1
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Avellino A, Peng CH, Lin MD. Cell Cycle Regulation by NF-YC in Drosophila Eye Imaginal Disc: Implications for Synchronization in the Non-Proliferative Region. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12203. [PMID: 37569581 PMCID: PMC10418845 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell cycle progression during development is meticulously coordinated with differentiation. This is particularly evident in the Drosophila 3rd instar eye imaginal disc, where the cell cycle is synchronized and arrests at the G1 phase in the non-proliferative region (NPR), setting the stage for photoreceptor cell differentiation. Here, we identify the transcription factor Nuclear Factor-YC (NF-YC) as a crucial player in this finely tuned progression, elucidating its specific role in the synchronized movement of the morphogenetic furrow. Depletion of NF-YC leads to extended expression of Cyclin A (CycA) and Cyclin B (CycB) from the FMW to the NPR. Notably, NF-YC knockdown resulted in decreased expression of Eyes absent (Eya) but did not affect Decapentaplegic (Dpp) and Hedgehog (Hh). Our findings highlight the role of NF-YC in restricting the expression of CycA and CycB in the NPR, thereby facilitating cell-cycle synchronization. Moreover, we identify the transcriptional cofactor Eya as a downstream target of NF-YC, revealing a new regulatory pathway in Drosophila eye development. This study expands our understanding of NF-YC's role from cell cycle control to encompass developmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Avellino
- Department of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, 701 Zhongyang Rd., Sec. 3, Hualien 97004, Taiwan;
| | - Chen-Huan Peng
- Department of Orthopedics, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, 707 Zhongyang Rd., Sec. 3, Hualien 97002, Taiwan;
- School of Medicine, Tzu Chi University, 701 Zhongyang Rd., Sec. 3, Hualien 97004, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Der Lin
- Department of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Tzu Chi University, 701 Zhongyang Rd., Sec. 3, Hualien 97004, Taiwan;
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, 701 Zhongyang Rd., Sec. 3, Hualien 97004, Taiwan
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2
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Zhu R, Santat LA, Markson JS, Nandagopal N, Gregrowicz J, Elowitz MB. Reconstitution of morphogen shuttling circuits. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2023; 9:eadf9336. [PMID: 37436981 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adf9336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/14/2023]
Abstract
Developing tissues form spatial patterns by establishing concentration gradients of diffusible signaling proteins called morphogens. The bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) morphogen pathway uses a family of extracellular modulators to reshape signaling gradients by actively "shuttling" ligands to different locations. It has remained unclear what circuits are sufficient to enable shuttling, what other patterns they can generate, and whether shuttling is evolutionarily conserved. Here, using a synthetic, bottom-up approach, we compared the spatiotemporal dynamics of different extracellular circuits. Three proteins-Chordin, Twsg, and the BMP-1 protease-successfully displaced gradients by shuttling ligands away from the site of production. A mathematical model explained the different spatial dynamics of this and other circuits. Last, combining mammalian and Drosophila components in the same system suggests that shuttling is a conserved capability. Together, these results reveal principles through which extracellular circuits control the spatiotemporal dynamics of morphogen signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronghui Zhu
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Leah A Santat
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Joseph S Markson
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | | | - Jan Gregrowicz
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
| | - Michael B Elowitz
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
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3
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Wang X, Liu Y, He J, Wang J, Chen X, Yang R. Regulation of signaling pathways in hair follicle stem cells. BURNS & TRAUMA 2022; 10:tkac022. [PMID: 35795256 PMCID: PMC9250793 DOI: 10.1093/burnst/tkac022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hair follicle stem cells (HFSCs) reside in the bulge region of the outer root sheath of the hair follicle. They are considered slow-cycling cells that are endowed with multilineage differentiation potential and superior proliferative capacity. The normal morphology and periodic growth of HFSCs play a significant role in normal skin functions, wound repair and skin regeneration. The HFSCs involved in these pathophysiological processes are regulated by a series of cell signal transduction pathways, such as lymphoid enhancer factor/T-cell factor, Wnt/β-catenin, transforming growth factor-β/bone morphogenetic protein, Notch and Hedgehog. The mechanisms of the interactions among these signaling pathways and their regulatory effects on HFSCs have been previously studied, but many mechanisms are still unclear. This article reviews the regulation of hair follicles, HFSCs and related signaling pathways, with the aims of summarizing previous research results, revealing the regulatory mechanisms of HFSC proliferation and differentiation and providing important references and new ideas for treating clinical diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jia He
- Department of Burn Surgery, The First People’s Hospital of Foshan, Foshan 528000, China
| | - Jingru Wang
- Department of Burn Surgery, The First People’s Hospital of Foshan, Foshan 528000, China
| | - Xiaodong Chen
- Correspondence. Xiaodong Chen, E-mail: ; Ronghua Yang,
| | - Ronghua Yang
- Correspondence. Xiaodong Chen, E-mail: ; Ronghua Yang,
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4
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Antson H, Tõnissoo T, Shimmi O. The developing wing crossvein of Drosophila melanogaster: a fascinating model for signaling and morphogenesis. Fly (Austin) 2022; 16:118-127. [PMID: 35302430 PMCID: PMC8942417 DOI: 10.1080/19336934.2022.2040316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The Drosophila wing has been used as a model for studying tissue growth, morphogenesis and pattern formation. The wing veins of Drosophila are composed of two distinct structures, longitudinal veins and crossveins. Although positional information of longitudinal veins is largely defined in the wing imaginal disc during the larval stage, crossvein primordial cells appear to be naive until the early pupal stage. Here, we first review how wing crossveins have been investigated in the past. Then, the developmental mechanisms underlying crossvein formation are summarized. This review focuses on how a conserved trafficking mechanism of BMP ligands is utilized for crossvein formation, and how various co-factors play roles in sustaining BMP signalling. Recent findings further reveal that crossvein development serves as an excellent model to address how BMP signal and dynamic cellular processes are coupled. This comprehensive review illustrates the uniqueness, scientific value and future perspectives of wing crossvein development as a model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Antson
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tambet Tõnissoo
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Osamu Shimmi
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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5
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Magro-Lopez E, Muñoz-Fernández MÁ. The Role of BMP Signaling in Female Reproductive System Development and Function. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:11927. [PMID: 34769360 PMCID: PMC8584982 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222111927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are a group of multifunctional growth factors that belong to the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily of proteins. Originally identified by their ability to induce bone formation, they are now known as essential signaling molecules that regulate the development and function of the female reproductive system (FRS). Several BMPs play key roles in aspects of reproductive system development. BMPs have also been described to be involved in the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) into reproductive system tissues or organoids. The role of BMPs in the reproductive system is still poorly understood and the use of FRS tissue or organoids generated from hPSCs would provide a powerful tool for the study of FRS development and the generation of new therapeutic perspectives for the treatment of FRS diseases. Therefore, the aim of this review is to summarize the current knowledge about BMP signaling in FRS development and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esmeralda Magro-Lopez
- Section Immunology, Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), 28007 Madrid, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28007 Madrid, Spain
| | - María Ángeles Muñoz-Fernández
- Section Immunology, Laboratorio InmunoBiología Molecular, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (HGUGM), 28007 Madrid, Spain;
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), 28007 Madrid, Spain
- Networking Research Center on Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), 28007 Madrid, Spain
- Spanish HIV-HGM BioBank, 28007 Madrid, Spain
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6
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McParland A, Moulton J, Brann C, Hale C, Otis Y, Ganter G. The brinker repressor system regulates injury-induced nociceptive sensitization in Drosophila melanogaster. Mol Pain 2021; 17:17448069211037401. [PMID: 34399634 PMCID: PMC8375337 DOI: 10.1177/17448069211037401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain is a debilitating condition affecting millions of people worldwide, and an improved understanding of the pathophysiology of chronic pain is urgently needed. Nociceptors are the sensory neurons that alert the nervous system to potentially harmful stimuli such as mechanical pressure or noxious thermal temperature. When an injury occurs, the nociceptive threshold for pain is reduced and an increased pain signal is produced. This process is called nociceptive sensitization. This sensitization normally subsides after the injury is healed. However, dysregulation can occur which results in sensitization that persists after the injury has healed. This process is thought to perpetuate chronic pain. The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway has been previously implicated in nociceptive sensitization in response to injury in Drosophila melanogaster. Downstream of Hh signaling, the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) pathway has also been shown to be necessary for this process. Here, we describe a role for nuclear components of BMP’s signaling pathway in the formation of injury-induced nociceptive sensitization. Brinker (Brk), and Schnurri (Shn) were suppressed in nociceptors using an RNA-interference (RNAi) “knockdown” approach. Knockdown of Brk resulted in hypersensitivity in the absence of injury, indicating that it normally acts to suppress nociceptive sensitivity. Animals in which transcriptional activator Shn was knocked down in nociceptors failed to develop normal allodynia after ultraviolet irradiation injury, indicating that Shn normally acts to promote hypersensitivity after injury. These results indicate that Brk-related transcription regulators play a crucial role in the formation of nociceptive sensitization and may therefore represent valuable new targets for pain-relieving medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidan McParland
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA.,University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Julie Moulton
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Courtney Brann
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA.,College of Osteopathic Medicine, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Christine Hale
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA.,Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences and Engineering, University of Maine, Orono, ME, USA
| | - Yvonne Otis
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Geoffrey Ganter
- College of Arts and Sciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA.,Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
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7
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Abstract
TGF-β family heterodimeric ligands show increased or exclusive signaling compared to homodimeric ligands in both vertebrate and insect development as well as in therapeutically relevant processes, like osteogenesis. However, the mechanisms that differentiate heterodimer and homodimer signaling remain uncharacterized. We show that BMP antagonists do not account for the exclusive signaling of Bmp2/7 heterodimers in zebrafish development. We found that overexpressed homodimers can signal but surprisingly require two distinct type I receptors, like heterodimers, indicating a required activity of the heteromeric type I receptor complex. We further demonstrate that a canonical type I receptor function has been delegated to only one of these receptors, Acvr1. Our findings should inform both basic and translational research in multiple TGF-β family signaling contexts. Heterodimeric TGF-β ligands outperform homodimers in a variety of developmental, cell culture, and therapeutic contexts; however, the mechanisms underlying this increased potency remain uncharacterized. Here, we use dorsal–ventral axial patterning of the zebrafish embryo to interrogate the BMP2/7 heterodimer signaling mechanism. We demonstrate that differential interactions with BMP antagonists do not account for the reduced signaling ability of homodimers. Instead, we find that while overexpressed BMP2 homodimers can signal, they require two nonredundant type I receptors, one from the Acvr1 subfamily and one from the Bmpr1 subfamily. This implies that all BMP signaling within the zebrafish gastrula, even BMP2 homodimer signaling, requires Acvr1. This is particularly surprising as BMP2 homodimers do not bind Acvr1 in vitro. Furthermore, we find that the roles of the two type I receptors are subfunctionalized within the heterodimer signaling complex, with the kinase activity of Acvr1 being essential, while that of Bmpr1 is not. These results suggest that the potency of the Bmp2/7 heterodimer arises from the ability to recruit both Acvr1 and Bmpr1 into the same signaling complex.
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8
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Fuess LE, Butler CC, Brandt ME, Mydlarz LD. Investigating the roles of transforming growth factor-beta in immune response of Orbicella faveolata, a scleractinian coral. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 107:103639. [PMID: 32027869 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2020.103639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Symbiotic relationships range from parasitic to mutualistic, yet all endosymbionts face similar challenges, including evasion of host immunity. Many symbiotic organisms have evolved similar mechanisms to face these challenges, including manipulation of the host's transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) pathway. Here we investigate the TGFβ pathway in scelaractinian corals which are dependent on symbioses with dinoflagellates from the family Symbiodiniaceae. Using the Caribbean coral, Orbicella faveolata, we explore the effects of enhancement and inhibition of the TGFβ pathway on host gene expression. Following transcriptomic analyses, we demonstrated limited effects of pathway manipulation in absence of immune stimulation. However, manipulation of the TGFβ pathway significantly affects the subsequent ability of host corals to mount an immune response. Enhancement of the TGFβ pathway eliminates transcriptomic signatures of host coral immune response, while inhibition of the pathway maintains the response. This is, to our knowledge, the first evidence of an immunomodulatory role for TGFβ in a scelaractinian coral. These findings suggest variation in TGFβ signaling may have implications in the face of increasing disease prevelance. Our results suggest that the TGFβ pathway can modulate tradeoffs between symbiosis and immunity. Further study of links between symbiosis, TGFβ, and immunity is needed to better understand the ecological implications of these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E Fuess
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States.
| | - Caleb C Butler
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
| | - Marilyn E Brandt
- Center for Marine and Environmental Studies, University of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, USVI, United States
| | - Laura D Mydlarz
- Department of Biology, University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, TX, United States
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9
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Brann CL, Moulton JK, Ganter GK. Glypicans Dally and Dally-like control injury-induced allodynia in Drosophila. Mol Pain 2020; 15:1744806919856777. [PMID: 31132919 PMCID: PMC6572878 DOI: 10.1177/1744806919856777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Over 100 million people are challenged by the effects of chronic pain in the United States alone. This burden also impacts the U.S. economy; 600 billion dollars annually is spent on medical care, medications, and lost productivity in the workplace. Current opioid treatments cause adverse effects including nausea, constipation, tolerance, and addiction liability. Nociceptive sensitization is thought to perpetuate chronic pain, but too little is known about its mechanisms. Components of the pathways that sensitize the nociceptors after injury are likely to be valuable targets for novel medications for the relief or prevention of chronic pain. Utilizing the Drosophila melanogaster cell targeting and RNA interference toolkit, we are investigating the bone morphogenetic protein pathway and its role in ultraviolet light injury-induced nociceptive sensitization. Bone morphogenetic proteins are well known as secreted developmental morphogens that control development, but other functions are known. We have previously identified bone morphogenetic protein signaling components used in nociceptors to modulate injury-induced allodynia, including Decapentaplegic (Dpp, orthologous to mammalian bone morphogenetic protein 2/4), and its downstream signaling components. The morphogen Hedgehog has also been shown to be necessary for allodynia following injury. Here, we show that two membrane-embedded regulators of the Dpp and Hedgehog pathways, Dally and Dally-like, are necessary for injury-induced thermal allodynia, as the formation of sensitization was reduced when either component was suppressed. These bone morphogenetic protein components are highly conserved and, because dysregulation of nociceptor sensitization underlies chronic pain, the homologs of Dally and Dally-like may represent novel therapeutic targets in humans challenged by chronic pain. Furthermore, because of their extracellular location, Dally and Dally-like represent attractive therapeutic drug targets because such drugs would not need to cross the plasma membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney L Brann
- 1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Julie K Moulton
- 1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Geoffrey K Ganter
- 1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
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10
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Moulton MJ, Humphreys GB, Kim A, Letsou A. O-GlcNAcylation Dampens Dpp/BMP Signaling to Ensure Proper Drosophila Embryonic Development. Dev Cell 2020; 53:330-343.e3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2020.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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11
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Pechmann M. Embryonic development and secondary axis induction in the Brazilian white knee tarantula Acanthoscurria geniculata, C. L. Koch, 1841 (Araneae; Mygalomorphae; Theraphosidae). Dev Genes Evol 2020; 230:75-94. [PMID: 32076811 PMCID: PMC7128004 DOI: 10.1007/s00427-020-00653-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Tarantulas represent some of the heaviest and most famous spiders. However, there is little information about the embryonic development of these spiders or their relatives (infraorder Mygalomorphae) and time-lapse recording of the embryonic development is entirely missing. I here describe the complete development of the Brazilian white knee tarantula, Acanthoscurria geniculata, in fixed and live embryos. The establishment of the blastoderm, the formation, migration and signalling of the cumulus and the shape changes that occur in the segment addition zone are analysed in detail. In addition, I show that there might be differences in the contraction process of early embryos of different theraphosid spider species. A new embryonic reference transcriptome was generated for this study and was used to clone and analyse the expression of several important developmental genes. Finally, I show that embryos of A. geniculata are amenable to tissue transplantation and bead insertion experiments. Using these functional approaches, I induced axis duplication in embryos via cumulus transplantation and ectopic activation of BMP signalling. Overall, the mygalomorph spider A. geniculata is a useful laboratory system to analyse evolutionary developmental questions, and the availability of such a system will help understanding conserved and divergent aspects of spider/chelicerate development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthias Pechmann
- Institute for Zoology, Department for Developmental Biology, Biocenter, University of Cologne, Zuelpicher Str. 47b, 50674, Cologne, Germany.
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12
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Finding relationships among biological entities. LOGIC AND CRITICAL THINKING IN THE BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES 2020. [PMCID: PMC7499094 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-821364-3.00005-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Confusion over the concepts of “relationships” and “similarities” lies at the heart of many battles over the direction and intent of research projects. Here is a short story that demonstrates the difference between the two concepts: You look up at the clouds, and you begin to see the shape of a lion. The cloud has a tail, like a lion’s tale, and a fluffy head, like a lion’s mane. With a little imagination the mouth of the lion seems to roar down from the sky. You have succeeded in finding similarities between the cloud and a lion. If you look at a cloud and you imagine a tea kettle producing a head of steam and you recognize that the physical forces that create a cloud and the physical forces that produced steam from a heated kettle are the same, then you have found a relationship. Most popular classification algorithms operate by grouping together data objects that have similar properties or values. In so doing, they may miss finding the true relationships among objects. Traditionally, relationships among data objects are discovered by an intellectual process. In this chapter, we will discuss the scientific gains that come when we classify biological entities by relationships, not by their similarities.
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13
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Transgenic Analyses in Drosophila Reveal That mCORL1 Is Functionally Distinct from mCORL2 and dCORL. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2019; 9:3781-3789. [PMID: 31530634 PMCID: PMC6829133 DOI: 10.1534/g3.119.400647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Uncovering how new members of multigene families acquire new functions is an important topic in evolutionary and developmental genetics. CORL proteins (SKOR in mice, Fussel in humans and fussel in Flybase) are a family of CNS specific proteins related to mammalian Sno/Ski oncogenes. Drosophila CORL (dCORL) participates in TGF-β and insulin signaling during development and in adult homeostasis but roles for the two mouse CORL proteins (mCORL) are essentially unknown. A series of studies were conducted to test the hypothesis based on previous results that mCORL1 is more similar to dCORL than mCORL2. Neither an updated alignment nor ectopic expression in adult wings were able to distinguish mCORL1 or mCORL2 from dCORL. Transgene experiments employing a dCORL endogenous function in mushroom body neurons showed that mCORL1 is distinct from mCORL2 and dCORL. mCORL1 and mCORL2 are also distinct in biochemical assays of Smad-binding and BMP signaling. Taken together, the data suggests testable new hypotheses for mCORL2 function in mammalian TGF-β and insulin signaling based on known roles for dCORL. Overall, the study reiterates the value of transgenic methods in Drosophila to provide new information on multigene family evolution and the function of family members in other species.
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14
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Kim AD, Lake BB, Chen S, Wu Y, Guo J, Parvez RK, Tran T, Thornton ME, Grubbs B, McMahon JA, Zhang K, McMahon AP. Cellular Recruitment by Podocyte-Derived Pro-migratory Factors in Assembly of the Human Renal Filter. iScience 2019; 20:402-414. [PMID: 31622881 PMCID: PMC6817668 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Analysis of kidney disease-causing genes and pathology resulting from systemic diseases highlight the importance of the kidney's filtering system, the renal corpuscles. To elucidate the developmental processes that establish the renal corpuscle, we performed single-nucleus droplet-based sequencing of the human fetal kidney. This enabled the identification of nephron, interstitial, and vascular cell types that together generate the renal corpuscles. Trajectory analysis identified transient developmental gene expression, predicting precursors or mature podocytes express FBLN2, BMP4, or NTN4, in conjunction with recruitment, differentiation, and modeling of vascular and mesangial cell types into a functional filter. In vitro studies provide evidence that these factors exhibit angiogenic or mesangial recruiting and inductive properties consistent with a key organizing role for podocyte precursors in kidney development. Together these studies define a spatiotemporal developmental program for the primary filtration unit of the human kidney and provide novel insights into cell interactions regulating co-assembly of constituent cell types. Single-nuclear RNA-seq analysis of human fetal kidney development Co-ordinated programs of podocyte-driven glomerular development Secreted podocyte factors act on endothelial and interstitial cells
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert D Kim
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Broad-CIRM Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Blue B Lake
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Song Chen
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Yan Wu
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jinjin Guo
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Broad-CIRM Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Riana K Parvez
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Broad-CIRM Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Tracy Tran
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Broad-CIRM Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Matthew E Thornton
- Maternal Fetal Medicine Division, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Brendan Grubbs
- Maternal Fetal Medicine Division, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jill A McMahon
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Broad-CIRM Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA
| | - Kun Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Andrew P McMahon
- Department of Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Broad-CIRM Center, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
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15
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Asymmetric paralog evolution between the "cryptic" gene Bmp16 and its well-studied sister genes Bmp2 and Bmp4. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3136. [PMID: 30816280 PMCID: PMC6395752 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40055-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 205] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate gene repertoire is characterized by “cryptic” genes whose identification has been hampered by their absence from the genomes of well-studied species. One example is the Bmp16 gene, a paralog of the developmental key genes Bmp2 and -4. We focus on the Bmp2/4/16 group of genes to study the evolutionary dynamics following gen(om)e duplications with special emphasis on the poorly studied Bmp16 gene. We reveal the presence of Bmp16 in chondrichthyans in addition to previously reported teleost fishes and reptiles. Using comprehensive, vertebrate-wide gene sampling, our phylogenetic analysis complemented with synteny analyses suggests that Bmp2, -4 and -16 are remnants of a gene quartet that originated during the two rounds of whole-genome duplication (2R-WGD) early in vertebrate evolution. We confirm that Bmp16 genes were lost independently in at least three lineages (mammals, archelosaurs and amphibians) and report that they have elevated rates of sequence evolution. This finding agrees with their more “flexible” deployment during development; while Bmp16 has limited embryonic expression domains in the cloudy catshark, it is broadly expressed in the green anole lizard. Our study illustrates the dynamics of gene family evolution by integrating insights from sequence diversification, gene repertoire changes, and shuffling of expression domains.
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16
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Gjelsvik KJ, Follansbee TL, Ganter GK. Bone Morphogenetic Protein Glass Bottom Boat (BMP5/6/7/8) and its receptor Wishful Thinking (BMPRII) are required for injury-induced allodynia in Drosophila. Mol Pain 2019; 14:1744806918802703. [PMID: 30259786 PMCID: PMC6161205 DOI: 10.1177/1744806918802703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chronic pain affects millions of people worldwide; however, its cellular and molecular mechanisms have not been completely elucidated. It is thought that chronic pain is triggered by nociceptive sensitization, which produces elevated nocifensive responses. A model has been developed in Drosophila melanogaster to investigate the underlying mechanisms of chronic pain using ultraviolet-induced tissue injury to trigger thermal allodynia, a nociceptive hypersensitivity to a normally innocuous stimulus. Larvae were assayed for their behavioral latencies to produce a distinct avoidance response under different thermal conditions. Previously, Decapentaplegic, a member of the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) family and orthologous to mammalian BMP2/4, was shown to be necessary for the induction of allodynia. Here, we further investigate the BMP pathway to identify other essential molecules necessary to activate the nociceptive sensitization pathway. Results Using the GAL4-UAS-RNAi system to induce a cell-specific knockdown of gene expression, we further explored BMP pathway components to identify other key players in the induction of nociceptive sensitization by comparing the responses of manipulated animals to those of controls. Here, we show that a second BMP, Glass Bottom Boat, and its receptor Wishful Thinking are both necessary for injury-induced thermal allodynia since the formation of sensitization was found to be severely attenuated when either of these components was suppressed. The effects on pain perception appear to be specific to the sensitization system, as the ability to respond to a normally noxious stimulus in the absence of injury was left intact, and no nociceptor morphological defects were observed. Conclusion These results provide further support of the hypothesis that the BMP pathway plays a crucial role in the development of nociceptive sensitization. Because of its strong conservation between invertebrates and mammals, the BMP pathway may be worthy of future investigation for the development of targeted treatments to alleviate chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla Jane Gjelsvik
- 1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Taylor Leon Follansbee
- 1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
| | - Geoffrey Karl Ganter
- 1 Department of Biology, College of Arts and Sciences, Center for Excellence in the Neurosciences, University of New England, Biddeford, ME, USA
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17
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Abstract
Many research methods exist to elucidate the role of BMP-2 during bone regeneration. This chapter briefly reviews important animal models used in these studies and provides details on the rat femur defect model. This animal model is frequently utilized to measure the efficacy of osteogenic factors like BMP-2. Detailed information about delivery methods, dose range, and dose duration used in BMP-2-related studies are provided.
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18
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Discovery of Heterotopic Bone-Inducing Activity in Hard Tissues and the TGF-β Superfamily. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19113586. [PMID: 30428615 PMCID: PMC6274805 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 11/07/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Bone is a unique organ because it can be experimentally induced in soft tissues by implanting a single growth factor, bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). Heterotopic bone-inducing activity was found in demineralized bone matrix in 1965. The characterization of this activity in bone enabled the purification and molecular cloning of BMPs and showed that they are members of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily. Assay systems developed for this bone-inducing activity revealed the molecular mechanisms of the intracellular signaling of members of the superfamily, including BMPs. Moreover, they are being applied to elucidate molecular mechanisms and to develop novel therapeutics for a disease caused by an abnormality in BMP signaling.
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19
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Kane NS, Vora M, Padgett RW, Li Y. bantam microRNA is a negative regulator of the Drosophila decapentaplegic pathway. Fly (Austin) 2018; 12:105-117. [PMID: 30015555 PMCID: PMC6150632 DOI: 10.1080/19336934.2018.1499370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Decapentaplegic (Dpp), the Drosophila homolog of the vertebrate bone morphogenetic protein (BMP2/4), is crucial for patterning and growth in many developmental contexts. The Dpp pathway is regulated at many different levels to exquisitely control its activity. We show that bantam (ban), a microRNA, modulates Dpp signaling activity. Over expression of ban decreases phosphorylated Mothers against decapentaplegic (Mad) levels and negatively affects Dpp pathway transcriptional target genes, while null mutant clones of ban upregulate the pathway. We provide evidence that dpp upregulates ban in the wing imaginal disc, and attenuation of Dpp signaling results in a reduction of ban expression, showing that they function in a feedback loop. Furthermore, we show that this feedback loop is important for maintaining anterior-posterior compartment boundary stability in the wing disc through regulation of optomotor blind (omb), a known target of the pathway. Our results support a model that ban functions with dpp in a negative feedback loop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nanci S Kane
- a Waksman Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry , Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University , Piscataway , NJ , USA
| | - Mehul Vora
- a Waksman Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry , Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University , Piscataway , NJ , USA
| | - Richard W Padgett
- a Waksman Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry , Cancer Institute of New Jersey, Rutgers University , Piscataway , NJ , USA
| | - Ying Li
- b Life Science Institute , Chongqing Medical University , Chongqing , China
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20
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Mediator kinase CDK8/CDK19 drives YAP1-dependent BMP4-induced EMT in cancer. Oncogene 2018; 37:4792-4808. [PMID: 29780169 DOI: 10.1038/s41388-018-0316-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
CDK8 is a transcription-regulating kinase that controls TGF-β/BMP-responsive SMAD transcriptional activation and turnover through YAP1 recruitment. However, how the CDK8/YAP1 pathway influences SMAD1 response in cancer remains unclear. Here we report that SMAD1-driven epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is critically dependent on matrix rigidity and YAP1 in a wide spectrum of cancer models. We find that both genetic and pharmacological inhibition of CDK8 and its homologous twin kinase CDK19 leads to abrogation of BMP-induced EMT. Notably, selectively blocking CDK8/19 specifically abrogates tumor cell invasion, changes in EMT-associated transcription factors, E-cadherin expression and YAP nuclear localization both in vitro and in vivo in a murine syngeneic EMT model. Furthermore, RNA-seq meta-analysis reveals a direct correlation between CDK8 and EMT-associated transcription factors in patients. Our findings demonstrate that CDK8, an emerging therapeutic target, coordinates growth factor and mechanical cues during EMT and invasion.
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21
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Le V, Anderson E, Akiyama T, Wharton KA. Drosophila models of FOP provide mechanistic insight. Bone 2018; 109:192-200. [PMID: 29128351 DOI: 10.1016/j.bone.2017.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2017] [Revised: 11/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP) is a rare bone disease characterized by episodic events of heterotopic ossification (HO). All cases of FOP have been attributed to mutations in the ACVR1 gene that render the encoded BMP type I ALK2 receptor hypersensitive, resulting in the activation of BMP signaling, at inappropriate times in inappropriate locations. The episodic or sporadic nature of HO associated with FOP rests with the occurrence of specific 'triggers' that push the hypersensitive ALK2-FOP receptor into full signaling mode. Identification of these triggers and their mechanism of action is critical for preventing HO and its devastating consequences in FOP patients. Models of FOP, generated in Drosophila, are shown to activate the highly conserved BMP signaling pathway in both Drosophila cell culture and in developing tissues in vivo. The most common FOP mutation, R206H, in ALK2 and its synonymous mutation, K262H, in the orthologous Drosophila receptor Sax, abolish the ability of wild type receptors to inhibit BMP ligand-induced signaling and lead to ubiquitous pathway activation in both cases but with important differences. When expressed in Drosophila, human ALK2R206H exhibits constitutive signaling. SaxK262H on the other hand can elicit excessive signaling similar to that observed for ALK2R206H in mammalian systems in vivo. For example, hyperactive signaling mediated by SaxK262H is triggered by an increase in ligand or in type II receptors. Interestingly, while the constitutive nature of ALK2R2026H in Drosophila requires activation by the type II receptor, it does not require its ligand binding domain. The differences exhibited by the two Drosophila FOP models enable a valuable comparative analysis poised to reveal critical regulatory mechanisms governing signaling output from these mutated receptors. Modifier screens using these Drosophila FOP models will be extremely valuable in identifying genes or compounds that reduce or prevent the hyperactive BMP signaling that initiates HO associated with FOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viet Le
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA; Program in Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital and Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Edward Anderson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Takuya Akiyama
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA; Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, MO, USA
| | - Kristi A Wharton
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
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22
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LaBonty M, Yelick PC. Animal models of fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. Dev Dyn 2017; 247:279-288. [PMID: 29139166 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.24606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva is a rare human disease of heterotopic ossification. FOP patients experience progressive development of ectopic bone within fibrous tissues that contributes to a gradual loss of mobility and can lead to early mortality. Due to lack of understanding of the etiology and progression of human FOP, and the fact that surgical interventions often exacerbate FOP disease progression, alternative therapeutic methods are needed, including modeling in animals, to study and improve understanding of human FOP. In this review we provide an overview of the existing animal models of FOP and the key mechanistic findings from each. In addition, we highlight the specific advantages of a new adult zebrafish model, generated by our lab, to study human FOP. Developmental Dynamics 247:279-288, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa LaBonty
- Program in Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Orthodontics, Division of Craniofacial and Molecular Genetics, Tufts University School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Pamela C Yelick
- Program in Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology, Sackler School of Graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts.,Department of Orthodontics, Division of Craniofacial and Molecular Genetics, Tufts University School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts
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23
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly L Cooper
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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24
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Upadhyay A, Moss-Taylor L, Kim MJ, Ghosh AC, O'Connor MB. TGF-β Family Signaling in Drosophila. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2017; 9:cshperspect.a022152. [PMID: 28130362 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a022152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family signaling pathway is conserved and ubiquitous in animals. In Drosophila, fewer representatives of each signaling component are present compared with vertebrates, simplifying mechanistic study of the pathway. Although there are fewer family members, the TGF-β family pathway still regulates multiple and diverse functions in Drosophila. In this review, we focus our attention on several of the classic and best-studied functions for TGF-β family signaling in regulating Drosophila developmental processes such as embryonic and imaginal disc patterning, but we also describe several recently discovered roles in regulating hormonal, physiological, neuronal, innate immunity, and tissue homeostatic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambuj Upadhyay
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Lindsay Moss-Taylor
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Myung-Jun Kim
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Arpan C Ghosh
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Michael B O'Connor
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
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25
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Drosophila Nociceptive Sensitization Requires BMP Signaling via the Canonical SMAD Pathway. J Neurosci 2017; 37:8524-8533. [PMID: 28855331 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3458-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2016] [Revised: 06/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Nociceptive sensitization is a common feature in chronic pain, but its basic cellular mechanisms are only partially understood. The present study used the Drosophila melanogaster model system and a candidate gene approach to identify novel components required for modulation of an injury-induced nociceptive sensitization pathway presumably downstream of Hedgehog. This study demonstrates that RNAi silencing of a member of the Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) signaling pathway, Decapentaplegic (Dpp), specifically in the Class IV multidendritic nociceptive neuron, significantly attenuated ultraviolet injury-induced sensitization. Furthermore, overexpression of Dpp in Class IV neurons was sufficient to induce thermal hypersensitivity in the absence of injury. The requirement of various BMP receptors and members of the SMAD signal transduction pathway in nociceptive sensitization was also demonstrated. The effects of BMP signaling were shown to be largely specific to the sensitization pathway and not associated with changes in nociception in the absence of injury or with changes in dendritic morphology. Thus, the results demonstrate that Dpp and its pathway play a crucial and novel role in nociceptive sensitization. Because the BMP family is so strongly conserved between vertebrates and invertebrates, it seems likely that the components analyzed in this study represent potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of chronic pain in humans.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT This report provides a genetic analysis of primary nociceptive neuron mechanisms that promote sensitization in response to injury. Drosophila melanogaster larvae whose primary nociceptive neurons were reduced in levels of specific components of the BMP signaling pathway, were injured and then tested for nocifensive responses to a normally subnoxious stimulus. Results suggest that nociceptive neurons use the BMP2/4 ligand, along with identified receptors and intracellular transducers to transition to a sensitized state. These findings are consistent with the observation that BMP receptor hyperactivation correlates with bone abnormalities and pain sensitization in fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (Kitterman et al., 2012). Because nociceptive sensitization is associated with chronic pain, these findings indicate that human BMP pathway components may represent targets for novel pain-relieving drugs.
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26
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Kang DG, Hsu WK, Lehman RA. Complications Associated With Bone Morphogenetic Protein in the Lumbar Spine. Orthopedics 2017; 40:e229-e237. [PMID: 27992640 DOI: 10.3928/01477447-20161213-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Complications associated with the use of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein in the lumbar spine include retrograde ejaculation, ectopic bone formation, vertebral osteolysis and subsidence, postoperative radiculitis, and hematoma and seroma. These complications are controversial and remain widely debated. This article discusses the reported complications and possible implications for the practicing spine surgeon. Understanding the complications associated with the use of recombinant human bone morphogenetic protein and the associated controversies allows for informed decision making by both the patient and the surgeon. [Orthopedics. 2017; 40(2):e229-e237.].
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27
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Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), originally identified as osteoinductive components in extracts derived from bone, are now known to play important roles in a wide array of processes during formation and maintenance of various organs including bone, cartilage, muscle, kidney, and blood vessels. BMPs and the related "growth and differentiation factors" (GDFs) are members of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family, and transduce their signals through type I and type II serine-threonine kinase receptors and their intracellular downstream effectors, including Smad proteins. Furthermore, BMP signals are finely tuned by various agonists and antagonists. Because deregulation of the BMP activity at multiple steps in signal transduction is linked to a wide variety of human diseases, therapeutic use of activators and inhibitors of BMP signaling will provide potential avenues for the treatment of the human disorders that are caused by hypo- and hyperactivation of BMP signals, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takenobu Katagiri
- Division of Pathophysiology, Research Center for Genomic Medicine, Saitama Medical University, Hidaka-shi, Saitama 350-1241, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Watabe
- Section of Biochemistry, Department of Bio-Matrix, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8549, Japan
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28
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Zhao M, Shi Y, He M, Huang X, Wang Q. PfSMAD4 plays a role in biomineralization and can transduce bone morphogenetic protein-2 signals in the pearl oyster Pinctada fucata. BMC DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY 2016; 16:9. [PMID: 27113217 PMCID: PMC4845351 DOI: 10.1186/s12861-016-0110-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Background Mollusca is the second largest phylum in nature. The shell of molluscs is a remarkable example of a natural composite biomaterial. Biomineralization and how it affects mollusks is a popular research topic. The BMP-2 signaling pathway plays a canonical role in biomineralization. SMAD4 is an intracellular transmitter in the BMP signaling pathway in mammals, and some genomic data show SMAD4’s involvment in BMP signaling in invertbrates, but whether SMAD4 plays a conservative role in pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata, still need to be tested. Results In this study, we identified a SMAD4 gene (hereafter designated PfSMAD4) in pearl oyster Pinctada fucata. Bioinformatics analysis of PfSMAD4 showed high identity with its orthologs. PfSMAD4 was located in the cytoplasm in immunofluorescence assays and analyses of PfSMAD4 mRNA in tissues and developmental stages showed high expression in ovaries and D-shaped larvae. An RNA interference experiment, performed by PfSMAD4 double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injection, demonstrated inhibition not only of nacre growth but also organic sheet formation with a decrease in PfSMAD4 expression. A knockdown experiment using PfBMP2 dsRNA showed decreased PfBMP2 and PfSMAD4 mRNA and irregular crystallization of the nacreous layer using scanning electron microscopy. In co-transfection experiments, PfBMP2-transactivated reporter constructs contained PfSMAD4 promoter sequences. Conclusions Our results suggest that PfSMAD4 plays a role in biomineralization and can transduce BMP signals in P. fucata. Our data provides important clues about the molecular mechanisms that regulate biomineralization in pearl oyster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510301, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yu Shi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510301, China
| | - Maoxian He
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510301, China.
| | - Xiande Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510301, China
| | - Qi Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, 510301, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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29
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Hu X, Jiang Y, Gong Y, Zhu M, Zhu L, Chen F, Liang Z, Kuang S, Zar MS, Kumar D, Cao G, Xue R, Gong C. Important roles played by TGF-β member of Bmdpp and Bmdaw in BmNPV infection. Mol Immunol 2016; 73:122-9. [PMID: 27077706 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β superfamily members inhibit Bombyx mori nucleohedrovirus (BmNPV) multiplication in silkworm are not determined. In this study, we first found that BmNPV RNA transcription and protein expression level were regulated by TGF-β members, Decapentaplegic (Bmdpp) and Dawdle (Bmdaw) in the domesticated silkworm, B. mori and silkworm ovary-derived cells. Furthermore, subcellular localization showed that Bmdpp and Bmdaw were mainly presented in cytomembrane of the cultured BmN cells. Tissues expression pattern analysis found that the highest expression levels of Bmdpp and Bmdaw genes were in the hemocyte of fifth instar larvae. During the immune response, the expression level of Bmdpp gene was elevated and Bmdaw gene was declined in BmNPV infected BmN cells and silkworm. The multiplication of BmNPV was inhibited by overexpression of Bmdpp and Bmdaw genes in BmN cells. RNA interference experiments found that the multiplication of BmNPV was raised with specific siRNAs of Bmdpp and Bmdaw genes in BmN cells. The antiviral immune pathways were not significantly regulated by the TGF-β superfamily members. Taken together, these findings provided a clue to understand the function of Bmdpp and Bmdaw gene in response to the BmNPV infection in silkworm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolong Hu
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China; National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yue Jiang
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yongchang Gong
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Min Zhu
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Liyuan Zhu
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Fei Chen
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Zi Liang
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Sulan Kuang
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Mian Sahib Zar
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Dhiraj Kumar
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Guangli Cao
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China; National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Renyu Xue
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China; National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Chengliang Gong
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China; National Engineering Laboratory for Modern Silk, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.
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30
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Li G, Zhao H, Wang H, Guo X, Guo X, Sun Q, Xu B. Characterization of a Decapentapletic Gene (AccDpp) from Apis cerana cerana and Its Possible Involvement in Development and Response to Oxidative Stress. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149117. [PMID: 26881804 PMCID: PMC4755538 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
To tolerate many acute and chronic oxidative stress-producing agents that exist in the environment, organisms have evolved many classes of signal transduction pathways, including the transforming growth factor β (TGFβ) signal pathway. Decapentapletic gene (Dpp) belongs to the TGFβ superfamily, and studies on Dpp have mainly focused on its role in the regulation of development. No study has investigated the response of Dpp to oxidative pressure in any organism, including Apis cerana cerana (A. cerana cerana). In this study, we identified a Dpp gene from A. cerana cerana named AccDpp. The 5΄ flanking region of AccDpp had many transcription factor binding sites that relevant to development and stress response. AccDpp was expressed at all stages of A. cerana cerana, with its highest expression in 15-day worker bees. The mRNA level of AccDpp was higher in the poison gland and midgut than other tissues. Furthermore, the transcription of AccDpp could be repressed by 4°C and UV, but induced by other treatments, according to our qRT-PCR analysis. It is worth noting that the expression level of AccDpp protein was increased after a certain time when A. cerana cerana was subjected to all simulative oxidative stresses, a finding that was not completely consistent with the result from qRT-PCR. It is interesting that recombinant AccDpp restrained the growth of Escherichia coli, a function that might account for the role of the antimicrobial peptides of AccDpp. In conclusion, these results provide evidence that AccDpp might be implicated in the regulation of development and the response of oxidative pressure. The findings may lay a theoretical foundation for further genetic studies of Dpp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
| | - Hang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
| | - Hongfang Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
| | - Xulei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
| | - Xingqi Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
| | - Qinghua Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (QS); (BX)
| | - Baohua Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, P. R. China
- * E-mail: (QS); (BX)
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Marques CL, Fernández I, Viegas MN, Cox CJ, Martel P, Rosa J, Cancela ML, Laizé V. Comparative analysis of zebrafish bone morphogenetic proteins 2, 4 and 16: molecular and evolutionary perspectives. Cell Mol Life Sci 2016; 73:841-57. [PMID: 26341094 PMCID: PMC11108344 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-2024-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BMP2, BMP4 and BMP16 form a subfamily of bone morphogenetic proteins acting as pleiotropic growth factors during development and as bone inducers during osteogenesis. BMP16 is the most recent member of this subfamily and basic data regarding protein structure and function, and spatio-temporal gene expression is still scarce. In this work, insights on BMP16 were provided through the comparative analysis of structural and functional data for zebrafish BMP2a, BMP2b, BMP4 and BMP16 genes and proteins, determined from three-dimensional models, patterns of gene expression during development and in adult tissues, regulation by retinoic acid and capacity to activate BMP-signaling pathway. Structures of Bmp2a, Bmp2b, Bmp4 and Bmp16 were found to be remarkably similar; with residues involved in receptor binding being highly conserved. All proteins could activate the BMP-signaling pathway, suggesting that they share a common function. On the contrary, stage- and tissue-specific expression of bmp2, bmp4 and bmp16 suggested the genes might be differentially regulated (e.g. different transcription factors, enhancers and/or regulatory modules) but also that they are involved in distinct physiological processes, although with the same function. Retinoic acid, a morphogen known to interact with BMP-signaling during bone formation, was shown to down-regulate the expression of bmp2, bmp4 and bmp16, although to different extents. Taxonomic and phylogenetic analyses indicated that bmp16 diverged before bmp2 and bmp4, is not restricted to teleost fish lineage as previously reported, and that it probably arose from a whole genomic duplication event that occurred early in vertebrate evolution and disappeared in various tetrapod lineages through independent events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cátia L Marques
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
- PhD Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine (DCBM), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Ignacio Fernández
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Michael N Viegas
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Cymon J Cox
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
| | - Paulo Martel
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biomedicine (CBME/IBB-LA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Joana Rosa
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
- PhD Program in Biomedical Sciences, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine (DCBM), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - M Leonor Cancela
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine (DCBM), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Vincent Laizé
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR), University of Algarve, Campus de Gambelas, 8005-139, Faro, Portugal.
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine (DCBM), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal.
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Bier E, De Robertis EM. BMP gradients: A paradigm for morphogen-mediated developmental patterning. Science 2015; 348:aaa5838. [DOI: 10.1126/science.aaa5838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Pakpour N, Akman-Anderson L, Vodovotz Y, Luckhart S. The effects of ingested mammalian blood factors on vector arthropod immunity and physiology. Microbes Infect 2013; 15:243-54. [PMID: 23370408 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2013.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 01/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The blood feeding behavior of disease-transmitting arthropods creates a unique intersection between vertebrate and invertebrate physiology. Here, we review host blood-derived factors that persist through blood digestion to affect the lifespan, reproduction, and immune responses of some of the most common arthropod vectors of human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazzy Pakpour
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States.
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Detournay O, Schnitzler CE, Poole A, Weis VM. Regulation of cnidarian-dinoflagellate mutualisms: Evidence that activation of a host TGFβ innate immune pathway promotes tolerance of the symbiont. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 38:525-537. [PMID: 23010490 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2012.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Revised: 07/28/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Animals must manage interactions with beneficial as well as detrimental microbes. Immunity therefore includes strategies for both resistance to and tolerance of microbial invaders. Transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) cytokines have many functions in animals including a tolerance-promoting (tolerogenic) role in immunity in vertebrates. TGFβ pathways are present in basal metazoans such as cnidarians but their potential role in immunity has never been explored. This study takes a two-part approach to examining an immune function for TGFβ in cnidarians. First bioinformatic analyses of the model anemone Aiptasia pallida were used to identify TGFβ pathway components and explore the hypothesis that an immune function for TGFβs existed prior to the evolution of vertebrates. A TGFβ ligand from A. pallida was identified as one that groups closely with vertebrate TGFβs that have an immune function. Second, cellular analyses of A. pallida were used to examine a role for a TGFβ pathway in the regulation of cnidarian-dinoflagellate mutualisms. These interactions are stable under ambient conditions but collapse under elevated temperature, a phenomenon called cnidarian bleaching. Addition of exogenous human TGFβ suppressed an immune response measured as LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production by the host. Addition of anti-TGFβ to block a putative TGFβ pathway resulted in immune stimulation and a failure of the symbionts to successfully colonize the host. Finally, addition of exogenous TGFβ suppressed immune stimulation in heat-stressed animals and partially abolished a bleaching response. These findings suggest that the dinoflagellate symbionts somehow promote host tolerance through activation of tolerogenic host immune pathways, a strategy employed by some intracellular protozoan parasites during their invasion of vertebrates. Insight into the ancient, conserved nature of host-microbe interactions gained from this cnidarian-dinoflagellate model is valuable to understanding the evolution of immunity and its role in the regulation of both beneficial and detrimental associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Detournay
- Department of Zoology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, 97331, USA.
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Overactive bone morphogenetic protein signaling in heterotopic ossification and Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 70:407-23. [PMID: 22752156 PMCID: PMC3541930 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-1054-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) are important extracellular cytokines that play critical roles in embryogenesis and tissue homeostasis. BMPs signal via transmembrane type I and type II serine/threonine kinase receptors and intracellular Smad effector proteins. BMP signaling is precisely regulated and perturbation of BMP signaling is connected to multiple diseases, including musculoskeletal diseases. In this review, we will summarize the recent progress in elucidation of BMP signal transduction, how overactive BMP signaling is involved in the pathogenesis of heterotopic ossification and Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and discuss possible therapeutic strategies for treatment of these diseases.
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Le VQ, Wharton KA. Hyperactive BMP signaling induced by ALK2(R206H) requires type II receptor function in a Drosophila model for classic fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. Dev Dyn 2012; 241:200-14. [PMID: 22174087 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fibrodysplasia Ossificans Progressiva (FOP) is an autosomal dominant disorder characterized by episodic deposition of heterotopic bone in place of soft connective tissue. All FOP-associated mutations map to the BMP type I receptor, ALK2, with the ALK2(R206H) mutant form found in the vast majority of patients. The mechanism(s) regulating the expressivity of hyperactive ALK2(R206H) signaling throughout a patient's life is not well understood. RESULTS In Drosophila, human ALK2(R206H) receptor induces hyperactive BMP signaling. As in vertebrates, elevated signaling associated with ALK2(R206H) in Drosophila is ligand-independent. We found that a key determinant for ALK2(R206H) hyperactivity is a functional type II receptor. Furthermore, our results indicate that like its Drosophila ortholog, Saxophone (Sax), wild-type ALK2 can antagonize, as well as promote, BMP signaling. CONCLUSIONS The dual function of ALK2 is of particular interest given the heterozygous nature of FOP, as the normal interplay between such disparate behaviors could be shifted by the presence of ALK2(R206H) receptors. Our studies provide a compelling example for Drosophila as a model organism to study the molecular underpinnings of complex human syndromes such as FOP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viet Q Le
- Department of Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, and Biochemistry, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island 02912, USA
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Peterson AJ, Jensen PA, Shimell M, Stefancsik R, Wijayatonge R, Herder R, Raftery LA, O'Connor MB. R-Smad competition controls activin receptor output in Drosophila. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36548. [PMID: 22563507 PMCID: PMC3341346 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals use TGF-β superfamily signal transduction pathways during development and tissue maintenance. The superfamily has traditionally been divided into TGF-β/Activin and BMP branches based on relationships between ligands, receptors, and R-Smads. Several previous reports have shown that, in cell culture systems, "BMP-specific" Smads can be phosphorylated in response to TGF-β/Activin pathway activation. Using Drosophila cell culture as well as in vivo assays, we find that Baboon, the Drosophila TGF-β/Activin-specific Type I receptor, can phosphorylate Mad, the BMP-specific R-Smad, in addition to its normal substrate, dSmad2. The Baboon-Mad activation appears direct because it occurs in the absence of canonical BMP Type I receptors. Wing phenotypes generated by Baboon gain-of-function require Mad, and are partially suppressed by over-expression of dSmad2. In the larval wing disc, activated Baboon cell-autonomously causes C-terminal Mad phosphorylation, but only when endogenous dSmad2 protein is depleted. The Baboon-Mad relationship is thus controlled by dSmad2 levels. Elevated P-Mad is seen in several tissues of dSmad2 protein-null mutant larvae, and these levels are normalized in dSmad2; baboon double mutants, indicating that the cross-talk reaction and Smad competition occur with endogenous levels of signaling components in vivo. In addition, we find that high levels of Activin signaling cause substantial turnover in dSmad2 protein, providing a potential cross-pathway signal-switching mechanism. We propose that the dual activity of TGF-β/Activin receptors is an ancient feature, and we discuss several ways this activity can modulate TGF-β signaling output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidan J. Peterson
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Philip A. Jensen
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - MaryJane Shimell
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Ray Stefancsik
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Ranjula Wijayatonge
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Rachel Herder
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Laurel A. Raftery
- Cutaneous Biology Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, Massachusetts, United States of America
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Michael B. O'Connor
- Department of Genetics, Cell Biology, and Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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38
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Galat A. Common structural traits for cystine knot domain of the TGFβ superfamily of proteins and three-fingered ectodomain of their cellular receptors. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:3437-51. [PMID: 21369710 PMCID: PMC11114550 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0643-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2010] [Revised: 01/08/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) superfamily of proteins and their receptors are crucial developmental factors for all metazoan organisms. Cystine-knot (CK) motif is a spatial feature of the TGFβ superfamily of proteins whereas the extra-cellular domains (ectodomains) of their respective receptors form three-fingered protein domain (TFPD), both stabilized by tight cystine networks. Analyses of multiple sequence alignments of these two domains encoded in various genomes revealed that the cystines forming the CK and TFPD folds are conserved, whereas the remaining polypeptide patches are diversified. Orthologues of the human TGFβs and their respective receptors expressed in diverse vertebrates retain high sequence conservation. Examination of 3D structures of various TGFβ factors bound to their receptors have revealed that the CK and TFPD domains display several similar spatial traits suggesting that these two different protein folds might have been acquired from a common ancestor.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Galat
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique, Direction des Sciences du Vivant, Institut de Biologie et de Technologies de Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, Bat. 152, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
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Growth factors and chemotactic factors from parasitic helminths: molecular evidence for roles in host-parasite interactions versus parasite development. Int J Parasitol 2010; 40:761-73. [PMID: 20359480 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2010.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2010] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 02/25/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
For decades molecular helminthologists have been interested in identifying proteins expressed by the parasite that have roles in modulating the host immune response. In some cases, the aim was targeting parasite-derived orthologues of mammalian cytokines and growth factors known to have functions in immune modulation. In others, novel proteins without homology to mammalian cytokines were isolated by investigating effects of purified worm extracts on various immunological processes. Often, the role parasite-derived growth factors play in worm development was ignored. Here, we review growth factors and chemotactic factors expressed by parasitic helminths and discuss their recognised and potential roles in immunomodulation and/or parasite development.
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40
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Fang X, Xu H, Zhang C, Zhang J, Lan X, Gu C, Hong C. Polymorphisms in BMP-2 gene and their associations with growth traits in goats. Genes Genomics 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s13258-010-0762-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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41
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Feiner N, Begemann G, Renz AJ, Meyer A, Kuraku S. The origin of bmp16, a novel Bmp2/4 relative, retained in teleost fish genomes. BMC Evol Biol 2009; 9:277. [PMID: 19951429 PMCID: PMC2801517 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2148-9-277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Whole genome sequences have allowed us to have an overview of the evolution of gene repertoires. The target of the present study, the TGFβ superfamily, contains many genes involved in vertebrate development, and provides an ideal system to explore the relationships between evolution of gene repertoires and that of developmental programs. Results As a result of a bioinformatic survey of sequenced vertebrate genomes, we identified an uncharacterized member of the TGFβ superfamily, designated bmp16, which is confined to teleost fish species. Our molecular phylogenetic study revealed a high affinity of bmp16 to the Bmp2/4 subfamily. Importantly, further analyses based on the maximum-likelihood method unambiguously ruled out the possibility that this teleost-specific gene is a product of teleost-specific genome duplication. This suggests that the absence of a bmp16 ortholog in tetrapods is due to a secondary loss. In situ hybridization showed embryonic expression of the zebrafish bmp16 in the developing swim bladder, heart, tail bud, and ectoderm of pectoral and median fin folds in pharyngula stages, as well as gut-associated expression in 5-day embryos. Conclusion Comparisons of expression patterns revealed (1) the redundancy of bmp16 expression with its homologs in presumably plesiomorphic expression domains, such as the fin fold, heart, and tail bud, which might have permitted its loss in the tetrapod lineage, and (2) the loss of craniofacial expression and gain of swim bladder expression of bmp16 after the gene duplication between Bmp2, -4 and -16. Our findings highlight the importance of documenting secondary changes of gene repertoires and expression patterns in other gene families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Feiner
- Laboratory for Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, Department of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany.
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Abstract
In recent years, informatics studies have predicted several new ways in which the transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta) signaling pathway can be post-translationally regulated. Subsequently, many of these predictions were experimentally validated. These approaches include phylogenetic predictions for the phosphorylation, sumoylation and ubiquitylation of pathway components, as well as kinetic models of endocytosis, phosphorylation and nucleo-cytoplasmic shuttling. We review these studies and provide a brief ;how to' guide for phylogenetics. Our hope is to stimulate experimental tests of informatics-based predictions for TGFbeta signaling, as well as for other signaling pathways, and to expand the number of developmental pathways that are being analyzed computationally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kahlem
- EMBL, European Bioinformatics Institute, Hinxton, Saffron Waldon CB10 1SD, UK
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43
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Maezawa T, Arita K, Shigenobu S, Kobayashi S. Expression of the apoptosis inducer gene head involution defective in primordial germ cells of the Drosophila embryo requires eiger, p53, and loki function. Dev Growth Differ 2009; 51:453-61. [PMID: 19382940 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-169x.2009.01108.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Nanos (Nos) is an evolutionarily conserved protein essential for the maintenance of primordial germ cells (PGCs). In Drosophila, the PGCs or pole cells express head involution defective (hid), which is required for caspase activation, but its translation is repressed by maternal Nos. In the absence of Nos activity, translation of hid mRNA into protein induces apoptosis in pole cells. However, it remains unclear how hid mRNA is regulated in pole cells. Here, we report that hid expression requires eiger (egr), a tumor necrosis factor ligand (TNF) homologue, which is induced in pole cells by decapentaplegic (dpp). In addition, we demonstrate that p53 and loki (lok), a damage-activated kinase known to be required for p53 phosphorylation, are both required for hid expression in pole cells. Since maternal lok mRNA is enriched in pole cells, it is possible that ubiquitously distributed p53 is activated in pole cells by maternal Lok. We propose that hid expression is activated in a pole cell-specific manner by loki/p53 and dpp/egr during embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takanobu Maezawa
- Okazaki Institute for Integrative Bioscience, National Institute for Basic Biology, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Higashiyama, Myodaiji, Okazaki, Japan
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Künnapuu J, Björkgren I, Shimmi O. The Drosophila DPP signal is produced by cleavage of its proprotein at evolutionary diversified furin-recognition sites. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:8501-6. [PMID: 19433798 PMCID: PMC2689000 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0809885106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Maturation of bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) requires cleavage of their precursor proteins by furin-type proprotein convertases. Here, we find that cleavage sites of the BMP2/4/decapentaplegic (DPP) subfamily have been evolutionary diversified and can be categorized into 4 different types. Cnidaria BMP2/4/DPP is considered to be a prototype containing only 1 furin site. Bilateria BMP2/4/DPP acquired an additional cleavage site with either the combination of minimal-optimal or optimal-optimal furin sites. DPPs belonging to Diptera, such as Drosophila and mosquito, and Lepidoptera of silkworm contain a third cleavage site between the 2 optimal furin sites. We studied how the 3 furin sites (FSI-III) of Drosophila DPP coordinate maturation of ligands and contribute to signals in vivo. Combining mutational analysis of furin-recognition sites and RNAi experiments, we found that the Drosophila DPP precursor is initially cleaved at an upstream furin-recognition site (FSII), with consequent cleavages at 2 furin sites (FSI and FSIII). Both Dfurin1 and Dfurin2 are involved in the processing of DPP proproteins. Biochemical and genetic analyses using cleavage mutants of DPP suggest the first cleavage at FSII to be critical and sufficient for long-range DPP signaling. Our data suggest that the Drosophila DPP precursor is cleaved in a different manner from vertebrate BMP4 even though they are functional orthologs. This indicates that the furin-cleavage sites in BMP2/4/DPP precursors are tolerant to mutations acquired through evolution and have adapted to different systems in diversified species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaana Künnapuu
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56 Viikinkaari 9, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ida Björkgren
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56 Viikinkaari 9, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Osamu Shimmi
- Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 56 Viikinkaari 9, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
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Chandler KJ, Chandler RL, Mortlock DP. Identification of an ancient Bmp4 mesoderm enhancer located 46 kb from the promoter. Dev Biol 2009; 327:590-602. [PMID: 19159624 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2008] [Revised: 12/19/2008] [Accepted: 12/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (Bmp4) is a multi-functional, developmentally regulated gene that is essential for mouse development, as most Bmp4-null mouse embryos die at the onset of gastrulation and fail to develop mesoderm. Little is known about the transcriptional regulation of Bmp4. To identify potential long-range cis-regulatory elements that direct its complex spatiotemporal expression patterns, we surveyed the mouse Bmp4 locus using two overlapping bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) reporter transgenes. Our findings indicate that tissue-specific cis-regulatory elements reside greater than 28 kb 5' or 3' to the mouse Bmp4 transcription unit. In addition, comparative analyses identified three noncoding evolutionarily conserved regions (ECRs), spaced around the gene and conserved from mammals to fish, that are maintained in a syntenic group across vertebrates. Deletion of one of these conserved sequences (ECR2) from a BAC transgene revealed a tissue-specific requirement for ECR2 in driving Bmp4 expression in extraembryonic and embryonic mesoderm. Furthermore, a 467 bp mouse sequence containing ECR2 reproducibly directed lacZ minigene expression in mesoderm. Taken together, this shows that an ancient, mesoderm-specific cis-regulatory element resides nearly 50 kb 5' to mouse Bmp4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly J Chandler
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Center for Human Genetics Research, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 1175 MRBIV, 2215 Garland Avenue, Nashville, TN 37232, USA
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Benglis D, Wang MY, Levi AD. A comprehensive review of the safety profile of bone morphogenetic protein in spine surgery. Neurosurgery 2008; 62:ONS423-31; discussion ONS431. [PMID: 18596525 DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000326030.24220.d8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
WE REVIEW OUR current understanding of the development and potential clinical applications of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) in spine surgery. We also review the evidence for adverse events associated with the use of BMP and suggest potential reasons for these events and means of complication avoidance. Bone morphogenetic protein 2 (rhBMP-2) is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for anterior lumbar interbody fusion; rhBMP-7, on the other hand, is approved for long bone defects and has received a humanitarian device exemption for revision posterolateral lumbar operations and recalcitrant long bone unions. Nevertheless, "off-label" use in various spinal procedures has been reported and is increasing in frequency. Specific guidelines for rhBMP-2 and rhBMP-7 use are lacking because of the limited availability of randomized controlled clinical trials and its diverse use in many spinal applications. Mechanisms of delivery, carrier type, graft position, surgical location, and variations in BMP concentration may differ from one surgery to the next. Adverse events linked to either rhBMP-2 or rhBMP-7 use include ectopic bone formation, bone resorption or remodeling at the graft site, hematoma, neck swelling, and painful seroma. Other potential theoretical concerns include carcinogenicity and teratogenic effects. In this review, we provide the reader with a historical perspective on BMP, current and past research to support its use in spinal procedures, and a critical analysis of the complications reported thus far.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Benglis
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
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Williams LA, Bhargav D, Diwan AD. Unveiling the bmp13 enigma: redundant morphogen or crucial regulator? Int J Biol Sci 2008; 4:318-29. [PMID: 18797508 PMCID: PMC2536705 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.4.318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Accepted: 09/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic proteins are a diverse group of morphogens with influences not only on bone tissue, as the nomenclature suggests, but on multiple tissues in the body and often at crucial and influential periods in development. The purpose of this review is to identify and discuss current knowledge of one vertebrate BMP, Bone Morphogenetic Protein 13 (BMP13), from a variety of research fields, in order to clarify BMP13's functional contribution to developing and maintaining healthy tissues, and to identify potential future research directions for this intriguing morphogen. BMP13 is highly evolutionarily conserved (active domain >95%) across diverse species from Zebrafish to humans, suggesting a crucial function. In addition, mutations in BMP13 have recently been associated with Klippel-Feil Syndrome, causative of numerous skeletal and developmental defects including spinal disc fusion. The specific nature of BMP13's crucial function is, however, not yet known. The literature for BMP13 is focused largely on its activity in the healing of tendon-like tissues, or in comparisons with other BMP family molecules for whom a clear function in embryo development or osteogenic differentiation has been identified. There is a paucity of detailed information regarding BMP13 protein activity, structure or protein processing. Whilst some activity in the stimulation of osteogenic or cartilaginous gene expression has been reported, and BMP13 expression is found in post natal cartilage and tendon tissues, there appears to be a redundancy of function in the BMP family, with several members capable of stimulating similar tissue responses. This review aims to summarise the known or potential role(s) for BMP13 in a variety of biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa A Williams
- Spine Service, St George Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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Arendt D, Denes AS, Jékely G, Tessmar-Raible K. The evolution of nervous system centralization. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2008; 363:1523-8. [PMID: 18192182 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2007.2242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It is yet unknown when and in what form the central nervous system in Bilateria first came into place and how it further evolved in the different bilaterian phyla. To find out, a series of recent molecular studies have compared neurodevelopment in slow-evolving deuterostome and protostome invertebrates, such as the enteropneust hemichordate Saccoglossus and the polychaete annelid Platynereis. These studies focus on the spatially different activation and, when accessible, function of genes that set up the molecular anatomy of the neuroectoderm and specify neuron types that emerge from distinct molecular coordinates. Complex similarities are detected, which reveal aspects of neurodevelopment that most likely occurred already in a similar manner in the last common ancestor of the bilaterians, Urbilateria. This way, different aspects of the molecular architecture of the urbilaterian nervous system are reconstructed and yield insight into the degree of centralization that was in place in the bilaterian ancestors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Detlev Arendt
- Developmental Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg 69117, Germany.
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Wang H, Liu D, Yang Z, Tian B, Li J, Meng X, Wang Z, Yang H, Lin X. Association of bone morphogenetic protein-2 gene polymorphisms with susceptibility to ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament of the spine and its severity in Chinese patients. EUROPEAN SPINE JOURNAL : OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE EUROPEAN SPINE SOCIETY, THE EUROPEAN SPINAL DEFORMITY SOCIETY, AND THE EUROPEAN SECTION OF THE CERVICAL SPINE RESEARCH SOCIETY 2008; 17:956-64. [PMID: 18389292 PMCID: PMC2443260 DOI: 10.1007/s00586-008-0651-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2007] [Revised: 01/31/2008] [Accepted: 03/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
A case–control study was conducted to examine the association between two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in exon 2 of the bone morphogenetic protein-2 gene (BMP-2) and ossification of the posterior longitudinal ligament (OPLL), and to investigate whether SNPs of the Ser37Ala (T/G) and the Ser87Ser (A/G) in the BMP-2 gene are associated with genetic susceptibility to OPLL and its severity in Chinese subjects. The Ser87Ser (A/G) SNP has been implicated in bone mineral density (BMD) and increases the risk of OA in women. The Ser37Ala (T/G) SNP is associated with BMD and the rate of bone loss in osteoporosis and osteoporosis fractures. A total of 57 OPLL patients and 135 non-OPLL controls were studied. Radiographs of the cervical spine were analyzed to determine the presence and the severity of OPLL. The association of two SNPs with the occurrence and the extent of OPLL were statistically evaluated. There was a significant association between the Ser37Ala (T/G) polymorphism and the occurrence of OPLL in the cervical spine. However, no significant association was found between the Ser37Ala (T/G) polymorphism and the more number of ossified cervical vertebrae in OPLL patients. There was a significant association between the Ser87Ser (A/G) polymorphism and the more number of ossified cervical vertebrae in OPLL patients. However, there was no statistical difference between the Ser87Ser (A/G) SNP and the occurrence of OPLL in the cervical spine. In addition, the Ser87Ser (A/G) polymorphism in male patients and in female patients showed no statistical difference between cases and controls. The present results demonstrate that BMP-2 Gene is not only a factor associated with the occurrence of OPLL, but also a factor related to more extensive OPLL. The “G” allele in the Ser37Ala (T/G) polymorphism is associated with the occurrence of OPLL, but not more extensive OPLL in the cervical spine. The “G” allele in the Ser87Ser (A/G) polymorphism promotes the extent of OPLL, whereas the “A” allele in the Ser87Ser (A/G) polymorphism restricts ectopic ossification in the cervical spine at least in Chinese subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wang
- Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University (CMU), Beijing, 100050, China
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Takaesu NT, Bulanin DS, Johnson AN, Orenic TV, Newfeld SJ. A combinatorial enhancer recognized by Mad, TCF and Brinker first activates then represses dpp expression in the posterior spiracles of Drosophila. Dev Biol 2007; 313:829-43. [PMID: 18068697 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2007] [Revised: 09/28/2007] [Accepted: 10/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A previous genetic analysis of a reporter gene carrying a 375-bp region from a dpp intron (dppMX-lacZ) revealed that the Wingless and Dpp pathways are required to activate dpp expression in posterior spiracle formation. Here we report that within the dppMX region there is an enhancer with binding sites for TCF and Mad that are essential for activating dppMX expression in posterior spiracles. There is also a binding site for Brinker likely employed to repress dppMX expression. This combinatorial enhancer may be the first identified with the ability to integrate temporally distinct positive (TCF and Mad) and negative (Brinker) inputs in the same cells. Cuticle studies on a unique dpp mutant lacking this enhancer showed that it is required for viability and that the Filzkorper are U-shaped rather than straight. Together with gene expression data from these mutants and from brk mutants, our results suggest that there are two rounds of Dpp signaling in posterior spiracle development. The first round is associated with dorsal-ventral patterning and is necessary for designating the posterior spiracle field. The second is governed by the combinatorial enhancer and begins during germ band retraction. The second round appears necessary for proper spiracle internal morphology and fusion with the remainder of the tracheal system. Intriguingly, several aspects of dpp posterior spiracle expression and function are similar to demonstrated roles for Wnt and BMP signaling in proximal-distal outgrowth of the mammalian embryonic lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norma T Takaesu
- School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
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