement evasion are necessary to prevent immunological rejection of hPSCs and their progeny. These cells and versions expressing human orthologs of immune evasion factors can be used to refine tissue- and cell type-specific immune barriers, and to conduct preclinical testing in immunocompetent mouse models.

CD8 T cell function and cross-reactivity explored by stepwise increased peptide-HLA versus TCR affinity

Recruitment and activation of CD8 T cells occur through specific triggering of T cell receptor (TCR) by peptide-bound human leucocyte antigen (HLA) ligands. Within the generated trimeric TCR-peptide:HLA complex, the molecular binding affinities between peptide and HLA, and between TCR and peptide:HLA both impact T cell functional outcomes. However, how their individual and combined effects modulate immunogenicity and overall T cell responsiveness has not been investigated systematically. Here, we established two panels of human tumor peptide variants differing in their affinity to HLA. For precise characterization, we developed the “blue peptide assay”, an upgraded cell-based approach to measure the peptide:HLA affinity. These peptide variants were then used to investigate the cross-reactivity of tumor antigen-specific CD8 T cell clonotypes derived from blood of cancer patients after vaccination with either the native or an affinity-optimized Melan-A/MART-1 epitope, or isolated from tumor infiltrated lymph nodes (TILNs). Vaccines containing the native tumor epitope generated T cells with better functionality, and superior cross-reactivity against potential low affinity escape epitopes, as compared to T cells induced by vaccines containing an HLA affinity-optimized epitope. Comparatively, Melan-A/MART-1-specific TILN cells displayed functional and cross-reactive profiles that were heterogeneous and clonotype-dependent. Finally, we took advantage of a collection of T cells expressing affinity-optimized NY-ESO-1-specific TCRs to interrogate the individual and combined impact of peptide:HLA and TCR-pHLA affinities on overall CD8 T cell responses. We found profound and distinct effects of both biophysical parameters, with additive contributions and absence of hierarchical dominance. Altogether, the biological impact of peptide:HLA and TCR-pHLA affinities on T cell responses was carefully dissected in two antigenic systems, frequently targeted in human cancer immunotherapy. Our technology and stepwise comparison open new insights into the rational design and selection of vaccine-associated tumor-specific epitopes and highlight the functional and cross-reactivity profiles that endow T cells with best tumor control capacity.

T Cell Epitope Discovery in the Context of Distinct and Unique Indigenous HLA Profiles

CD8+ T cells are a pivotal part of the immune response to viruses, playing a key role in disease outcome and providing long-lasting immunity to conserved pathogen epitopes. Understanding CD8+ T cell immunity in humans is complex due to CD8+ T cell restriction by highly polymorphic Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) proteins, requiring T cell epitopes to be defined for different HLA allotypes across different ethnicities. Here we evaluate strategies that have been developed to facilitate epitope identification and study immunogenic T cell responses. We describe an immunopeptidomics approach to sequence HLA-bound peptides presented on virus-infected cells by liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Using antigen presenting cell lines that stably express the HLA alleles characteristic of Indigenous Australians, this approach has been successfully used to comprehensively identify influenza-specific CD8+ T cell epitopes restricted by HLA allotypes predominant in Indigenous Australians, including HLA-A*24:02 and HLA-A*11:01. This is an essential step in ensuring high vaccine coverage and efficacy in Indigenous populations globally, known to be at high risk from influenza disease and other respiratory infections.

Identification of Flucloxacillin-Haptenated HLA-B*57:01 Ligands: Evidence of Antigen Processing and Presentation

Flucloxacillin is a β-lactam antibiotic associated with a high incidence of drug-induced liver reactions. Although expression of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B*57:01 increases susceptibility, little is known of the pathological mechanisms involved in the induction of the clinical phenotype. Irreversible protein modification is suspected to drive the reaction through the modification of peptides that are presented by the risk allele. In this study, the binding of flucloxacillin to immune cells was characterized and the nature of the peptides presented by HLA-B*57:01 was analyzed using mass spectrometric-based immunopeptidomics methods. Flucloxacillin modification of multiple proteins was observed, providing a potential source of neoantigens for HLA presentation. Of the peptides eluted from flucloxacillin-treated C1R-B*57:01 cells, 6 putative peptides were annotated as flucloxacillin-modified HLA-B*57:01 peptide ligands (data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD020137). To conclude, we have characterized naturally processed drug-haptenated HLA ligands presented on the surface of antigen presenting cells that may drive drug-specific CD8+ T-cell responses.

CCL25 Signaling in the Tumor Microenvironment

Multiple checkpoint mechanisms are overridden by cancer cells in order to develop into a tumor. Neoplastic cells, while constantly changing during the course of cancer progression, also craft their surroundings to meet their growing needs. This crafting involves changing cell surface receptors, affecting response to extracellular signals and secretion of signals that affect the nearby cells and extracellular matrix architecture. This chapter briefly comprehends the non-cancer cells facilitating the cancer growth and elaborates on the notable role of the CCR9-CCL25 chemokine axis in shaping the tumor microenvironment (TME), directly and via immune cells. Association of increased CCR9 and CCL25 levels in various tumors has demonstrated the significance of this axis as a tool commonly used by cancer to flourish. It is involved in attracting immune cells in the tumor and determining their fate via various direct and indirect mechanisms and, leaning the TME toward immunosuppressive state. Besides, elevated CCR9-CCL25 signaling allows survival and rapid proliferation of cancer cells in an otherwise repressive environment. It modulates the intra- and extracellular protein matrix to instigate tumor dissemination and creates a supportive metastatic niche at the secondary sites. Lastly, this chapter abridges the latest research efforts and challenges in using the CCR9-CCL25 axis as a cancer-specific target.

Characterization of Human Mucosal-associated Invariant T (MAIT) Cells

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are a subset of unconventional T cells restricted by the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I-like molecule MHC-related protein 1 (MR1). MAIT cells are found throughout the body, especially in human blood and liver. Unlike conventional T cells, which are stimulated by peptide antigens presented by MHC molecules, MAIT cells recognize metabolite antigens derived from an intermediate in the microbial biosynthesis of riboflavin. MAIT cells mediate protective immunity to infections by riboflavin-producing microbes via the production of cytokines and cytotoxicity. The discovery of stimulating MAIT cell antigens allowed for the development of an analytical tool, the MR1 tetramer, that binds specifically to the MAIT T cell receptor (TCR) and is becoming the gold standard for identification of MAIT cells by flow cytometry. This article describes protocols to characterize the phenotype of human MAIT cells in blood and tissues by flow cytometry using fluorescently labeled human MR1 tetramers alongside antibodies specific for MAIT cell markers. © 2019 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The main protocols include: Basic Protocol 1: Determining the frequency and steady-state surface phenotype of human MAIT cells Basic Protocol 2: Determining the activation phenotype of human MAIT cells in blood Basic Protocol 3: Characterizing MAIT cell TCRs using TCR-positive reporter cell lines Alternate protocols are provided for determining the absolute number, transcription factor phenotype, and TCR usage of human MAIT cells; and determining activation phenotype by staining for intracellular markers, measuring secreted cytokines, and measuring fluorescent dye dilution due to proliferation. Additional methods are provided for determining the capacity of MAIT cells to produce cytokine independently of antigen using plate-bound or bead-immobilized CD3/CD28 stimulation; and determining the MR1-Ag dependence of MAIT cell activation using MR1-blocking antibody or competitive inhibition. For TCR-positive reporter cell lines, methods are also provided for evaluating the MAIT TCR-mediated MR1-Ag response, determining the capacity of the reporter lines to produce cytokine independently of antigen, determining the MR1-Ag dependence of the reporter lines, and evaluating the MR1-Ag response of the reporter lines using IL-2 secretion. Support Protocols describe the preparation of PBMCs from human blood, the preparation of single-cell suspensions from tissue, the isolation of MAIT cells by FACS and MACS, cloning MAIT TCRα and β chain genes and MR1 genes for transduction, generating stably and transiently transfected cells lines, generating a stable MR1 knockout antigen-presenting cell line, and generating monocyte-derived dendritic cells.

HLA Class I-sensitized Renal Transplant Patients Have Antibody Binding to SLA Class I Epitopes

BACKGROUND

Highly sensitized patients are difficult to match with suitable renal allograft donors and may benefit from xenotransplant trials. We evaluate antibody binding from sensitized patients to pig cells and engineered single allele cells to identify anti-human leukocyte antigen (HLA) antibody cross-species reactivity with swine leukocyte antigen (SLA). These novel testing strategies assess HLA/SLA epitopes and antibody-binding patterns and introduce genetic engineering of SLA epitopes.

METHODS

Sensitized patient sera were grouped by calculated panel reactive antibody and luminex single antigen reactivity profile and were tested with cloned GGTA1/CMAH/B4GalNT2 glycan knockout porcine cells. Pig reactivity was assessed by direct flow cytometric crossmatch and studied following elution from pig cells. To study the antigenicity of individual class I HLA and SLA alleles in cells, irrelevant sera binding to lymphoblastoid cells were minimized by CRISPR/Cas9 elimination of endogenous class I and class II HLA, B-cell receptor, and Fc receptor genes. Native HLA, SLA, and mutants of these proteins after mutating 144K to Q were assessed for antibody binding.

RESULTS

Those with predominately anti-HLA-B&C antibodies, including Bw6 and Bw4 sensitization, frequently have low pig reactivity. Conversely, antibodies eluted from porcine cells are more commonly anti-HLA-A. Single HLA/SLA expressing engineered cells shows variable antigenicity and mutation of 144K to Q reduces antibody binding for some sensitized patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-HLA antibodies cross-react with SLA class I in predictable patterns, which can be identified with histocompatibility strategies, and SLA class I is a possible target of genetic engineering.

Natural Killer Cells: Tumor Surveillance and Signaling

Natural killer (NK) cells play a pivotal role in cancer immunotherapy due to their innate ability to detect and kill tumorigenic cells. The decision to kill is determined by the expression of a myriad of activating and inhibitory receptors on the NK cell surface. Cell-to-cell engagement results in either self-tolerance or a cytotoxic response, governed by a fine balance between the signaling cascades downstream of the activating and inhibitory receptors. To evade a cytotoxic immune response, tumor cells can modulate the surface expression of receptor ligands and additionally, alter the conditions in the tumor microenvironment (TME), tilting the scales toward a suppressed cytotoxic NK response. To fully harness the killing power of NK cells for clinical benefit, we need to understand what defines the threshold for activation and what is required to break tolerance. This review will focus on the intracellular signaling pathways activated or suppressed in NK cells and the roles signaling intermediates play during an NK cytotoxic response.

Development of a novel monoclonal antibody that binds to most HLA-A allomorphs in a conformation-dependent yet peptide-promiscuous fashion

Specificity analyses of peptide binding to human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A molecules have been hampered due to a lack of proper monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) for certain allomorphs, such as the prevalent HLA-A1 for Caucasians and HLA-A11 for Asians. We developed a mAb that recognizes a conformational epitope common to most HLA-A allomorphs. The mAb, named A-1, does not discriminate peptides by amino acid sequences, making it suitable for measuring peptide binding. A stabilization assay using TAP-deficient cell lines and A-1 was developed to investigate the specificity of peptide binding to HLA-A molecules. Regarding the evolution of HLA-A genes, the A-1 epitope has been conserved among most HLA-A allomorphs but was lost when the HLA-A gene diversified into the HLA-A*32, HLA-A*31, and HLA-A*33 lineages together with HLA-A*29 after bifurcating from the HLA-A*25 and HLA-A*26 branchs. The establishment of A-1 is expected to help researchers investigate the peptide repertoire and develop computational tools to identify cognate peptides. Since no HLA-A locus-specific mAb has been available, A-1 will also be useful for analyzing the locus-specific regulation of the HLA gene expression.

Racial Differences in Immunological Landscape Modifiers Contributing to Disparity in Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer affects African Americans disproportionately by exhibiting greater incidence, rapid disease progression, and higher mortality when compared to their Caucasian counterparts. Additionally, standard treatment interventions do not achieve similar outcome in African Americans compared to Caucasian Americans, indicating differences in host factors contributing to racial disparity. African Americans have allelic variants and hyper-expression of genes that often lead to an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, possibly contributing to more aggressive tumors and poorer disease and therapeutic outcomes than Caucasians. In this review, we have discussed race-specific differences in external factors impacting internal milieu, which modify immunological topography as well as contribute to disparity in prostate cancer.

Identification of Native and Posttranslationally Modified HLA-B*57:01-Restricted HIV Envelope Derived Epitopes Using Immunoproteomics

The recognition of pathogen-derived peptides by T lymphocytes is the cornerstone of adaptive immunity, whereby intracellular antigens are degraded in the cytosol and short peptides assemble with class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules in the ER. These peptide-HLA complexes egress to the cell surface and are scrutinized by cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells leading to the eradication of the infected cell. Here, naturally presented HLA-B*57:01 bound peptides derived from the envelope protein of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIVenv) are identified. HIVenv peptides are present at a very small percentage of the overall HLA-B*57:01 peptidome (<0.1%) and both native and posttranslationally modified forms of two distinct HIV peptides are identified. Notably, a peptide bearing a natively encoded C-terminal tryptophan residue is also present in a modified form containing a kynurenine residue. Kynurenine is a major product of tryptophan catabolism and is abundant during inflammation and infection. Binding of these peptides at a molecular level and their immunogenicity in preliminary functional studies are examined. Modest immune responses are observed to the modified HIVenv peptide, highlighting a potential role for kynurenine-modified peptides in the immune response to HIV and other viral infections.

Role of major histocompatibility complex variation in graft-versus-host disease after hematopoietic cell transplantation

Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) remains a significant potentially life-threatening complication of allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT). Since the discovery of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system over 50 years ago, significant advances have clarified the nature of HLA variation between transplant recipients and donors as a chief etiology of GVHD. New information on coding and non-coding gene variation and GVHD risk provides clinicians with options to consider selected mismatched donors when matched donors are not available. These advances have increased the availability of unrelated donors for patients in need of a transplant and have lowered the overall morbidity and mortality of HCT.

How important is NK alloreactivity and KIR in allogeneic transplantation?

Relapse of acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation (allo HCT) is a major cause of death in transplant recipients. Efforts to control relapse by promoting donor T-cell alloreactivity, such as withdrawal of immune suppression or donor lymphocyte infusions, are limited by the propensity to induce graft versus host disease (GVHD) and by inadequate efficacy. Therefore, options for AML patients who have relapsed AML after allo HCT are few and outcomes are poor. Similar to T-cells, natural killer (NK) cells have potent anti-leukemia effector capacity, and yet unlike T-cells, NK cells do not mediate GVHD. Furthermore, their function does not require matching of human leukocyte antigens (HLA) between donor and recipient. Maximizing donor NK alloreactivity thus holds the exciting possibility to induce the graft versus leukemia (GVL) effect without engendering GVHD. Among the array of activating and inhibitory NK cell surface receptors, the killer Ig-like receptors (KIR) play a central role in modulating NK effector function. Here we will review how KIR mediates donor alloreactivity, discuss the role of KIR gene and allele typing to optimize allo HCT donor selection, and discuss how KIR may aid adoptive NK and other cell therapies.

Generation of β cell-specific human cytotoxic T cells by lentiviral transduction and their survival in immunodeficient human leucocyte antigen-transgenic mice

Several β cell antigens recognized by T cells in the non-obese diabetic (NOD) mouse model of type 1 diabetes (T1D) are also T cell targets in the human disease. While numerous antigen-specific therapies prevent diabetes in NOD mice, successful translation of rodent findings to patients has been difficult. A human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-transgenic mouse model incorporating human β cell-specific T cells might provide a better platform for evaluating antigen-specific therapies. The ability to study such T cells is limited by their low frequency in peripheral blood and the difficulty in obtaining islet-infiltrating T cells from patients. We have worked to overcome this limitation by using lentiviral transduction to 'reprogram' primary human CD8 T cells to express three T cell receptors (TCRs) specific for a peptide derived from the β cell antigen islet-specific glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit-related protein (IGRP265-273 ) and recognized in the context of the human class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule HLA-A2. The TCRs bound peptide/MHC multimers with a range of avidities, but all bound with at least 10-fold lower avidity than the anti-viral TCR used for comparison. One exhibited antigenic recognition promiscuity. The β cell-specific human CD8 T cells generated by lentiviral transduction with one of the TCRs released interferon (IFN)-γ in response to antigen and exhibited cytotoxic activity against peptide-pulsed target cells. The cells engrafted in HLA-A2-transgenic NOD-scid IL2rγ(null) mice and could be detected in the blood, spleen and pancreas up to 5 weeks post-transfer, suggesting the utility of this approach for the evaluation of T cell-modulatory therapies for T1D and other T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.

The antimicrobial peptide LL37 is a T-cell autoantigen in psoriasis

Psoriasis is a common T-cell-mediated skin disease with 2-3% prevalence worldwide. Psoriasis is considered to be an autoimmune disease, but the precise nature of the autoantigens triggering T-cell activation remains poorly understood. Here we find that two-thirds of patients with moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis harbour CD4(+) and/or CD8(+) T cells specific for LL37, an antimicrobial peptide (AMP) overexpressed in psoriatic skin and reported to trigger activation of innate immune cells. LL37-specific T cells produce IFN-γ, and CD4(+) T cells also produce Th17 cytokines. LL37-specific T cells can infiltrate lesional skin and may be tracked in patients blood by tetramers staining. Presence of circulating LL37-specific T cells correlates significantly with disease activity, suggesting a contribution to disease pathogenesis. Thus, we uncover a role of LL37 as a T-cell autoantigen in psoriasis and provide evidence for a role of AMPs in both innate and adaptive immune cell activation.

Myeloma cells resistance to NK cell lysis mainly involves an HLA class I-dependent mechanism

The anti-multiple myeloma (MM) potential of natural killer (NK) cells has been of rising interest in recent years. However, the molecular mechanism of NK cell cytotoxicity to myeloma cells remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the expressions of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and HLA-G in patient myeloma cells, and determined their relevance in patient tumor-cell susceptibility to NK cell cytotoxicity. Our results showed that patient myeloma cells (n = 12) were relatively resistant to NK-92 cell lysis, compared with myeloma cell lines (n = 7, P < 0.01). Gene expression profiling and flow cytometry analysis showed that both mRNA and protein of HLA class I were highly expressed in 12 patient myeloma cells. Interestingly, no or low HLA-G surface expression was detected, although multiple HLA-G transcripts were detected in these myeloma cells. NK cell function assay showed that down-regulating HLA class I expression on patient cells by acid treatment significantly increased the susceptibility of MM cells to NK-mediated lysis. Furthermore, we found that the blocking of membrane-bound HLA class I rather than HLA-G using antibodies on myeloma samples markedly increased their susceptibility to NK-mediated killing. These results demonstrated that the resistance of patient MM cells to NK lysis mainly involves an HLA class I-dependent mechanism, suggesting that HLA class I may be involved in protecting MM cells from NK-mediated attack and contribute to their immune escape in vivo.

Cellular scent of influenza virus infection

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emanating from humans have the potential to revolutionize non-invasive diagnostics. Yet, little is known about how these compounds are generated by complex biological systems, and even less is known about how these compounds are reflective of a particular physiological state. In this proof-of-concept study, we examined VOCs produced directly at the cellular level from B lymphoblastoid cells upon infection with three live influenza virus subtypes: H9N2 (avian), H6N2 (avian), and H1N1 (human). Using a single cell line helped to alleviate some of the complexity and variability when studying VOC production by an entire organism, and it allowed us to discern marked differences in VOC production upon infection of the cells. The patterns of VOCs produced in response to infection were unique for each virus subtype, while several other non-specific VOCs were produced after infections with all three strains. Also, there was a specific time course of VOC release post infection. Among emitted VOCs, production of esters and other oxygenated compounds was particularly notable, and these may be attributed to increased oxidative stress resulting from infection. Elucidating VOC signatures that result from the host cells response to infection may yield an avenue for non-invasive diagnostics and therapy of influenza and other viral infections.

Structural insights into activation of antiviral NK cell responses

Natural killer (NK) cells are key components of innate immune responses, providing surveillance against cells undergoing tumorigenesis or infection, by viruses or internal pathogens. NK cells can directly eliminate compromised cells and regulate downstream responses of the innate and acquired immune systems through the release of immune modulators (cytokines, interferons). The importance of the role NK cells play in immune defense was demonstrated originally in herpes viral infections, usually mild or localized, which become severe and life threatening in NK-deficient patients . NK cell effector functions are governed by balancing opposing signals from a diverse array of activating and inhibitory receptors. Many NK receptors occur in paired activating and inhibitory isoforms and recognize major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I proteins with varying degrees of peptide specificity. Structural studies have made considerable inroads into understanding the molecular mechanisms employed to broadly recognize multiple MHC ligands or specific pathogen-associated antigens and the strategies employed by viruses to thwart these defenses. Although many details of NK development, signaling, and integration remain mysterious, it is clear that NK receptors are key components of a system exquisitely tuned to sense any dysregulation in MHC class I expression, or the expression of certain viral antigens, resulting in the elimination of affected cells.

The kelch protein KLHDC8B guards against mitotic errors, centrosomal amplification, and chromosomal instability

The malignant cell in classical Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) is the binucleated giant Reed-Sternberg cell. Chromosomal instability and mitotic errors may contribute to HL pathogenesis; one potential mitotic regulator is the kelch protein KLHDC8B, which localizes to the midbody, is expressed during mitosis, and is mutated in a subset of familial and sporadic HL. We report that disrupting KLHDC8B function in HeLa cells, B lymphoblasts, and fibroblasts leads to significant increases in multinucleation, multipolar mitoses, failed abscission, asymmetric segregation of daughter nuclei, formation of anucleated daughter cells, centrosomal amplification, and aneuploidy. We recapitulated the major pathologic features of the Reed-Sternberg cell and concluded that KLHDC8B is essential for mitotic integrity and maintenance of chromosomal stability. The significant impact of KLHDC8B implicates the central roles of mitotic regulation and chromosomal segregation in the pathogenesis of HL and provides a novel molecular mechanism for chromosomal instability in HL.

Innate immune control of HIV

Mounting evidence suggests a role for innate immunity in the early control of HIV infection, before the induction of adaptive immune responses. Among the early innate immune effector cells, dendritic cells (DCs) respond rapidly following infection aimed at arming the immune system, through the recognition of viral products via pattern recognition receptors. This early response results in the potent induction of a cascade of inflammatory cytokines, intimately involved in directly setting up an antiviral state, and indirectly activating other antiviral cells of the innate immune system. However, epidemiologic data strongly support a role for natural killer (NK) cells as critical innate mediators of antiviral control, through the recognition of virally infected cells through a network of receptors called the killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs). In this review, the early events in innate immune recognition of HIV, focused on defining the biology underlying KIR-mediated NK-cell control of HIV viral replication, are discussed.

Secreted HLA recapitulates the immunopeptidome and allows in-depth coverage of HLA A*02:01 ligands

HLA molecules are cell-surface glycoproteins that present peptides, derived from intracellular protein antigens, for surveillance by T lymphocytes. Secreted HLA (sHLA) technology is a powerful approach for studying these peptides, since it facilitates large-scale production of HLA-bound peptides. We compared secreted and membrane-bound forms of HLA A2 in terms of intracellular trafficking and their bound peptide repertoire (termed the immunopeptidome). We demonstrate that sHLA and membrane bound HLA (mHLA) negotiate intracellular compartments with similar maturation kinetics. Moreover, mass spectrometry revealed a substantial overlap in the immunopeptidome was observed when HLA A2-bound peptides were purified from various sources of sHLA and mHLA. By combining machine based algorithms with manual validation, we identified 1266 non-redundant peptides. Analysis of these peptides revealed a number bearing post-translational modifications, although some of these may arise spontaneously others represent modifications performed within the cell that survive antigen processing. Peptides bearing some of these modifications have not previously been described for HLA ligands, therefore, this compendium of 1266 non-redundant peptide sequences adds greatly to the existing database of HLA A2 ligands. Peptides from all sources displayed comparable HLA A2 consensus binding motifs, peptide lengths, predicted HLA A2 binding affinities and putative source antigens. We conclude that sHLA is a valid and useful technique for studying the immunopeptidome.

Review: Immunogenetics of human placentation

Natural killer (NK) cells are a population of lymphocytes that function in both immune defense and reproduction. Diversifying NK cell phenotype and function are interactions between NK cell receptors and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I ligands. As a consequence of strong and variable selection these ligand-receptor systems are polymorphic, rapidly evolving, and considerably species-specific. Counterparts to the human system of HLA class I ligands and killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) are present only in apes and Old World monkeys. HLA-C, the dominant ligand for human KIR and the only polymorphic HLA class I expressed by trophoblast, is further restricted to humans and great apes. Even then, the human system appears qualitatively different from that of chimpanzees, in that it has evolved a genetic balance between particular groups of receptors and ligands that favor reproductive success and other groups of receptors and ligands that have been correlated with disordered placentation. Human populations that have survived successive episodes of epidemic disease and population bottlenecks maintain a breadth of diversity for KIR and HLA class I, implying that loss of such diversity disfavors long-term survival of a human population.

[Natural killer cells and cancer. Regulation by the killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIR)]

自然杀伤（natural killer, NK）细胞是先天性免疫效应细胞，约占人外周血淋巴细胞总数的10%-15%，主要参与免疫监视，以消除转化细胞和病毒感染细胞。NK细胞最初被界定是由于它们具有自发消除少数主要组织相容性复合物Ⅰ类（major histocompatibility class Ⅰ, MHC-Ⅰ）自身分子表达缺乏细胞的能力，即常说的“丢失自我”识别能力。NK细胞表面表达的MHC-Ⅰ特异性抑制性受体，可使NK细胞对表达MHC-Ⅰ的正常细胞耐受，此为丢失自我识别能力的分子基础。由于缺乏抑制性受体的配体，表面MHC-Ⅰ表达下调的肿瘤细胞和病毒感染细胞易受NK细胞攻击。杀伤细胞免疫球蛋白样受体（KIR; CD158）组成MHC-Ⅰ结合受体家族，对调节人NK细胞和部分T细胞的活化阈值起重要作用。KIR多样性使NK细胞具有多种功能，在此我们将综述多个水平上的KIR多样性，并诠释KIR多样性是如何影响各种疾病（包括癌症）的易感性的。我们将进一步阐述通过针对KIR进行癌症治疗的策略：利用KIR/MHC-Ⅰ配体的错配以强化造血干细胞移植的效果，以及通过阻滞KIR以增强对肿瘤细胞的杀伤力。

Uterine natural killer (uNK) cells and their missions during pregnancy: a review

Natural killer (NK) cells are lymphocytes of the innate immune system. The aim of this review is to describe the properties and roles of NK cells in the human uterus during pregnancy. Uterine natural killer cells (uNK) constitute a major lymphocyte population during early gestation in the uterus. The uterine natural killer cells are recognized owing to their CD56(bright), CD16(-), CD3(-) phenotype. Their number increases in the first trimester with a subsequent decline as pregnancy progresses. They have been shown to be closely associated with cells of the extravillous trophoblast (EVT) and spiral arteries. They play important roles in remodeling of the spiral arteries, control of trophoblast invasion and in the development of the placenta. Some studies have shown the number and repertoire of receptors of uNK differ between women with healthy pregnancies and those with pathologic pregnancies, such as pre-eclampsia or intrauterine growth retardation. During pregnancy, the cytotoxic characteristics of the uterine killer cells are not directed towards the fetus, and scientists continue to question and explore this phenomenon with increasing evidence that these cells may perform differing beneficial roles during pregnancy. Contrary to their previously suspected "hostile" characteristics, the uterine killer cells are considered to be "friendly" and appear to be essential and very important regulators of successful implantation and pregnancy.

A human NK cell activation/inhibition threshold allows small changes in the target cell surface phenotype to dramatically alter susceptibility to NK cells

NK cell activation is negatively regulated by the expression of target cell MHC class I molecules. We show that this relationship is nonlinear due to an NK cell activation/inhibition threshold. Ewing's sarcoma family tumor cell monolayers, which were highly susceptible to NK cells in vitro, developed a highly resistant phenotype when cultured as three-dimensional multicellular tumor spheroid structures. This suggested that tumor architecture is likely to influence the susceptibility to NK cells in vivo. Resistance of the multicellular tumor spheroid was associated with the increased expression of MHC class I molecules and greatly reduced NK cell activation, implying that a threshold of NK cell activation/inhibition had been crossed. Reducing MHC class I expression on Ewing's sarcoma family tumor monolayers did not alter their susceptibility to NK cells, whereas increased expression of MHC class I rendered them resistant and allowed the threshold point to be identified. This threshold, as defined by MHC class I expression, was predictive of the number of NK-resistant target cells within a population. A threshold permits modest changes in the target cell surface phenotype to profoundly alter the susceptibility to NK cells. Whereas this allows for the efficient detection of target cells, it also provides a route for pathogens and tumors to evade NK cell attack.

Natural killer cell tolerance persists despite significant reduction of self MHC class I on normal target cells in mice

BACKGROUND

A major group of murine inhibitory receptors on Natural Killer (NK) cells belong to the Ly49 receptor family and recognize MHC class I molecules. Infected or transformed target cells frequently downmodulate MHC class I molecules and can thus avoid CD8(+) T cell attack, but may at the same time develop NK cell sensitivity, due to failure to express inhibitory ligands for Ly49 receptors. The extent of MHC class I downregulation needed on normal cells to trigger NK cell effector functions is not known.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

In this study, we show that cells expressing MHC class I to levels well below half of the host level are tolerated in an in vivo assay in mice. Hemizygous expression (expression from only one allele) of MHC class I was sufficient to induce Ly49 receptor downmodulation on NK cells to a similar degree as homozygous expression, despite a strongly reduced cell surface level of MHC class I. Co-expression of weaker MHC class I ligands in the host did not have any further effect on the degree of Ly49 downmodulation. Furthermore, a single MHC class I allele could downmodulate up to three Ly49 receptors on individual NK cells. Only when NK cells simultaneously expressed several Ly49 receptors and hemizygous MHC class I levels, a putative threshold for Ly49 downmodulation was reached.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, our findings suggest that in interactions between NK cells and normal untransformed cells, MHC class I molecules are in most cases expressed in excess compared to what is functionally needed to ensure self tolerance and to induce maximal Ly49 downmodulation. We speculate that the reason for this is to maintain a safety margin for otherwise normal, autologous cells over a range of MHC class I expression levels, in order to ensure robustness in NK cell tolerance.

Role of the plasma membrane leaflets in drug uptake and multidrug resistance

The present study aimed to investigate the role played by the leaflets of the plasma membrane in the uptake of drugs into cells and in their extrusion by P-glycoprotein and multidrug resistance-associated protein 1. Drug accumulation was monitored by fluorescence resonance energy transfer from trimethylammonium-diphenyl-hexatriene (TMA-DPH) located at the outer leaflet to a rhodamine analog. Uptake of dye into cells whose mitochondria had been inactivated was displayed as two phases of TMA-DPH fluorescence quenching. The initial phase comprised a rapid drop in fluorescence that was neither affected by cooling the cells on ice, nor by activity of mitochondria or ABC transporters. This phase reflects the association of dye with the outer leaflet of the plasma membrane. The subsequent phase of TMA-DPH fluorescence quenching occurred in drug-sensitive cell lines with a half-life in the range 20-40 s. The second phase of fluorescence quenching was abolished by incubation of the cells on ice and was transiently inhibited in cells with active mitochondria. Thus, the second phase of fluorescence quenching reflects the accumulation of dye in the cytoplasmic leaflet of the plasma membrane, presumably as a result of flip-flop of dye across the plasma membrane and slow diffusion from the inner leaflet into the cells. Whereas activity of P-glycoprotein prevented the second phase of fluorescence quenching, the activity of multidrug resistance-associated protein 1 had no effect on this phase. Thus, P-glycoprotein appears to pump rhodamines from the cytoplasmic leaflet either to the outer leaflet or to the outer medium.

KIR genotyping by multiplex PCR-SSP

Diversity across KIR haplotypes stems from differences in numbers of inhibitory and activating receptors, as well as allelic polymorphism of individual genes. The KIR locus has undergone large expansions and contractions over time and is believed to be coevolving with genes encoding its HLA class I ligands located within the MHC locus. KIR and HLA compound genotypes have been associated with susceptibility to or protection from infectious, autoimmune, reproductive, and malignant disorders. We describe here a simple and reliable multiplex PCR-SSP (sequence-specific priming) method for relatively rapid and inexpensive genotyping of 15 KIR genes using standard agarose gel electrophoresis.

Natural killer cells and cancer: regulation by the killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIR)

Natural killer (NK) cells are innate immune effector cells that make up approximately 10-15% of the peripheral blood lymphocytes in humans and are primarily involved in immunosurveillance to eliminate transformed and virally-infected cells. They were originally defined by their ability to spontaneously eliminate rare cells lacking expression of class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC-I) self molecules, which is commonly referred to as "missing self" recognition. The molecular basis for missing self recognition emerges from the expression of MHC-I-specific inhibitory receptors on the NK cell surface that tolerize NK cells toward normal MHC-I-expressing cells. By lacking inhibitory receptor ligands, tumor cells or virus-infected cells that have down-modulated surface MHC-I expression become susceptible to attack by NK cells. Killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIR; CD158) constitute a family of MHC-I binding receptors that plays a major role in regulating the activation thresholds of NK cells and some T cells in humans. Here, we review the multiple levels of KIR diversity that contribute to the generation of a highly varied NK cell repertoire and explain how this diversity can influence susceptibility to a variety of diseases, including cancer. We further describe strategies by which KIR can be manipulated therapeutically to treat cancer, through the exploitation of KIR/MHC-I ligand mismatch to potentiate hematopoietic stem cell transplantation and the use of KIR blockade to enhance tumor cell killing.

SHP-2 expression negatively regulates NK cell function

Src homology region 2-containing protein tyrosine phosphatase-2 (SHP-2) is required for full activation of Ras/ERK in many cytokine and growth factor receptor signaling pathways. In contrast, SHP-2 inhibits activation of human NK cells upon recruitment to killer cell Ig-like receptors (KIR). To determine how SHP-2 impacts NK cell activation in KIR-dependent or KIR-independent signaling pathways, we employed knockdown and overexpression strategies in NK-like cell lines and analyzed the consequences on functional responses. In response to stimulation with susceptible target cells, SHP-2-silenced NK cells had elevated cytolytic activity and IFN-gamma production, whereas cells overexpressing wild-type or gain-of-function mutants of SHP-2 exhibited dampened activities. Increased levels of SHP-2 expression over this range significantly suppressed microtubule organizing center polarization and granzyme B release in response to target cells. Interestingly, NK-target cell conjugation was only reduced by overexpressing SHP-2, but not potentiated in SHP-2-silenced cells, indicating that conjugation is not influenced by physiological levels of SHP-2 expression. KIR-dependent inhibition of cytotoxicity was unaffected by significant reductions in SHP-2 levels, presumably because KIR were still capable of recruiting the phosphatase under these limiting conditions. In contrast, the general suppressive effect of SHP-2 on cytotoxicity and cytokine release was much more sensitive to changes in cellular SHP-2 levels. In summary, our studies have identified a new, KIR-independent role for SHP-2 in dampening NK cell activation in response to tumor target cells in a concentration-dependent manner. This suppression of activation impacts microtubule organizing center-based cytoskeletal rearrangement and granule release.

Reduced human leukocyte antigen expression in advanced-stage Ewing sarcoma: implications for immune recognition

Ewing sarcoma (EWS) is a tumour most commonly arising in bone, although on occasion in soft tissue, with a poor prognosis in patients with refractory or relapsed disease, despite multimodal therapy. Immunotherapeutic strategies based on tumour-reactive T and/or natural killer cells may improve the treatment of advanced-stage EWS. Since cellular immune recognition critically depends on human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression, knowledge about HLA expression in EWS is crucial in the design of cellular immunotherapeutic strategies. Constitutive and IFNgamma-induced HLA class I expression was analysed in EWS cell lines (n = 6) by flow cytometry, using antibodies against both monomorphic and allele-specific antigens. Expression of antigen processing pathway components and beta-2 microglobulin (beta2m) was assessed by western blot. Expression of class II transactivator (CIITA), and its contribution to HLA class II expression, was evaluated by qRT-PCR, transduction assays, and flow cytometry. beta2m/HLA class I and class II expression was validated in EWS tumours (n = 67) by immunofluorescence. Complete or partial absence of HLA class I expression was observed in 79% of EWS tumours. Lung metastases consistently lacked HLA class I and sequential tumours demonstrated a tendency towards decreased expression upon disease progression. Together with absent or low constitutive expression levels of specific HLA class I loci and alleles, and differential induction of identical alleles by IFNgamma in different cell lines, these results may reflect the existence of an immune escape mechanism. Inducible expression of TAP-1/-2, tapasin, LMP-2/-7, and the beta2m/HLA class I complex by IFNgamma suggests that regulatory mechanisms are mainly responsible for heterogeneity in constitutive class I expression. EWSs lack IFNgamma-inducible HLA class II, due to lack of functional CIITA. The majority of EWS tumours, particularly if advanced-stage, exhibit complete or partial absence of both classes of HLA. This knowledge will be instrumental in the design of cellular immunotherapeutic strategies for advanced-stage EWS.

Natural micropolymorphism in human leukocyte antigens provides a basis for genetic control of antigen recognition

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) gene polymorphism plays a critical role in protective immunity, disease susceptibility, autoimmunity, and drug hypersensitivity, yet the basis of how HLA polymorphism influences T cell receptor (TCR) recognition is unclear. We examined how a natural micropolymorphism in HLA-B44, an important and large HLA allelic family, affected antigen recognition. T cell–mediated immunity to an Epstein-Barr virus determinant (EENLLDFVRF) is enhanced when HLA-B*4405 was the presenting allotype compared with HLA-B*4402 or HLA-B*4403, each of which differ by just one amino acid. The micropolymorphism in these HLA-B44 allotypes altered the mode of binding and dynamics of the bound viral epitope. The structure of the TCR–HLA-B*4405^EENLLDFVRF complex revealed that peptide flexibility was a critical parameter in enabling preferential engagement with HLA-B*4405 in comparison to HLA-B*4402/03. Accordingly, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) polymorphism can alter the dynamics of the peptide-MHC landscape, resulting in fine-tuning of T cell responses between closely related allotypes.

Protein kinase C theta regulates stability of the peripheral adhesion ring junction and contributes to the sensitivity of target cell lysis by CTL

Destruction of virus-infected cells by CTL is an extremely sensitive and efficient process. Our previous data suggest that LFA-1-ICAM-1 interactions in the peripheral supramolecular activation cluster (pSMAC) of the immunological synapse mediate formation of a tight adhesion junction that might contribute to the sensitivity of target cell lysis by CTL. Herein, we compared more (CD8(+)) and less (CD4(+)) effective CTL to understand the molecular events that promote efficient target cell lysis. We found that abrogation of the pSMAC formation significantly impaired the ability of CD8(+) but not CD4(+) CTL to lyse target cells despite having no effect of the amount of released granules by both CD8(+) and CD4(+) CTL. Consistent with this, CD4(+) CTL break their synapses more often than do CD8(+) CTL, which leads to the escape of the cytolytic molecules from the interface. CD4(+) CTL treatment with a protein kinase Ctheta inhibitor increases synapse stability and sensitivity of specific target cell lysis. Thus, formation of a stable pSMAC, which is partially controlled by protein kinase Ctheta, functions to confine the released lytic molecules at the synaptic interface and to enhance the effectiveness of target cell lysis.

Competition between innate multidrug resistance and intracellular binding of rhodamine dyes

The present study aimed to elucidate the contribution of the intracellular binding of drugs to multidrug resistance. For this purpose, uptake of rhodamines was studied in cells whose mitochondria had been uncoupled with carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone. Surprisingly, in a variety of drug-untreated cells, presumed to be sensitive to multidrug resistance-type drugs, rhodamines were excluded from entering the cells. Thus, the amount of rhodamine 123 taken up into parental untreated K562 cells was less than the amount bound to the cell exterior. Rhodamine uptake was prevented by an active efflux pump. The efflux was inhibited by 4-chloro-7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD-Cl) and MK571 and, to a lesser extent, by ATP depletion, indomethacin, probenecid and vanadate. All the inhibitors, apart from NBD-Cl, are known to modulate multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) 1. Because MRP1 was expressed in all the cell lines tested and the efflux of rhodamines in MRP1 over-expressing cells was abolished by NBD-Cl, it appears that rhodamines are excluded from these cells by MRP1. On the other hand, the uptake of rhodamines into cells respiring with their coupled mitochondria demonstrated diminished sensitivity to NBD-Cl and MK571. Thus, active pumping into the mitochondria allowed enhanced uptake into the cells, overcoming the innate resistance. The innate resistance provided by MRP1 to cells prevents rhodamine dyes, and possibly drugs such as doxorubicin, from achieving equilibration of their concentration in the cytoplasm with their concentration in the external medium. The protection provided to multidrug resistance cells by ABC transporters has to overcome competition by passive uptake of the drugs and binding/uptake of the drugs into intracellular targets.

KIR-HLA intercourse in HIV disease

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I loci are essential to an effective immune response against a wide variety of pathogenic microorganisms, and they represent the prototypes for genetic polymorphism that are sustained through balancing selection. The functional significance of HLA class I variation is better exemplified by studies involving HIV type 1 (HIV-1) than any other infectious organism. HLA class I molecules are essential to the acquired immune response, but they are also important in innate immunity as ligands for the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR), which modulate natural killer cell activity. Here we concentrate on the interaction between the HLA-B and KIR3DL1/KIR3DS1 genes, describe the effects of these loci on HIV disease, and discuss questions that remain unresolved.

KIR locus polymorphisms: genotyping and disease association analysis

The genes encoding the killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) are situated within a segment of DNA that has undergone expansion and contraction over time due in large part to unequal crossing over. Consequently, individuals exhibit considerable haplotypic variation in terms of gene content. The highly polymorphic human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I loci encode ligands for the KIR; thus, it is not surprising that KIR genes also show significant allelic polymorphism. As a result of the receptor-ligand relationship between KIR and HLA, functionally relevant KIR-HLA combinations need to be considered in the analysis of these genes as they relate to disease outcomes. This chapter will describe a genotyping method for identifying the presence/absence of the KIR genes and general approaches to data analysis in disease association studies.

Identification of HLA class I-restricted tumor-associated antigens in adult T cell leukemia cells by mass spectrometric analysis

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we attempted a comprehensive analysis of MHC class I-bound peptides in adult T cell leukemia (ATL) cells in order to identify as many tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) as possible that could be used for CTL-based immunotherapy.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Using mass spectrometry combined with reversed-phase liquid chromatography, we could sequence 188 HLA class I-restricted candidate peptides from three ATL-derived cell lines. In accordance with the restrained expression of HTLV-I viral RNA in these cell lines, there were no HTLV-I-encoded peptides among these candidates. Based on the differential expression between ATL cells and normal CD4+ T cells, we selected 10 novel peptides as T cell epitopes of overexpressed source proteins. RT-PCR analysis revealed that 5 source proteins including PRAME, a known tumor-testis antigen, were highly expressed in the majority of 16 ATL cases. Furthermore we could induce PRAME-specific CTLs in vitro from an HLA-B62+ healthy donor that showed specific cytotoxicity against HLA-B62+ PRAME+ ATL cells.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrate that comprehensive analysis of HLA class I-bound peptides by mass spectrometry is useful for identification of TAA-derived peptides in ATL. Considering that expression patterns of leukemia/lymphoma-associated antigens vary from case to case, this approach appears to be suitable for the tailor-made immunotherapy of hematological malignancies.

MHC Class I Antigens and Immune Surveillance in Transformed Cells

MHC class I antigens play a crucial role in the interaction of tumor cells with the host immune system, in particular, in the presentation of peptides as tumor-associated antigens to cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) and in the regulation of cytolytic activity of natural killer (NK) cells. In this review we discuss the role of MHC class I antigens in the recognition and elimination of transformed cells and in the generation of tumor immune escape routes when MHC class I losses occur in tumors. The different altered MHC class I phenotypes and their distribution in different human tumors are the main topic of this review. In addition, molecular defects that underlie MHC alterations in transformed cells are also described in detail. Future research directions in this field are also discussed, including the laboratory analysis of tumor MHC class I-negative variants and the possible restoration of MHC class I expression.

Human natural killer cell development and biology

Natural killer cells are important innate immune effector cells with potentially broad applications in the treatment of human malignancy due to their ability to lyse neoplastic cells without the need for tumor-specific antigen recognition. Human NK cells can be divided into two functional subsets based on their surface expression of CD56; CD56(bright) immunoregulatory cells and CD56(dim) cytotoxic cells. In addition to functional differences, these NK cell subsets can be modulated differently by interleukin (IL)-2, which has permitted the development of lower dose, better tolerated IL-2 regimens for the in vivo expansion and activation of NK cells. The importance of early hematopoietic growth factors, such as c-kit ligand and flt-3 ligand, and their synergy with IL-15 in the development of human NK cells in the bone marrow has permitted the investigation of novel cytokine combinations for optimizing in vivo expansion of NK cell in the clinic. The importance of lymph nodes as a site for NK cell development has recently been elucidated. Furthermore, progress in the field of how NK cell recognize target cells via activating and inhibitory receptors, and how the balance of signals from these receptors can modulate NK cell activity has revolutionized our understanding of the selective killing of tumor cells by NK cells while sparing normal cells. In this review, we summarize current understanding of NK cell biology, and highlight how such knowledge may be translated to optimize the efficacy of using autologous or allogeneic NK cell for the immunotherapy of cancer.

Identification and epitope enhancement of a PAX-FKHR fusion protein breakpoint epitope in alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma cells created by a tumorigenic chromosomal translocation inducing CTL capable of lysing human tumors

Fusion proteins created by chromosomal translocations in tumors can create neoantigenic determinants at the breakpoint, which are unique to the tumor cells but shared by the vast majority of tumors of that histologic type. If the fusion protein is responsible for the malignant transformation, its expression cannot be lost by the tumor to escape immune responses against this tumor antigen. Here, we identify such a fusion protein breakpoint epitope in the PAX-FKHR fusion protein created by the t(2;13) translocation present in 80% of cases of alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma, a highly aggressive pediatric soft-tissue sarcoma. We use autologous dendritic cells pulsed with the RS10 breakpoint fusion peptide to raise a human CTL line from a normal healthy HLA-B7+ blood donor specific for this peptide. These CTLs are CD8+ (CD4-CD56-) and restricted by HLA-B7. These human peptide-specific CTL lyse human HLA-B7+ rhabdomyosarcoma tumor cells. Therefore, the fusion protein is endogenously processed to produce this natural epitope presented by HLA-B7 and thus this peptide is a bone fide human tumor antigen. We also define a substitution that increases the affinity for HLA-B7 without loss of antigenicity. This epitope-enhanced peptide may serve as a candidate cancer vaccine for HLA-B7+ patients with alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma.

The impact of variation at the KIR gene cluster on human disease

Leukocyte behavior is controlled by a balance of inhibitory and stimulatory signals generated on ligand binding to a complex set of receptors located on the cell surface. The killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) genes encode one such, family of receptors expressed by natural killer (NK) cells, key components of the innate immune system that participate in early responses against infected or transformed cells through production of cytokines and direct cytotoxicity. KIRs are also expressed on a subset of T cells, where they contribute to the intensity of acquired immune responses. Recognition of self HLA class I ligands by inhibitory KIR allows NK cells to identify normal cells, preventing an NK cell-mediated response against healthy autologous cells. Activation of NK cells through stimulatory receptors is directed toward cells with altered expression of class I, a situation characteristic of some virally infected cells and tumor cells. The "missing self" model for NK cell activation was proposed to explain killing of cells that express little or no class I, while cells expressing normal levels of class I are spared. Studies performed over the last several years have revealed extensive diversity at the KIR gene locus, which stems from both its polygenic (variable numbers of genes depending on KIR haplotype) and multiallelic polymorphism. Given the role of KIR in both arms of the immune response, their specificity for HLA class I allotypes, and their extensive genomic diversity, it is reasonable to imagine that KIR gene variation affects resistance and susceptibility to the pathogenesis of numerous diseases. Consequently, the evolution of KIR locus diversity within and across populations may be a function of disease morbidity and mortality. Here we review a growing body of evidence purporting the influence of KIR polymorphism in human disease.

Natural killer cell receptors: regulating innate immune responses to hematologic malignancy

Critical to innate immunity, the natural killer (NK) cell performs its function of immunosurveillance through its recognition of altered or missing self on damaged, infected, or transformed malignant cells. NK cell receptors responsible for detection of human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I and class I-like proteins on potential target cells transmit inhibitory and activating signals that integrate to determine NK cell function. Advances in the fields of NK cell receptor biology and immunogenetics have enhanced our understanding of NK cell target recognition and may now guide studies to determine NK cell effects in the clinical setting. Analysis of NK cell receptor-ligand relationships, such as the inhibitory killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) and their HLA class I ligands, has revealed the potential for NK cell-mediated benefit in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for hematologic malignancies.