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Cīrulis A, Hansson B, Abbott JK. Sex-limited chromosomes and non-reproductive traits. BMC Biol 2022; 20:156. [PMID: 35794589 PMCID: PMC9261002 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-022-01357-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex chromosomes are typically viewed as having originated from a pair of autosomes, and differentiated as the sex-limited chromosome (e.g. Y) has degenerated by losing most genes through cessation of recombination. While often thought that degenerated sex-limited chromosomes primarily affect traits involved in sex determination and sex cell production, accumulating evidence suggests they also influence traits not sex-limited or directly involved in reproduction. Here, we provide an overview of the effects of sex-limited chromosomes on non-reproductive traits in XY, ZW or UV sex determination systems, and discuss evolutionary processes maintaining variation at sex-limited chromosomes and molecular mechanisms affecting non-reproductive traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aivars Cīrulis
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Bengt Hansson
- Department of Biology, Lund University, 223 62, Lund, Sweden
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Yang C, Ba H, Zhang W, Zhang S, Zhao H, Yu H, Gao Z, Wang B. The association of 22 Y chromosome short tandem repeat loci with initiative-aggressive behavior. Gene 2018; 654:10-13. [PMID: 29452231 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.02.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Aggressive behavior represents an important public concern and a clinical challenge to behaviorists and psychiatrists. Aggression in humans is known to have an important genetic basis, so to investigate the association of Y chromosome short tandem repeat (Y-STR) loci with initiative-aggressive behavior, we compared allelic and haplotypic distributions of 22 Y-STRs in a group of Chinese males convicted of premeditated extremely violent crimes (n = 271) with a normal control group (n = 492). Allelic distributions of DYS533 and DYS437 loci differed significantly between the two groups (P < 0.05). The case group had higher frequencies of DYS533 allele 14, DYS437 allele 14, and haplotypes 11-14 of DYS533-DYS437 compared with the control group. Additionally, the DYS437 allele 15 frequency was significantly lower in cases than controls. No frequency differences were observed in the other 20 Y-STR loci between these two groups. Our results indicate a genetic role for Y-STR loci in the development of initiative aggression in non-psychiatric subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No. 102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Changzhou 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Huajie Ba
- DNA Laboratory, Public Security Bureau of Changzhou, Changzhou 213003, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Wei Zhang
- Center for Genetics, s, Beijing 100081, China; Department of Judicial Identification, National Research Institute for Family Planning, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Shuyou Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No. 102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Changzhou 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Hanqing Zhao
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No. 102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Changzhou 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Haiying Yu
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No. 102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Changzhou 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhiqin Gao
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army, No. 102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army, Changzhou 213003, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Binbin Wang
- Center for Genetics, s, Beijing 100081, China; Department of Judicial Identification, National Research Institute for Family Planning, Beijing 100081, China; Graduate School of Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China.
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Ratnu VS, Emami MR, Bredy TW. Genetic and epigenetic factors underlying sex differences in the regulation of gene expression in the brain. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:301-310. [PMID: 27870402 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 07/13/2016] [Accepted: 07/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
There are inherent biological differences between males and females that contribute to sex differences in brain function and to many sex-specific illnesses and disorders. Traditionally, it has been thought that such differences are due largely to hormonal regulation; however, there are also genetic and epigenetic effects caused by the inheritance and unequal dosage of genes located on the X and Y chromosomes. Here we discuss the evidence in favor of a genetic and epigenetic basis for sexually dimorphic behavior, as a consequence of underlying differences in the regulation of genes that drive brain function. A better understanding of sex-specific molecular processes in the brain will provide further insight for the development of novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders characterized by sex differences. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram S Ratnu
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael R Emami
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California
| | - Timothy W Bredy
- Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, California
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Yang C, Ba H, Cao Y, Dong G, Zhang S, Gao Z, Zhao H, Zhou X. Linking Y-chromosomal short tandem repeat loci to human male impulsive aggression. Brain Behav 2017; 7:e00855. [PMID: 29201554 PMCID: PMC5698871 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Men are more susceptible to impulsive behavior than women. Epidemiological studies revealed that the impulsive aggressive behavior is affected by genetic factors, and the male-specific Y chromosome plays an important role in this behavior. In this study, we investigated the association between the impulsive aggressive behavior and Y-chromosomal short tandem repeats (Y-STRs) loci. METHODS The collected biologic samples from 271 offenders with impulsive aggressive behavior and 492 healthy individuals without impulsive aggressive behavior were amplified by PowerPlexRY23 PCR System and the resultant products were separated by electrophoresis and further genotyped. Then, comparisons in allele and haplotype frequencies of the selected 22 Y-STRs were made in the two groups. RESULTS Our results showed that there were significant differences in allele frequencies at DYS448 and DYS456 between offenders and controls (p < .05). Univariate analysis further revealed significant frequency differences for alleles 18 and 22 at DYS448 (0.18 vs 0.27, compared to the controls, p = .003, OR=0.57,95% CI=0.39-0.82; 0.03 vs 0.01, compared to the controls, p = .003, OR=7.45, 95% CI=1.57-35.35, respectively) and for allele 17 at DYS456 (0.07 vs 0.14, compared to the controls, p = .006, OR=0.48, 95% CI =0.28-0.82) between two groups. Interestingly, the frequency of haploid haplotype 22-15 on the DYS448-DYS456 (DYS448-DYS456-22-15) was significantly higher in offenders than in controls (0.033 vs 0.004, compared to the control, p = .001, OR = 8.42, 95%CI =1.81-39.24). Moreover, there were no significant differences in allele frequencies of other Y-STRs loci between two groups. Furthermore, the unconditional logistic regression analysis confirmed that alleles 18 and 22 at DYS448 and allele 17 at DYS456 are associated with male impulsive aggression. However, the DYS448-DYS456-22-15 is less related to impulsive aggression. CONCLUSION Our results suggest a link between Y-chromosomal allele types and male impulsive aggression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yang
- Department of Psychiatry Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army No.102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army Changzhou China
| | - Huajie Ba
- DNA Laboratory Public Security Bureau of Changzhou Changzhou China
| | - Yin Cao
- Department of Neurology Laboratory of Neurological Diseases Changzhou No.2 People's Hospital The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University Changzhou China
| | - Guoying Dong
- Department of Neurology Laboratory of Neurological Diseases Changzhou No.2 People's Hospital The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University Changzhou China
| | - Shuyou Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army No.102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army Changzhou China
| | - Zhiqin Gao
- Department of Psychiatry Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army No.102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army Changzhou China
| | - Hanqing Zhao
- Department of Psychiatry Psychiatry Center of Chinese People's Liberation Army No.102 Hospital of People's Liberation Army Changzhou China
| | - Xianju Zhou
- Department of Neurology Laboratory of Neurological Diseases Changzhou No.2 People's Hospital The Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University Changzhou China
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Davies W. Sex differences in attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: candidate genetic and endocrine mechanisms. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:331-46. [PMID: 24680800 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a developmental condition characterised by severe inattention, pathological impulsivity and hyperactivity; it is relatively common affecting up to 6% of children, and is associated with a risk of long-term adverse educational and social consequences. Males are considerably more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD than females; the course of the disorder and its associated co-morbidities also appear to be sensitive to sex. Here, I discuss fundamental biological (genetic and endocrine) mechanisms that have been shown to, or could theoretically, contribute towards these sexually dimorphic phenomena. Greater understanding of how and why the sexes differ with respect to ADHD vulnerability should allow us to identify and characterise novel protective and risk factors for the disorder, and should ultimately facilitate improved diagnosis, prognosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Davies
- Behavioural Genetics Group, Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Schools of Psychology and Medicine, Cardiff University, Tower Building, Park Place, Cardiff CF10 3AT, UK; Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, Hadyn Ellis Building, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK.
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van den Bos R, Davies W, Dellu-Hagedorn F, Goudriaan AE, Granon S, Homberg J, Rivalan M, Swendsen J, Adriani W. Cross-species approaches to pathological gambling: a review targeting sex differences, adolescent vulnerability and ecological validity of research tools. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2454-71. [PMID: 23867802 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 05/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/08/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Decision-making plays a pivotal role in daily life as impairments in processes underlying decision-making often lead to an inability to make profitable long-term decisions. As a case in point, pathological gamblers continue gambling despite the fact that this disrupts their personal, professional or financial life. The prevalence of pathological gambling will likely increase in the coming years due to expanding possibilities of on-line gambling through the Internet and increasing liberal attitudes towards gambling. It therefore represents a growing concern for society. Both human and animal studies rapidly advance our knowledge on brain-behaviour processes relevant for understanding normal and pathological gambling behaviour. Here, we review in humans and animals three features of pathological gambling which hitherto have received relatively little attention: (1) sex differences in (the development of) pathological gambling, (2) adolescence as a (putative) sensitive period for (developing) pathological gambling and (3) avenues for improving ecological validity of research tools. Based on these issues we also discuss how research in humans and animals may be brought in line to maximize translational research opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruud van den Bos
- Department of Organismal Animal Physiology, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Wang KS, Liu X, Aragam N, Mullersman JE, Jian X, Pan Y, Liu Y. Polymorphisms in ABLIM1 are associated with personality traits and alcohol dependence. J Mol Neurosci 2011; 46:265-71. [PMID: 21547531 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-011-9530-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2011] [Accepted: 04/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Personality traits like novelty seeking (NS), harm avoidance (HA), and reward dependence (RD) are known to be moderately heritable (30-60%). These personality traits and their comorbidities, such as alcohol dependence (AD), may share genetic components. We examined 11,120 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) genotyped in 292 nuclear families from the Genetic Analysis Workshop 14, a subset from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA). A family-based association analysis was performed using the FBAT program. NS, HA, and RD were treated as quantitative traits and AD as a binary trait. Based on a multivariate association test of three quantitative traits in FBAT, we observed 20 SNPs with p < 10(-3). Interestingly, several genes (TESK2, TIPARP, THEMIS, ABLIM1, RFX4, STON2 and LILRA1) are associated with three personality traits with p < 10(-3) using single trait analysis and AD. Especially, SNP rs727532 within ABLIM1 gene at 10q25 showed the most significant association (p = 6.4 × 10(-5)) in the multivariate test and strong associations with NS, HA, RD, and AD (p = 4.48 × 10(-4), 1.2 × 10(-5), 5.6 × 10(-5), 3.12 × 10(-4), respectively) in the COGA sample. In addition, the association of rs727532 with AD was confirmed in a replication study. This study reports some newly recognized associations between several genetic loci and both AD and three personality traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke-Sheng Wang
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, College of Public Health, East Tennessee State University, PO Box 70259, Lamb Hall, Johnson City, TN, 37614-1700, USA.
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The diverse applications of cladistic analysis of molecular evolution, with special reference to nested clade analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2010; 11:124-39. [PMID: 20162005 PMCID: PMC2820993 DOI: 10.3390/ijms11010124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2009] [Revised: 01/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The genetic variation found in small regions of the genomes of many species can be arranged into haplotype trees that reflect the evolutionary genealogy of the DNA lineages found in that region and the accumulation of mutations on those lineages. This review demonstrates some of the many ways in which clades (branches) of haplotype trees have been applied in recent years, including the study of genotype/phenotype associations at candidate loci and in genome-wide association studies, the phylogeographic history of species, human evolution, the conservation of endangered species, and the identification of species.
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Hilty M, Burke C, Pedro H, Cardenas P, Bush A, Bossley C, Davies J, Ervine A, Poulter L, Pachter L, Moffatt MF, Cookson WOC. Disordered microbial communities in asthmatic airways. PLoS One 2010; 5:e8578. [PMID: 20052417 PMCID: PMC2798952 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1220] [Impact Index Per Article: 87.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2009] [Accepted: 12/12/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A rich microbial environment in infancy protects against asthma [1], [2] and infections precipitate asthma exacerbations [3]. We compared the airway microbiota at three levels in adult patients with asthma, the related condition of COPD, and controls. We also studied bronchial lavage from asthmatic children and controls. Principal Findings We identified 5,054 16S rRNA bacterial sequences from 43 subjects, detecting >70% of species present. The bronchial tree was not sterile, and contained a mean of 2,000 bacterial genomes per cm2 surface sampled. Pathogenic Proteobacteria, particularly Haemophilus spp., were much more frequent in bronchi of adult asthmatics or patients with COPD than controls. We found similar highly significant increases in Proteobacteria in asthmatic children. Conversely, Bacteroidetes, particularly Prevotella spp., were more frequent in controls than adult or child asthmatics or COPD patients. Significance The results show the bronchial tree to contain a characteristic microbiota, and suggest that this microbiota is disturbed in asthmatic airways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Hilty
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
| | - Conor Burke
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Connolly Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Helder Pedro
- Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica, Oeiras, Portugal
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Paul Cardenas
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
| | - Andy Bush
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
| | - Cara Bossley
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
| | - Jane Davies
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
| | - Aaron Ervine
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Connolly Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Len Poulter
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Connolly Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lior Pachter
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Miriam F. Moffatt
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
| | - William O. C. Cookson
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London, England
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
There is significant male excess in autism. In this study, we investigated a possible Y chromosome effect by haplotype analysis. We investigated 12 single-nucleotide polymorphisms in Y-linked neuroligin 4, transducin beta-like 1, and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 1a genes in 146 autistic participants and 102 control participants of European American origin. The set of 12 single-nucleotide polymorphisms defined 9 Y chromosome haplotypes in autistic and control participants. Although the 2 most frequent haplotypes were equally distributed in the autistic and control participants, some haplotypes were overrepresented or underrepresented in autistic participants. The distribution of haplotypes between the autistic and control groups, as determined by Monte Carlo tests with Clump software, was significantly different (P = .0001 with 100,000 simulations). Our results are suggestive of a Y chromosome effect in autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatema J Serajee
- Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
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Shah SS, Ayub Q, Firasat S, Kaiser F, Mehdi SQ. Y haplogroups and aggressive behavior in a Pakistani ethnic group. Aggress Behav 2009; 35:68-74. [PMID: 18942110 DOI: 10.1002/ab.20281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Studies show that personality dimensions such as aggression are influenced by genetic factors and that allelic variants located on the Y chromosome influence such behavior. We investigated polymorphisms on the male-specific region of the human Y chromosome in 156 unrelated males from the same ethnic background, who were administered the Punjabi translation of the Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire that measures four aspects that constitute aggressive behavior, i.e. physical aggression, verbal aggression, anger, and hostility. A value of .85 for Cronbach's coefficient alpha indicates considerable internal consistency and suggests that the psychometric properties of the aggression questionnaire can be adapted for the Pakistani population. A mean score+/-SD of 69.70+/-19.95 was obtained for the questionnaire. Each individual was genotyped following a phylogenetic hierarchical approach to define evolutionary Y haplogroups. Five Y haplogroups that are commonly found in Eurasia and Pakistan comprised 87% (n=136) of the population sample, with one haplogroup, R1a1, constituting 55% of the sampled population. A comparison of the total and four subscale mean scores across the five common Y haplogroups that were present at a frequency > or =3% in this ethnic group revealed no overall significant differences. However, effect-size comparisons allowed us to detect an association of the haplogroups R2 (Cohen's d statistic=.448-.732) and R1a1 (d=.107-.448) with lower self-reported aggression mean scores in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Shoaib Shah
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Shifa College of Medicine, Islamabad, Pakistan.
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Kopsida E, Stergiakouli E, Lynn PM, Wilkinson LS, Davies W. The Role of the Y Chromosome in Brain Function. OPEN NEUROENDOCRINOLOGY JOURNAL (ONLINE) 2009; 2:20-30. [PMID: 20396406 PMCID: PMC2854822 DOI: 10.2174/1876528900902010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In mammals, sex differences are evident in many aspects of brain development, brain function and behaviour. Ultimately, such differences must arise from the differential sex chromosome complements in males and females: males inherit a single X chromosome and a Y chromosome, whilst females inherit two X chromosomes. One possible mechanism for sexual differentiation of the brain is via male-limited expression of genes on the small Y chromosome. Many Y-linked genes have been implicated in the development of the testes, and therefore could theoretically contribute to sexual differentiation of the brain indirectly, through influencing gonadal hormone production. Alternatively, Y-linked genes that are expressed in the brain could directly influence neural masculinisation. The present paper reviews evidence from human genetic studies and animal models for Y-linked effects (both direct and indirect) on neurodevelopment, brain function and behaviour. Besides enhancing our knowledge of the mechanisms underlying mammalian neural sexual differentiation, studies geared towards understanding the role of the Y chromosome in brain function will help to elucidate the molecular basis of sex-biased neuropsychiatric disorders, allowing for more selective sex-specific therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Kopsida
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Evangelia Stergiakouli
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Phoebe M. Lynn
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Lawrence S. Wilkinson
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
| | - William Davies
- Henry Wellcome Building, School of Medicine, Heath Park Site, Cardiff University, UK
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics and Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, UK
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Lappalainen T, Koivumäki S, Salmela E, Huoponen K, Sistonen P, Savontaus ML, Lahermo P. Regional differences among the Finns: A Y-chromosomal perspective. Gene 2006; 376:207-15. [PMID: 16644145 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2006.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2005] [Revised: 03/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-two Y-chromosomal markers, consisting of fourteen biallelic markers (YAP/DYS287, M170, M253, P37, M223, 12f2, M9, P43, Tat, 92R7, P36, SRY-1532, M17, P25) and eight STRs (DYS19, DYS385a/b, DYS388, DYS389I/II, DYS390, DYS391, DYS392, DYS393), were analyzed in 536 unrelated Finnish males from eastern and western subpopulations of Finland. The aim of the study was to analyze regional differences in genetic variation within the country, and to analyze the population history of the Finns. Our results gave further support to the existence of a sharp genetic border between eastern and western Finns so far observed exclusively in Y-chromosomal variation. Both biallelic haplogroup and STR haplotype networks showed bifurcated structures, and similar clustering was evident in haplogroup and haplotype frequencies and genetic distances. These results suggest that the western and eastern parts of the country have been subject to partly different population histories, which is also supported by earlier archaeological, historical and genetic data. It seems probable that early migrations from Finno-Ugric sources affected the whole country, whereas subsequent migrations from Scandinavia had an impact mainly on the western parts of the country. The contacts between Finland and neighboring Finno-Ugric, Scandinavian and Baltic regions are evident. However, there is no support for recent migrations from Siberia and Central Europe. Our results emphasize the importance of incorporating Y-chromosomal data to reveal the population substructure which is often left undetected in mitochondrial DNA variation. Early assumptions of the homogeneity of the isolated Finnish population have now proven to be false, which may also have implications for future association studies.
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Kim S, Zhao K, Jiang R, Molitor J, Borevitz JO, Nordborg M, Marjoram P. Association mapping with single-feature polymorphisms. Genetics 2006; 173:1125-33. [PMID: 16510789 PMCID: PMC1526505 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.105.052720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2005] [Accepted: 02/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We develop methods for exploiting "single-feature polymorphism" data, generated by hybridizing genomic DNA to oligonucleotide expression arrays. Our methods enable the use of such data, which can be regarded as very high density, but imperfect, polymorphism data, for genomewide association or linkage disequilibrium mapping. We use a simulation-based power study to conclude that our methods should have good power for organisms like Arabidopsis thaliana, in which linkage disequilibrium is extensive, the reason being that the noisiness of single-feature polymorphism data is more than compensated for by their great number. Finally, we show how power depends on the accuracy with which single-feature polymorphisms are called.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Kim
- Department of Molecular and Computational Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089-2910, USA
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15
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Bardel C, Danjean V, Hugot JP, Darlu P, Génin E. On the use of haplotype phylogeny to detect disease susceptibility loci. BMC Genet 2005; 6:24. [PMID: 15904492 PMCID: PMC1173100 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2156-6-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2005] [Accepted: 05/18/2005] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cladistic approach proposed by Templeton has been presented as promising for the study of the genetic factors involved in common diseases. This approach allows the joint study of multiple markers within a gene by considering haplotypes and grouping them in nested clades. The idea is to search for clades with an excess of cases as compared to the whole sample and to identify the mutations defining these clades as potential candidate disease susceptibility sites. However, the performance of this approach for the study of the genetic factors involved in complex diseases has never been studied. RESULTS In this paper, we propose a new method to perform such a cladistic analysis and we estimate its power through simulations. We show that under models where the susceptibility to the disease is caused by a single genetic variant, the cladistic test is neither really more powerful to detect an association nor really more efficient to localize the susceptibility site than an individual SNP testing. However, when two interacting sites are responsible for the disease, the cladistic analysis greatly improves the probability to find the two susceptibility sites. The impact of the linkage disequilibrium and of the tree characteristics on the efficiency of the cladistic analysis are also discussed. An application on a real data set concerning the CARD15 gene and Crohn disease shows that the method can successfully identify the three variant sites that are involved in the disease susceptibility. CONCLUSION The use of phylogenies to group haplotypes is especially interesting to pinpoint the sites that are likely to be involved in disease susceptibility among the different markers identified within a gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Bardel
- Unité de recherche en Génétique Épidémiologique et structure des populations humaines, INSERM U535, Villejuif, France
| | - Vincent Danjean
- Laboratoire Bordelais de Recherche en Informatique, UMR 5800, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Hugot
- Programme Avenir, INSERM U458, hôpital Robert Debré, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Fondation Jean Dausset, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Darlu
- Unité de recherche en Génétique Épidémiologique et structure des populations humaines, INSERM U535, Villejuif, France
| | - Emmanuelle Génin
- Unité de recherche en Génétique Épidémiologique et structure des populations humaines, INSERM U535, Villejuif, France
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16
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Charchar FJ, Tomaszewski M, Lacka B, Zakrzewski J, Zukowska-Szczechowska E, Grzeszczak W, Dominiczak AF. Association of the Human Y Chromosome with Cholesterol Levels in the General Population. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24:308-12. [PMID: 14684426 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000113291.39267.0a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Objective—
Males are at higher risk of cardiovascular diseases than females. The aim of the study was to test whether the potential of the Y chromosome to affect cardiovascular risk could be attributed to its influence on lipids.
Methods and Results—
1288 Polish men (1157 subjects from young healthy cohort and 131 individuals from middle-aged hypertensive population) were phenotyped for determinants of cardiovascular risk including BMI, blood pressures, lipids, and testosterone. Each subject was genotyped for the
Hin
dIII(+/−) polymorphism within the nonrecombining region of the Y chromosome. Men with the
Hin
dIII(−) variant exhibited significantly higher total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) levels than subjects with the
Hin
dIII(+) genotype in both populations. The differences between the genotypes were 0.15 mmol/L (
P
=0.0107) and 0.45 mmol/L (
P
=0.0377) in TC and 0.15 mmol/L (
P
=0.0059) and 0.41 mmol/L (
P
=0.0432) in LDL among young apparently healthy men and middle-aged hypertensive men, respectively. The
Hin
dIII(+) was associated with a significant increase in blood pressure of the middle-aged men. Testosterone serum concentrations correlated positively with HDL-cholesterol levels, and this association was independent of the Y chromosome.
Conclusions—
The results indicate that a locus/loci on the Y chromosome may influence LDL levels, independent of testosterone levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadi J Charchar
- BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Division of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Western Infirmary, Glasgow G11 6NT, United Kingdom.
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17
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Abstract
Until recently, the Y chromosome seemed to fulfil the role of juvenile delinquent among human chromosomes--rich in junk, poor in useful attributes, reluctant to socialize with its neighbours and with an inescapable tendency to degenerate. The availability of the near-complete chromosome sequence, plus many new polymorphisms, a highly resolved phylogeny and insights into its mutation processes, now provide new avenues for investigating human evolution. Y-chromosome research is growing up.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Jobling
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK.
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18
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Abstract
Being male or female can make a vital difference to many important biological functions and can lead to disparities in health. The Y chromosome carries the sex-determining sex reversal Y (SRY) gene and recent studies show that it might also harbor genes that have important biological functions other than sex determination. One such example is the emerging evidence from animal models and humans that supports the presence of cardiovascular genes on the Y chromosome. A significant amount of work remains to identify these genes; however, we report here observations linking the Y chromosome to hypertension, which could explain the higher incidence of cardiovascular disease in males compared with females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fadi J Charchar
- BHF Glasgow Cardiovascular Research Centre, Division of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G11 6NT, Scotland, UK
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19
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McElreavey K, Quintana-Murci L. Y chromosome haplogroups: a correlation with testicular dysgenesis syndrome? APMIS 2003; 111:106-13; discussion 114. [PMID: 12752248 DOI: 10.1034/j.1600-0463.2003.11101151.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Testicular dysgenesis syndrome encompasses low sperm quality, hypospadias, cryptorchidism and testicular cancer. Epidemiological studies and genetic data from familial cases suggest that testicular dysgenesis syndrome has a common etiology. The Y chromosome is known to encode genes that are involved in germ cell development or maintenance. We have therefore investigated if different classes of Y chromosomes in the general population (Y chromosome haplogroups) are associated with aspects of the testicular dysgenesis syndrome. We defined the Y chromosome haplogroups in individuals from different European counties who presented with either (i) oligo- or azoospermia associated with a Y chromosome microdeletion, (ii) unexplained reduced sperm counts (<20 x 10(6)/ml) or (iii) testicular cancer. We failed to find Y chromosome haplotype associations with either microdeletion formation or testicular cancer. However, in a study of the Danish population, we found that a specific Y chromosome haplogroup (hg26) is significantly overrepresented in men with unexplained reduced sperm counts compared with a Danish control population. The factors encoded by genes on this class of Y chromosome may be particularly susceptible to environmental influences that cause testicular dysgenesis syndrome. Our current data highlight the need for further analyses of clinically well-defined patient groups from a wide range of ethnic and geographic origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ken McElreavey
- Reproduction, Fertility and Populations, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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20
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Kranzler H, Lappalainen J, Nellissery M, Gelernter J. Association Study of Alcoholism Subtypes with a Functional Promoter Polymorphism in the Serotonin Transporter Protein Gene. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2002.tb02675.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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21
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Bennett AJ, Lesch KP, Heils A, Long JC, Lorenz JG, Shoaf SE, Champoux M, Suomi SJ, Linnoila MV, Higley JD. Early experience and serotonin transporter gene variation interact to influence primate CNS function. Mol Psychiatry 2002; 7:118-22. [PMID: 11803458 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4000949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 507] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2000] [Revised: 04/24/2001] [Accepted: 05/01/2001] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Nonhuman primates offer unique opportunities to study the effects of genes, environments, and their interaction, on physiology and complex behavior. We examined genotype and early environment contributions to CNS function in a large sample of rhesus monkeys. In humans, length variation of the serotonin (5-HT) transporter (5-HTT) gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) that results in allelic variation in 5-HTT expression is associated with decreased serotonergic function and 5-HT-mediated psychopathology. We report that an analogous variation of the gene's regulatory region in monkeys interacts with early experience to affect central 5-HT functioning. Monkeys with deleterious early rearing experiences were differentiated by genotype in cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of the 5-HT metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, while monkeys reared normally were not. These findings demonstrate an environment-dependent effect of the rh5-HTTLPR genotype on CNS 5-HT function and suggest nonhuman primates may provide an important avenue for investigating gene/environment interactions using candidate genes for physiological and behavioral traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Bennett
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Laboratory of Clinical Studies-Primate Unit, Poolesville, MD 20837, USA.
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22
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Darlu P, Génin E. Cladistic analysis of haplotypes as an attempt to detect disease susceptibility. Genet Epidemiol 2002; 21 Suppl 1:S602-7. [PMID: 11793746 DOI: 10.1002/gepi.2001.21.s1.s602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We report the results of our analyses of the Genetic Analysis Workshop 12 simulated data set, using phylogenetic methods to reconstruct the history of haplotypes. We selected candidate gene 1 and 6, drawn from the isolate population. In a first step, haplotypes were inferred using family data. In a second step, cladistic approaches were performed to select the most parsimonious trees under various conditions of character state transformation and ancestral hypotheses, in order to check whether the affected status is more frequent in some clades than in others. Sites which are synapormophies of such clades can be viewed as candidate sites for the disease susceptibility. The method seems to be efficient for the candidate gene 1, but not for the candidate gene 6. Effects of the genetic model underlying the affection status are discussed, particularly dominance, penetrance, and, in the context of this simulated data, procedure followed to generate haplotypes. These preliminary results deserve further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Darlu
- INSERM U535, Bâtiment Gregory Pincus, 80 rue du General Leclerc, 94 276 Le Kremlin-Biêctre
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23
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Abstract
Genetic isolates, as shown empirically by the Finnish, Old Order Amish, Hutterites, Sardinian and Jewish communities among others, represent a most important and powerful tool in genetically mapping inherited disorders. The main features associated with that genetic power are the existence of multigenerational pedigrees which are mostly descended from a small number of founders a short number of generations ago, environmental and phenotypic homogeneity, restricted geographical distribution, the presence of exhaustive and detailed records correlating individuals in very well ascertained pedigrees, and inbreeding as a norm. On the other hand, the presence of a multifounder effect or admixture among divergent populations in the founder time (e.g. the Finnish and the Paisa community from Colombia) will theoretically result in increased linkage disequilibrium among adjacent loci. The present review evaluates the historical context and features of some genetic isolates with emphasis on the basic population genetic concepts of inbreeding and genetic drift, and also the state-of-the-art in mapping traits, both Mendelian and complex, on genetic isolates.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Arcos-Burgos
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1852, USA
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24
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Jamain S, Quach H, Quintana-Murci L, Betancur C, Philippe A, Gillberg C, Sponheim E, Skjeldal OH, Fellous M, Leboyer M, Bourgeron T. Y chromosome haplogroups in autistic subjects. Mol Psychiatry 2002; 7:217-9. [PMID: 11840316 PMCID: PMC1899172 DOI: 10.1038/sj.mp.4000968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2001] [Revised: 07/16/2001] [Accepted: 07/20/2001] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The male to female ratio in autism is 4:1 in the global autistic population, but increases to 23:1 in autistic subjects without physical or brain abnormalities.(1) Despite this well-recognised gender difference, male predisposition to autistic disorder remains unexplained and the role of sex chromosomes is still debated. Numerical and structural abnormalities of the sex chromosomes are among the most frequently reported chromosomal disorders associated with autism. However, genome scans have failed to detect linkage on the X chromosome(2,3,4) and this approach cannot study the non-recombining region of the Y chromosome. In this study, we searched for a specific Y chromosome effect in autistic subjects. Using informative Y-polymorphic markers, the Y chromosome haplotypes of 111 autistic subjects from France, Sweden and Norway were defined and compared with relevant control populations. No significant difference in Y-haplotype distribution between the affected and control groups was observed. Although this study cannot exclude the presence of a Y susceptibility gene, our results are not suggestive of a Y chromosome effect in autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Jamain
- Génomique fonctionnelle et développement
INSERM : EPI0021Institut Pasteur
25 rue du Docteur Roux
75724 Paris Cedex 15,FR
| | - Hélène Quach
- Génomique fonctionnelle et développement
INSERM : EPI0021Institut Pasteur
25 rue du Docteur Roux
75724 Paris Cedex 15,FR
| | - Luis Quintana-Murci
- Génomique fonctionnelle et développement
INSERM : EPI0021Institut Pasteur
25 rue du Docteur Roux
75724 Paris Cedex 15,FR
| | - Catalina Betancur
- Neurobiologie et Psychiatrie
INSERM : U513Université Paris XII Val de MarneFaculte de Medecine PARIS XII
8, Rue du General Sarrail
94010 CRETEIL CEDEX,FR
| | - Anne Philippe
- Neurobiologie et Psychiatrie
INSERM : U513Université Paris XII Val de MarneFaculte de Medecine PARIS XII
8, Rue du General Sarrail
94010 CRETEIL CEDEX,FR
| | | | - Eili Sponheim
- Centre for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
University of Oslo0319 Oslo,NO
| | - Ola H. Skjeldal
- Department of Pediatrics, Rikshospitalet
University of Oslo0027 Oslo,NO
| | - Marc Fellous
- Génomique fonctionnelle et développement
INSERM : EPI0021Institut Pasteur
25 rue du Docteur Roux
75724 Paris Cedex 15,FR
| | - Marion Leboyer
- Neurobiologie et Psychiatrie
INSERM : U513Université Paris XII Val de MarneFaculte de Medecine PARIS XII
8, Rue du General Sarrail
94010 CRETEIL CEDEX,FR
- Département de Psychiatrie
AP-HP Hôpital Albert Chenevier40 rue de Mesly
94000 Créteil,FR
| | - Thomas Bourgeron
- Génomique fonctionnelle et développement
INSERM : EPI0021Institut Pasteur
25 rue du Docteur Roux
75724 Paris Cedex 15,FR
- * Correspondence should be adressed to: Thomas Bourgeron
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25
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Abstract
The human Y chromosome is strictly paternally inherited and, in most of its length, does not recombine during male meiosis. These features make the Y a very useful genetic marker for different purposes. In the last decade, the Y has been increasingly used to investigate the evolution, migrations and range expansions of modern humans. The possibility to construct highly informative Y chromosome haplotypes has also had a significant impact in forensic studies and paternity testing. All these studies assume that the Y chromosome markers used are selectively neutral. However, recent experimental and statistical analyses suggest that both positive and negative selection are acting on the Y chromosome and, consequently, may influence Y chromosome haplotype distribution in the general population. Current data suggest that the effects of selection on patterns of Y chromosome distribution are minimal, however as interest focuses on biological functions of the Y chromosome which have a major impact on male fitness such as fertility, these assumptions may be challenged. This review briefly describes the genes and biological functions of the human Y chromosome and its use in disentangling the origin and history of human populations. An overview of the role of selection acting on the Y chromosome from the perspective of human population histories and disease is given.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Quintana-Murci
- Unité d'Immunogénétique Humaine, Institut Nationale de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) E0021, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Dr. Roux, 75724 Cedex 15, Paris, France.
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26
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Broder S, Venter JC. Sequencing the entire genomes of free-living organisms: the foundation of pharmacology in the new millennium. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2000; 40:97-132. [PMID: 10836129 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.40.1.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The power and effectiveness of clinical pharmacology are about to be transformed with a speed that earlier in this decade could not have been foreseen even by the most astute visionaries. In the very near future, we will have at our disposal the reference DNA sequence for the entire human genome, estimated to contain approximately 3.5 billion bp. At the same time, the science of whole genome sequencing is fostering the computational science of bioinformatics needed to develop practical applications for pharmacology and toxicology. Indeed, it is likely that pharmacology, toxicology, bioinformatics, and genomics will merge into a new branch of medical science for studying and developing pharmaceuticals from molecule to bedside.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Broder
- Celera Genomics, Rockville, Maryland 20850, USA.
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27
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Abstract
Recent discoveries of many new genes have made it clear that there is more to the human Y chromosome than a heap of evolutionary debris, hooked up to a sequence that happens to endow its bearer with testes. Coupled with the recent development of new polymorphic markers on the Y, making it the best-characterized haplotypic system in the genome, this gives us new opportunities to assess its role in disease and selection, through association studies with phenotypes such as infertility and cancers. However, the peculiar genetics of this bizarre chromosome means that we should interpret such studies particularly cautiously.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Jobling
- Department of Genetics, University of Leicester, UK.
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28
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DeLisi LE, Craddock NJ, Detera-Wadleigh S, Foroud T, Gejman P, Kennedy JL, Lendon C, Macciardi F, McKeon P, Mynett-Johnson L, Nurnberger JI, Paterson A, Schwab S, Van Broeckhoven C, Wildenauer D, Crow TJ. Update on chromosomal locations for psychiatric disorders: report of the interim meeting of chromosome workshop chairpersons from the VIIth World Congress of Psychiatric Genetics, Monterey, California, October 14-18, 1999. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS 2000; 96:434-49. [PMID: 10898931 DOI: 10.1002/1096-8628(20000612)96:3<434::aid-ajmg40>3.0.co;2-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- L E DeLisi
- Department of Psychiatry, SUNY Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA.
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29
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Reich T, Hinrichs A, Culverhouse R, Bierut L. Genetic studies of alcoholism and substance dependence. Am J Hum Genet 1999; 65:599-605. [PMID: 10441565 PMCID: PMC1377965 DOI: 10.1086/302561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- T Reich
- Department of Psychiatry, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110-1026, USA.
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