Characterization of a p75(NTR) apoptotic signaling pathway using a novel cellular model

ProNGF elicits retrograde axonal degeneration of basal forebrain neurons through p75NTR and induction of amyloid precursor protein

Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCNs) extend long projections to multiple regions in the brain to regulate cognitive functions. Degeneration of BFCNs is seen with aging, after brain injury, and in neurodegenerative disorders. An increase in the amount of the immature proform of nerve growth factor (proNGF) in the cerebral cortex results in retrograde degeneration of BFCNs through activation of proNGF receptor p75NTR. Here, we investigated the signaling cascades initiated at the axon terminal that mediate proNGF-induced retrograde degeneration. We found that local axonal protein synthesis and retrograde transport mediated proNGF-induced degeneration initiated from the axon terminal. Analysis of the nascent axonal proteome revealed that proNGF stimulation of axonal terminals triggered the synthesis of numerous proteins within the axon, and pathway analysis showed that amyloid precursor protein (APP) was a key upstream regulator in cultured BFCNs and in mice. Our findings reveal a functional role for APP in mediating BFCN axonal degeneration and cell death induced by proNGF.

Death domain of p75 neurotrophin receptor: a structural perspective on an intracellular signalling hub

The death domain (DD) is a globular protein motif with a signature feature of an all-helical Greek-key motif. It is a primary mediator of a variety of biological activities, including apoptosis, cell survival and cytoskeletal changes, which are related to many neurodegenerative diseases, neurotrauma, and cancers. DDs exist in a wide range of signalling proteins including p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR ), a member of the tumour necrosis factor receptor superfamily. The specific signalling mediated by p75^NTR in a given cell depends on the type of ligand engaging the extracellular domain and the recruitment of cytosolic interactors to the intracellular domain, especially the DD, of the receptor. In solution, the p75^NTR -DDs mainly form a symmetric non-covalent homodimer. In response to extracellular signals, conformational changes in the p75^NTR extracellular domain (ECD) propagate to the p75^NTR -DD through the disulfide-bonded transmembrane domain (TMD) and destabilize the p75^NTR -DD homodimer, leading to protomer separation and exposure of binding sites on the DD surface. In this review, we focus on recent advances in the study of the structural mechanism of p75^NTR -DD signalling through recruitment of diverse intracellular interactors for the regulation and control of diverse functional outputs.

The spatiotemporal expression and mineralization regulation of p75 neurotrophin receptor in the early tooth development

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the spatiotemporal expression and potential role of p75NTR in tooth morphogenesis and tissue mineralization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The dynamic morphology of the four stages (from the beginning of E12.5 d, then E13.5 d and E15.5 d, to the end of E18.5 d) was observed, and the expressions of p75NTR and Runx2 were traced. The ectomesenchymal stem cells (EMSCs) were harvested in vitro, and the biological characteristics were observed. Moreover, the mineralization capability of EMSCs was evaluated. The relations between p75NTR and ALP, Col-1 and Runx2 were investigated.

RESULTS

The morphologic results showed that the dental lamina appeared at E12.5 d, the bud stage at E13.5 d, the cap stage at E15.5 d and the bell stage at E18.5 d. p75NTR and Runx2 showed the similar expression pattern. EMSCs from the four stages showed no significant difference in proliferation. But the positive rate of p75NTR in the E12.5 d cells was significantly lower than that in the other three stages (P < 0.05). Moreover, the higher positive rate of p75NTR the cells were, the stronger mineralization capability they showed. p75NTR was well positively correlated with the mineralization-related markers ALP, Col-1 and Runx2, which increased gradually with the mature of dental germs.

CONCLUSION

p75NTR might play an important role in the regulation of tooth morphogenesis, especially dental hard tissue formation.

Structure of the C-terminal domain of TRADD reveals a novel fold in the death domain superfamily

The TNFR1-associated death domain protein (TRADD) is an intracellular adaptor protein involved in various signaling pathways, such as antiapoptosis. Its C-terminal death domain (DD) is responsible for binding other DD-containing proteins including the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR). Here we present a solution structure of TRADD DD derived from high-resolution NMR spectroscopy. The TRADD DD comprises two super-secondary structures, an all-helix Greek key motif and a β-hairpin motif flanked by two α helices, which make it unique among all known DD structures. The β-hairpin motif is essential for TRADD DD to fold into a functional globular domain. The highly-charged surface suggests a critical role of electrostatic interactions in TRADD DD-mediated signaling. This novel structure represents a new class within the DD superfamily and provides a structural basis for studying homotypic DD interactions. NMR titration revealed a direct weak interaction between TRADD DD and p75^NTR DD monomers. A binding site next to the p75^NTR DD homodimerization interface indicates that TRADD DD recruitment to p75^NTR requires separation of the p75^NTR DD homodimer, explaining the mechanism of NGF-dependent activation of p75^NTR-TRADD-mediated antiapoptotic pathway in breast cancer cell.

Generation and characterization of a human oral squamous carcinoma cell line SCC-9 with CRISPR/Cas9-mediated deletion of the p75 neurotrophin receptor

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the importance of the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR) in human tongue squamous carcinoma cells, we exploited the CRISPR/Cas9 technology to establish a p75^NTR-knockout SCC-9 cell line and to explore the effect on biological functions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated endonuclease (Cas9) system was used to generate genomic deletion mutants of p75^NTR in the tongue squamous carcinoma cell lines SCC-9. Single-guide RNA (sgRNA) sequences were designed to target the p75^NTR genomic sequence and were cloned into plasmid pGK1.1. The linearized vector was electroporated into SCC-9 cells and p75^NTR deletion was confirmed using Cruiser™ enzyme digestion and PCR amplification. SCC-9 clones with successful deletion of p75^NTR were identified and verified by sequencing and selected for functional testing in cell proliferation, invasion, migration, and colony-forming assays.

RESULTS

Compared with control cells, p75^NTR-knockout SCC-9 cells showed significantly diminished abilities to proliferate, invade, migrate, and form colonies, indicating a reduction in pro-tumorigenic behavior.

CONCLUSION

These data demonstrate, first, that the CRISPR/Cas9 system is a simplified method for generating p75^NTR knockouts with relatively high efficiency, and second, that deletion of p75^NTR suppresses several tumor-promoting properties of SCC-9 cells, suggesting that p75^NTR is a potential target for the development of novel therapies for tongue cancer.

p75 neurotrophin receptor: A potential surface marker of tongue squamous cell carcinoma stem cells

The present study detected p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR) expression in tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) cell lines, in order to define the biological properties of p75^NTR+ cells and to confirm the use of p75^NTR+ as a surface marker for TSCC stem cells. p75^NTR+ cells were separated from Tca-8113 and CAL-27 TSCC cells by fluorescence-activated cell sorting. Colony formation, MTT and scratch assays, and a tumorigenicity analysis were performed to measure self-renewal and proliferation, multidirectional differentiation, and tumorigenicity of p75^NTR+ cells. p75^NTR+ cells comprised 3.1 and 1.9% of Tca-8113 and CAL-27 cells (mean of three experiments), respectively, and were more able to form colonies compared with non-sorted cells (P<0.01). In addition, the proportion of p75^NTR+ cells generated from monoclonal p75^NTR+ cells decreased to 14.5 (Tca-8113) and 5.8% (CAL-27) of cells within 2 weeks, thus suggesting that p75^NTR+ cells are able to generate p75^NTR+ and p75^NTR− cells. Furthermore, p75^NTR+ cells exhibited increased proliferation, as evidenced by MTT assay (P<0.01) and had greater metastatic ability according to the scratch assay (P<0.01), compared with non-sorted cells. p75^NTR+ cells also exhibited a greater tumorigenic capacity compared with non-sorted cells. In conclusion, p75^NTR+ cells isolated from TSCC cell lines possess the characteristics of cancer stem cells; therefore, p75^NTR may be considered a useful surface marker for the identification of TSCC stem cells.

BNN27, a 17-Spiroepoxy Steroid Derivative, Interacts With and Activates p75 Neurotrophin Receptor, Rescuing Cerebellar Granule Neurons from Apoptosis

Neurotrophin receptors mediate a plethora of signals affecting neuronal survival. The p75 pan-neurotrophin receptor controls neuronal cell fate after its selective activation by immature and mature isoforms of all neurotrophins. It also exerts pleiotropic effects interacting with a variety of ligands in different neuronal or non-neuronal cells. In the present study, we explored the biophysical and functional interactions of a blood-brain-barrier (BBB) permeable, C17-spiroepoxy steroid derivative, BNN27, with p75^NTR receptor. BNN27 was recently shown to bind to NGF high-affinity receptor, TrkA. We now tested the p75^NTR-mediated effects of BNN27 in mouse Cerebellar Granule Neurons (CGNs), expressing p75^NTR, but not TrkA receptors. Our findings show that BNN27 physically interacts with p75^NTR receptors in specific amino-residues of its extracellular domain, inducing the recruitment of p75^NTR receptor to its effector protein RIP2 and the simultaneous release of RhoGDI in primary neuronal cells. Activation of the p75^NTR receptor by BNN27 reverses serum deprivation-induced apoptosis of CGNs resulting in the decrease of the phosphorylation of pro-apoptotic JNK kinase and of the cleavage of Caspase-3, effects completely abolished in CGNs, isolated from p75^NTR null mice. In conclusion, BNN27 represents a lead molecule for the development of novel p75^NTR ligands, controlling specific p75^NTR-mediated signaling of neuronal cell fate, with potential applications in therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases and brain trauma.

NGF in Early Embryogenesis, Differentiation, and Pathology in the Nervous and Immune Systems

The physiology of NGF is extremely complex, and although the study of this neurotrophin began more than 60 years ago, it is far from being concluded. NGF, its precursor molecule pro-NGF, and their different receptor systems (i.e., TrkA, p75NTR, and sortilin) have key roles in the development and adult physiology of both the nervous and immune systems. Although the NGF receptor system and the pathways activated are similar for all types of cells sensitive to NGF, the effects exerted during embryonic differentiation and in committed mature cells are strikingly different and sometimes opposite. Bearing in mind the pleiotropic effects of NGF, alterations in its expression and synthesis, as well as variations in the types of receptor available and in their respective levels of expression, may have profound effects and play multiple roles in the development and progression of several diseases. In recent years, the use of NGF or of inhibitors of its receptors has been prospected as a therapeutic tool in a variety of neurological diseases and injuries. In this review, we outline the different roles played by the NGF system in various moments of nervous and immune system differentiation and physiology, from embryonic development to aging. The data collected over the past decades indicate that NGF activities are highly integrated among systems and are necessary for the maintenance of homeostasis. Further, more integrated and multidisciplinary studies should take into consideration these multiple and interactive aspects of NGF physiology in order to design new therapeutic strategies based on the manipulation of NGF and its intracellular pathways.

N-acetyl-serotonin offers neuroprotection through inhibiting mitochondrial death pathways and autophagic activation in experimental models of ischemic injury

N-acetylserotonin (NAS) is an immediate precursor of melatonin, which we have reported is neuroprotective against ischemic injury. Here we test whether NAS is a potential neuroprotective agent in experimental models of ischemic injury. We demonstrate that NAS inhibits cell death induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation or H2O2 in primary cerebrocortical neurons and primary hippocampal neurons in vitro, and organotypic hippocampal slice cultures ex vivo and reduces hypoxia/ischemia injury in the middle cerebral artery occlusion mouse model of cerebral ischemia in vivo. We find that NAS is neuroprotective by inhibiting the mitochondrial cell death pathway and the autophagic cell death pathway. The neuroprotective effects of NAS may result from the influence of mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, mitochondrial fragmentation, and inhibition of the subsequent release of apoptogenic factors cytochrome c, Smac, and apoptosis-inducing factor from mitochondria to cytoplasm, and activation of caspase-3, -9, as well as the suppression of the activation of autophagy under stress conditions by increasing LC3-II and Beclin-1 levels and decreasing p62 level. However, NAS, unlike melatonin, does not provide neuroprotection through the activation of melatonin receptor 1A. We demonstrate that NAS reaches the brain subsequent to intraperitoneal injection using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis. Given that it occurs naturally and has low toxicity, NAS, like melatonin, has potential as a novel therapy for ischemic injury.

N-acetyl-serotonin offers neuroprotection through inhibiting mitochondrial death pathways and autophagic activation in experimental models of ischemic injury

N-acetylserotonin (NAS) is an immediate precursor of melatonin, which we have reported is neuroprotective against ischemic injury. Here we test whether NAS is a potential neuroprotective agent in experimental models of ischemic injury. We demonstrate that NAS inhibits cell death induced by oxygen-glucose deprivation or H2O2 in primary cerebrocortical neurons and primary hippocampal neurons in vitro, and organotypic hippocampal slice cultures ex vivo and reduces hypoxia/ischemia injury in the middle cerebral artery occlusion mouse model of cerebral ischemia in vivo. We find that NAS is neuroprotective by inhibiting the mitochondrial cell death pathway and the autophagic cell death pathway. The neuroprotective effects of NAS may result from the influence of mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening, mitochondrial fragmentation, and inhibition of the subsequent release of apoptogenic factors cytochrome c, Smac, and apoptosis-inducing factor from mitochondria to cytoplasm, and activation of caspase-3, -9, as well as the suppression of the activation of autophagy under stress conditions by increasing LC3-II and Beclin-1 levels and decreasing p62 level. However, NAS, unlike melatonin, does not provide neuroprotection through the activation of melatonin receptor 1A. We demonstrate that NAS reaches the brain subsequent to intraperitoneal injection using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis. Given that it occurs naturally and has low toxicity, NAS, like melatonin, has potential as a novel therapy for ischemic injury.

Mir-592 regulates the induction and cell death-promoting activity of p75NTR in neuronal ischemic injury

The neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR) has been implicated in mediating neuronal apoptosis after injury to the CNS. Despite its frequent induction in pathologic states, there is limited understanding of the mechanisms that regulate p75(NTR) expression after injury. Here, we show that after focal cerebral ischemia in vivo or oxygen-glucose deprivation in organotypic hippocampal slices or neurons, p75(NTR) is rapidly induced. A concomitant induction of proNGF, a ligand for p75(NTR), is also observed. Induction of this ligand/receptor system is pathologically relevant, as a decrease in apoptosis, after oxygen-glucose deprivation, is observed in hippocampal neurons or slices after delivery of function-blocking antibodies to p75(NTR) or proNGF and in p75(NTR) and ngf haploinsufficient slices. Furthermore, a significant decrease in infarct volume was noted in p75(NTR)-/- mice compared with the wild type. We also investigated the regulatory mechanisms that lead to post-ischemic induction of p75(NTR). We demonstrate that induction of p75(NTR) after ischemic injury is independent of transcription but requires active translation. Basal levels of p75(NTR) in neurons are maintained in part by the expression of microRNA miR-592, and an inverse correlation is seen between miR-592 and p75(NTR) levels in the adult brain. After cerebral ischemia, miR-592 levels fall, with a corresponding increase in p75(NTR) levels. Importantly, overexpression of miR-592 in neurons decreases the level of ischemic injury-induced p75(NTR) and attenuates activation of pro-apoptotic signaling and cell death. These results identify miR-592 as a key regulator of p75(NTR) expression and point to a potential therapeutic candidate to limit neuronal apoptosis after ischemic injury.

Exposure to nerve growth factor worsens nephrotoxic effect induced by Cyclosporine A in HK-2 cells

Nerve growth factor is a neurotrophin that promotes cell growth, differentiation, survival and death through two different receptors: TrkA^NTR and p75^NTR. Nerve growth factor serum concentrations increase during many inflammatory and autoimmune diseases, glomerulonephritis, chronic kidney disease, end-stage renal disease and, particularly, in renal transplant. Considering that nerve growth factor exerts beneficial effects in the treatment of major central and peripheral neurodegenerative diseases, skin and corneal ulcers, we asked whether nerve growth factor could also exert a role in Cyclosporine A-induced graft nephrotoxicity. Our hypothesis was raised from basic evidence indicating that Cyclosporine A-inhibition of calcineurin-NFAT pathway increases nerve growth factor expression levels. Therefore, we investigated the involvement of nerve growth factor and its receptors in the damage exerted by Cyclosporine A in tubular renal cells, HK-2. Our results showed that in HK-2 cells combined treatment with Cyclosporine A + nerve growth factor induced a significant reduction in cell vitality concomitant with a down-regulation of Cyclin D1 and up-regulation of p21 levels respect to cells treated with Cyclosporine A alone. Moreover functional experiments showed that the co-treatment significantly up-regulated human p21promoter activity by involvement of the Sp1 transcription factor, whose nuclear content was negatively regulated by activated NFATc1. In addition we observed that the combined exposure to Cyclosporine A + nerve growth factor promoted an up-regulation of p75 ^NTR and its target genes, p53 and BAD leading to the activation of intrinsic apoptosis. Finally, the chemical inhibition of p75^NTR down-regulated the intrinsic apoptotic signal. We describe two new mechanisms by which nerve growth factor promotes growth arrest and apoptosis in tubular renal cells exposed to Cyclosporine A.

Structural determinants of DISC function: new insights into death receptor-mediated apoptosis signalling

Death receptors are members of the tumour necrosis factor (TNF) receptor superfamily characterised by an ~80 amino acid long alpha-helical fold, termed the death domain (DD). Death receptors diversified during early vertebrate evolution indicating that the DD fold has plasticity and specificity that can be easily adjusted to attain additional functions. Eight members of the death receptor family have been identified in humans, which can be divided into four structurally homologous groups or clades, namely: the p75(NTR) clade (consisting of ectodysplasin A receptor, death receptor 6 (DR6) and p75 neurotrophin (NTR) receptor); the tumour necrosis factor receptor 1 clade (TNFR1 and DR3), the CD95 clade (CD95/FAS) and the TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand receptor (TRAILR) clade (TRAILR1 and TRAILR2). Receptors in the same clade participate in similar processes indicating that structural diversification enabled functional specialisation. On the surface of nearly all human cells multiple death receptors are expressed, enabling the cell to respond to a plethora of external signals. Activation of different death receptors converges on the activation of three main signal transduction pathways: nuclear factor-κB-mediated differentiation or inflammation, mitogen-associated protein kinase-mediated stress response and caspase-mediated apoptosis. While the ability to induce cell death is true for nearly all DRs, the FAS and TRAILR clades have specialised in inducing cell death. Here we summarise recent discoveries about the molecular regulation and structural requirements of apoptosis induction by death receptors and discuss how this information can be used to better explain the biological functions, similarities and distinguishing features of death receptors.

Relative expression of type II MAGE genes during retinoic acid-induced neural differentiation of mouse embryonic carcinoma P19 cells: a comparative real-time PCR analysis

In mammals, the type II melanoma antigen (MAGE) protein family is constituted by at least ten closely related members, but our understanding of their function in the developing nervous system remains poor. To systematically study the expression pattern of type II MAGE genes during neurogenesis, we employed mouse embryonic carcinoma P19 cells as an in vitro model for neural differentiation by retinoic acid (RA) induction. The expression of type II MAGE genes was investigated under distinct steps of differentiation by a comparative ΔΔC (T) paradigm of real-time quantitative reverse-transcription PCR (qRT-PCR). The relative levels of each gene expression at various steps of differentiation were expressed as a fold change compared with that in RA-untreated P19 cells. The results revealed that: (1) the expression of MAGE-E1, E2, and Necdin transcripts was steadily increased, and the relative levels of MAGE-D1, D2, D3, F1, G1, and H1 mRNA were fluctuantly elevated after the RA-treatment at embryoid body and neural stages; (2) during RA-treatment and subsequent differentiation, the expression of MAGE-L2 mRNA was decreased. Therefore, our results suggested that MAGE-D1, D2, D3, E1, E2, F1, G1, H1, and Necdin might be involved in the early process of neurogenesis, and MAGE-L2 connected with maintenance of pluripotency of stem cells. These studies may present some clues for a better understanding of the fundamental aspects of type II MAGE genes during neurogenesis.

3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine upregulates p75 neurotrophin receptor protein expression in the rat brain

The p75 neurotrophin receptor, which is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, facilitates apoptosis during development and following central nervous system injury. Previous studies have shown that programmed cell death is likely involved in the neurotoxic effects of 3, 4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA), because MDMA induces apoptosis of immortalized neurons through regulation of proteins belonging to the Bcl-2 family. In the present study, intraperitoneal injection of different doses of MDMA (20, 50, and 100 mg/kg) induced significant behavioral changes, such as increased excitability, increased activity, and irritability in rats. Moreover, changes exhibited dose-dependent adaptation. Following MDMA injection in rat brain tissue, the number of apoptotic cells dose-dependently increased and p75 neurotrophin receptor expression significantly increased in the prefrontal cortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus. These findings confirmed that MDMA induced neuronal apoptosis, and results suggested that this effect was related by upregulated protein expression of the p75 neurotrophin receptor.

The loop diuretic bumetanide blocks posttraumatic p75NTR upregulation and rescues injured neurons

Injured neurons become dependent on trophic factors for survival. However, application of trophic factors to the site of injury is technically extremely challenging. Novel approaches are needed to circumvent this problem. Here, we unravel the mechanism of the emergence of dependency of injured neurons on brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) for survival. Based on this mechanism, we propose the use of the diuretic bumetanide to prevent the requirement for BDNF and consequent neuronal death in the injured areas. Responses to the neurotransmitter GABA change from hyperpolarizing in intact neurons to depolarizing in injured neurons. We show in vivo in rats and ex vivo in mouse organotypic slice cultures that posttraumatic GABA(A)-mediated depolarization is a cause for the well known phenomenon of pathological upregulation of pan-neurotrophin receptor p75(NTR). The increase in intracellular Ca(2+) triggered by GABA-mediated depolarization activates ROCK (Rho kinase), which in turn leads to the upregulation of p75(NTR). We further show that high levels of p75(NTR) and its interaction with sortilin and proNGF set the dependency on BDNF for survival. Thus, application of bumetanide prevents p75(NTR) upregulation and neuronal death in the injured areas with reduced levels of endogenous BDNF.

Apoptosis related protein-1 triggers melanoma cell death via interaction with the juxtamembrane region of p75 neurotrophin receptor

Although chemotherapeutic drugs could theoretically target all metastatic sites, current treatments do not provide complementary therapeutics. Therefore, the development of an alternative approach replacing the traditional therapy is urgently needed. To assess the killing efficiency of the functionally identified apoptosis-related protein (APR)-1 in melanoma cells, we established a system for the regulated expression of APR-1. The induction of APR-1 expression caused apoptosis of melanoma cells via the interaction with the juxtamembrane region of p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR), and possible also via the competition with tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated factor-6 (TRAF6) and the catalytic receptor of neurotrophin (Trk) for the same p75NTR interacting site. The accumulation of APR-1 in melanoma cells may block the physical association of p75NRT with TRAF6 and/or Trk, leading to the disruption of both NF-κB and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) pathways. Also, accumulation of APR-1 protein enhanced the activity of both c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 pathways. However, the analysis of APR-1-modulated pathways demonstrated the involvement of apoptosis-regulating kinase 1-JNK/p38 pathway in the induction of Bax expression leading to both mitochondrial dysregulation [as demonstrated by the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, the release of both cytochrome c and apoptosis-inducing factor into cytoplasm, and cleavage of caspase-9, caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP)] and endoplasmic reticulum stress as demonstrated by the increase of intracellular Ca(2+) release. Thus, besides the analysis of its pro-apoptotic function, our data provide insight into the molecular mechanism of APR-1-induced apoptosis of melanoma cells.

Endogenous neurotrophins and Trk signaling in diffuse large B cell lymphoma cell lines are involved in sensitivity to rituximab-induced apoptosis

Background

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) is a common and often fatal malignancy. Immunochemotherapy, a combination of rituximab to standard chemotherapy, has resulted in improved survival. However a substantial proportion of patients still fail to reach sustained remission. We have previously demonstrated that autocrine brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) production plays a function in human B cell survival, at least partly via sortilin expression. As neurotrophin receptor (Trks) signaling involved activation of survival pathways that are inhibited by rituximab, we speculated that neurotrophins may provide additional support for tumour cell survival and therapeutic resistance in DLBCL.

Methodology/Principal Findings

In the present study, we used two DLBCL cell lines, SUDHL4 and SUDHL6, known to be respectively less and more sensitive to rituximab. We found by RT-PCR, western blotting, cytometry and confocal microscopy that both cell lines expressed, in normal culture conditions, BDNF and to a lesser extent NGF, as well as truncated TrkB and p75^NTR/sortilin death neurotrophin receptors. Furthermore, BDNF secretion was detected in cell supernatants. NGF and BDNF production and Trk receptor expression, including TrkA, are regulated by apoptotic conditions (serum deprivation or rituximab exposure). Indeed, we show for the first time that rituximab exposure of DLBCL cell lines induces NGF secretion and that differences in rituximab sensitivity are associated with differential expression patterns of neurotrophins and their receptors (TrkA). Finally, these cells are sensitive to the Trk-inhibitor, K252a, as shown by the induction of apoptosis. Furthermore, K252a exhibits additive cytotoxic effects with rituximab.

Conclusions/Significance

Collectively, these data strongly suggest that a neurotrophin axis, such NGF/TrkA pathway, may contribute to malignant cell survival and rituximab resistance in DLBCL.

Nerve growth factor in cancer cell death and survival

One of the major challenges for cancer therapeutics is the resistance of many tumor cells to induction of cell death due to pro-survival signaling in the cancer cells. Here we review the growing literature which shows that neurotrophins contribute to pro-survival signaling in many different types of cancer. In particular, nerve growth factor, the archetypal neurotrophin, has been shown to play a role in tumorigenesis over the past decade. Nerve growth factor mediates its effects through its two cognate receptors, TrkA, a receptor tyrosine kinase and p75NTR, a member of the death receptor superfamily. Depending on the tumor origin, pro-survival signaling can be mediated by TrkA receptors or by p75NTR. For example, in breast cancer the aberrant expression of nerve growth factor stimulates proliferative signaling through TrkA and pro-survival signaling through p75NTR. This latter signaling through p75NTR promotes increased resistance to the induction of cell death by chemotherapeutic treatments. In contrast, in prostate cells the p75NTR mediates cell death and prevents metastasis. In prostate cancer, expression of this receptor is lost, which contributes to tumor progression by allowing cells to survive, proliferate and metastasize. This review focuses on our current knowledge of neurotrophin signaling in cancer, with a particular emphasis on nerve growth factor regulation of cell death and survival in cancer.

Natural antibodies against nerve growth factor inhibit in vitro prostate cancer cell metastasis

Prostate cancer is a major cause of death in older men, and bone metastasis is the primary cause of morbidity and mortality in prostate cancer. Prostate is an abundant source of nerve growth factor (NGF) that is secreted by malignant epithelial cells and utilized as an important autocrine factor for growth and metastasis. We previously showed that intravenous gammaglobulin (IVIg) contains natural antibodies against NGF, which inhibit growth and differentiation of the NGF-dependent cell line PC-12. In the present study, we examined the effects of these natural antibodies on in vitro migration or metastasis of two prostate cancer cell lines namely DU-145 and PC-3. Cancer cell migration was assessed using these cell lines in the upper chambers of Matrigel invasion chambers. The effects of IVIg and affinity-purified anti-NGF antibodies on cell migration through membrane into the lower chamber were assessed in dose/response experiments by a colorimetric method. Affinity-purified natural IgG anti-NGF antibody inhibited DU-145 migration by 38% (p = 0.01) and PC-3 migration by 25% (p = 0.02); whereas, a monoclonal anti-NGF antibody inhibited DU-145 migration by 40% (p = 0.01) and PC-3 migration by 37% (p = 0.02), at the same concentration. When IVIg was depleted of NGF-specific IgG by affinity chromatography, there was no significant inhibition of migration of the DU-145 and PC-3 cells at a concentration of 1 mg/well. Removal of the NGF-specific antibody from the IVIg was also demonstrated by a lack of effect on PC-12 cell differentiation. Therefore, IVIg is able to inhibit the migration of prostate cancer cell lines, through Matrigel chambers in vitro, only when the natural NGF-specific antibodies actively are present in IVIg.

ProNGF induces PTEN via p75NTR to suppress Trk-mediated survival signaling in brain neurons

Proneurotrophins and mature neurotrophins activate different signaling pathways with distinct effects on their target cells: proneurotrophins can induce apoptotic signaling via p75(NTR), whereas mature neurotrophins activate Trk receptors to influence survival and differentiation. Here, we demonstrate that the PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10) phosphatase represents a novel switch between the survival and apoptotic signaling pathways in rat CNS neurons. Simultaneous activation of p75(NTR) by proNGF and TrkB signaling by BDNF elicited apoptosis despite TrkB phosphorylation. Apoptosis induced by p75(NTR) required suppression of TrkB-induced phosphoinositide-3 kinase signaling, mediated by induction of PTEN, for apoptosis to proceed. Inhibition of PTEN restored the ability of BDNF to phosphorylate Akt and protect cultured basal forebrain neurons from proNGF-induced death. In vivo, inhibition or knockdown of PTEN after pilocarpine-induced seizures protected CNS neurons from p75(NTR)-mediated death, demonstrating that PTEN is a crucial factor mediating the balance between p75(NTR)-induced apoptotic signaling and Trk-mediated survival signaling in brain neurons.

NSAID inhibition of prostate cancer cell migration is mediated by Nag-1 Induction via the p38 MAPK-p75(NTR) pathway

The nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) R-flurbiprofen and ibuprofen have been shown to induce expression of p75(NTR) (neurotrophin receptor) in prostate cancer cell lines. p75(NTR), a tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily member, is a proapoptotic protein that functions as a tumor suppressor in the human prostate. Expression of p75(NTR) is lost as prostate cancer progresses and is minimal in several metastatic prostate cancer cell lines. NSAIDs induce p75(NTR) through activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway, with a concomitant decrease in cell survival. Here, we show that treatment with R-flurbiprofen and ibuprofen induces expression of the NSAID-activated gene-1 (Nag-1) protein, a divergent member of the TGF beta (TGF-β) family, in PC-3 cells. Using the selective pharmacologic inhibitor of p38 MAPK, SB202190, and p38 MAPK-specific siRNA (small interfering RNA), we show that Nag-1 induction following NSAID treatment is mediated by the p38 MAPK pathway. p75(NTR)-specific siRNA pretreatment shows that Nag-1 induction by NSAIDs is downstream of p75(NTR) induction. Decreased survival of NSAID-treated cells is rescued by p75(NTR)-specific siRNA but not by Nag-1 siRNA. Transwell chamber and in vitro wound healing assays demonstrate decreased cell migration upon NSAID treatment. Pretreatment of PC-3 cells with p75(NTR) and Nag-1-specific siRNA shows that NSAID inhibition of cell migration is mediated by Nag-1 and p75(NTR). These results demonstrate a role for Nag-1 in NSAID inhibition of cell migration, but not survival.

Role of p75NTR in NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic brain injury in neonatal mice

BACKGROUND

Perinatal brain injury in preterm infants is a major cause of neurological handicap. The role of the neurotrophin receptor p75 (p75(NTR)) in the pathogenesis and repair of neonatal excitotoxic brain injury is unknown. Depending on a complex interplay of neurotrophin signalling, p75(NTR) can, in addition to its trophic function, also induce apoptosis.

HYPOTHESIS

We hypothesised that excitotoxicity increases p75(NTR) expression and p75(NTR) knockout (KO) mice have a significantly smaller lesion size upon excitotoxicity as compared to wild-type (WT) mice.

METHODS

We used an established animal model of neonatal excitotoxic brain injury mimicking several key aspects of human preterm brain damage. We subjected five-day-old WT and KO mice to excitotoxic injury by means of a single intracranial ibotenate injection (N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor agonist, NMDAR) into one brain hemisphere. Lesion size, number of activated caspase-3- and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF)-positive cells were determined as outcome parameters. Gender analyses were taken into account retrospectively.

RESULTS

NMDAR-mediated excitotoxicity induced an upregulation of p75(NTR) expression in the peri-lesion area. Lesion size was significantly increased in female KO as compared to male KO animals. Knockout of p75(NTR) reduced the number of activated caspase-3 but not AIF-positive cells after NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic injury independently of gender.

CONCLUSION

Since NMDAR-mediated excitotoxic brain injury induced p75(NTR) expression and caspase-3-activated apoptosis in p75(NTR) KO animals was decreased, we conclude that activation of p75(NTR) contributes to NMDAR-mediated apoptosis in the neonatal brain. An increase in lesion size in female animals after excitotoxic brain injury suggests that in females p75(NTR) seems to play a dual role.

Proneurotrophins, seizures, and neuronal apoptosis

Neurons respond to numerous factors in their environment that influence their survival and function during development and in the mature brain. Among these factors, the neurotrophins have been shown to support neuronal survival and function, acting primarily through the Trk family of receptor tyrosine kinases. However, recent studies have established that the uncleaved neurotrophin precursors, the proneurotrophins, can be secreted and induce apoptosis via the p75 neurotrophin receptor, suggesting that the balance of secreted mature and proneurotrophins has a critical impact on neuronal survival or death. Epileptic seizures elicit increases in both proneurotrophin secretion and p75(NTR) expression, shifting the balance of these factors toward signaling cell death. This review will discuss the evidence that this ligand-receptor system plays an important role in neuronal loss following seizures.

Bone marrow stromal cell therapy reduces proNGF and p75 expression in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Demyelination is prominent in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The receptor p75 and its high affinity ligand proNGF are required for oligodendrocyte death after injury. We hypothesize that bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) provide therapeutic benefit in EAE mice by reducing proNGF/p75 expression. PBS or BMSCs (2 x 10(circumflex)6) were administered intravenously on the day of EAE onset. Neurological function and demyelination areas were measured. Immunohistochemical staining was used to measure apoptotic oligodendrocytes, expression of proNGF and p75, and the relationship between proNGF and p75 in neural cells. proNGF was used to treat oligodendrocytes in culture with or without BMSCs. EAE mice exhibited neurological function deficit and demyelination, and expression of proNGF and p75 was increased. BMSC treatment improved functional recovery, reduced demyelination area and apoptotic oligodendrocytes, decreased expression of proNGF and p75 compared with PBS treatment. proNGF(+) cells colocalized with neural cell markers, while p75 colocalized with an oligodendrocytic marker, and proNGF colocalized with p75. proNGF induced apoptosis of oligodendrocytes in vitro, and p75 antibody blocked this apoptotic activity. BMSCs reduced p75 expression and apoptotic activity in oligodendrocytes with proNGF treatment. BMSC treatment benefits on EAE mice may be fostered by decreasing the cellular expression of proNGF and p75, thereby reducing oligodendrocyte death.

Localization of the low-affinity nerve growth factor receptor p75 in human limbal epithelial cells

Biological effects of nerve growth factor (NGF) are mediated through receptors known as nerve growth factor receptors (NGFR), which include p75 and TrkA. This study was initiated after identifying NGFR as an up-regulated gene in the limbus by cDNA microarray analysis and we postulate that its expression may be indicative of a stem/progenitor cell phenotype. Immunohistochemistry was performed on normal human adult (n= 5) and foetal (n= 3) corneal tissue using antibodies directed against p75, TrkA, NGF, p63, ABCG2 and CK3/12. Limbal, conjunctival and pterygium tissue was obtained from patients (n= 10) undergoing pterygium resection and used for immunohistochemical assessment. Paraffin-embedded archival human skin specimens (n= 4) were also evaluated. In vitro expression of NGFR was determined in limbal, conjunctival and pterygium-derived epithelial cells. p75 was selectively expressed by basal epithelial cells in pterygia, conjunctiva and limbus, but was absent in the central cornea. These results were confirmed with two additional p75 specific antibodies. In contrast, TrkA was found in full-thickness pterygium, conjunctival, limbal and corneal epithelium in both adult and foetal eyes. p75 expression was identified in a small percentage, while TrkA was found on the entire population of cultured conjunctival, limbal and pterygium-derived epithelial cells. This receptor was also observed in selective regions of the human epidermis and hair follicle bulge. Our results illustrate the selective expression of p75 in basal pterygium, conjunctival and limbal epithelium, while staining was absent in adult and foetal central cornea. p75 may represent an additional ocular surface epithelial stem/progenitor cell signature gene.

Elevated P75NTR expression causes death of engrailed-deficient midbrain dopaminergic neurons by Erk1/2 suppression

BACKGROUND

The homeodomain transcription factors Engrailed-1 and Engrailed-2 are required for the survival of mesencephalic dopaminergic (mesDA) neurons in a cell-autonomous and gene-dose-dependent manner. Homozygote mutant mice, deficient of both genes (En1-/-;En2-/-), die at birth and exhibit a loss of all mesDA neurons by mid-gestation. In heterozygote animals (En1+/-;En2-/-), which are viable and fertile, postnatal maintenance of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system is afflicted, leading to a progressive degeneration specific to this subpopulation and Parkinson's disease-like molecular and behavioral deficits.

RESULTS

In this work, we show that the dose of Engrailed is inversely correlated to the expression level of the pan-neurotrophin receptor gene P75NTR (Ngfr). Loss of mesDA neurons in the Engrailed-null mutant embryos is caused by elevated expression of this neurotrophin receptor: Unusually, in this case, the cell death signal of P75NTR is mediated by suppression of Erk1/2 (extracellular-signal-regulated kinase 1/2) activity. The reduction in expression of Engrailed, possibly related to the higher levels of P75NTR, also decreases mitochondrial stability. In particular, the dose of Engrailed determines the sensitivity to cell death induced by the classic Parkinson-model toxin MPTP and to inhibition of the anti-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family of proteins.

CONCLUSION

Our study links the survival function of the Engrailed genes in developing mesDA neurons to the regulation of P75NTR and the sensitivity of these neurons to mitochondrial insult. The similarities to the disease etiology in combination with the nigral phenotype of En1+/-;En2-/- mice suggests that haplotype variations in the Engrailed genes and/or P75NTR that alter their expression levels could, in part, determine susceptibility to Parkinson's disease.

Cardiovascular actions of neurotrophins

Neurotrophins were christened in consideration of their actions on the nervous system and, for a long time, they were the exclusive interest of neuroscientists. However, more recently, this family of proteins has been shown to possess essential cardiovascular functions. During cardiovascular development, neurotrophins and their receptors are essential factors in the formation of the heart and critical regulator of vascular development. Postnatally, neurotrophins control the survival of endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells, and cardiomyocytes and regulate angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, by autocrine and paracrine mechanisms. Recent studies suggest the capacity of neurotrophins, via their tropomyosin-kinase receptors, to promote therapeutic neovascularization in animal models of hindlimb ischemia. Conversely, the neurotrophin low-affinity p75(NTR) receptor induces apoptosis of endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells and impairs angiogenesis. Finally, nerve growth factor looks particularly promising in treating microvascular complications of diabetes or reducing cardiomyocyte apoptosis in the infarcted heart. These seminal discoveries have fuelled basic and translational research and thus opened a new field of investigation in cardiovascular medicine and therapeutics. Here, we review recent progress on the molecular signaling and roles played by neurotrophins in cardiovascular development, function, and pathology, and we discuss therapeutic potential of strategies based on neurotrophin manipulation.

In vitro characterization of embryionic ST14A-cells

The embryonic striatal temperature sensitive immortalized ST14A-cell line was characterized in vitro by immunocytochemistry when cultured at 33 degrees C and at nonpermissive temperature of 39 degrees C for up to 14 days. At 33 degrees C in DMEM/10% FCS, cells proliferated, were extensively expressing the neural progenitor cell markers nestin and vimentin contrary to neuronal markers. However, when cultured at 39 degrees C the proliferation was delayed and cells began to increase the expression of neuronal markers, followed by a decrease of nestin and vimentin. In serum-free medium the process of neuronal differentiation became more obvious, indicating the potential to use these cells for experimental restorative therapies.

Induction of proneurotrophins and activation of p75NTR-mediated apoptosis via neurotrophin receptor-interacting factor in hippocampal neurons after seizures

Seizure-induced damage elicits a loss of hippocampal neurons mediated to a great extent by the p75 neurotrophin receptor (NTR). Proneurotrophins, which are potent apoptosis-inducing ligands for p75(NTR), were increased in the hippocampus, particularly in astrocytes, by pilocarpine-induced seizures; and infusion of anti-pro-NGF dramatically attenuated neuronal loss after seizures. The p75(NTR) is expressed in many different cell types in the nervous system, and can mediate a variety of different cellular functions by recruiting specific intracellular binding proteins to activate distinct signaling pathways. In this study, we demonstrate that neurotrophin receptor-interacting factor (NRIF) mediates apoptotic signaling via p75(NTR) in hippocampal neurons in vitro and in vivo. After seizure-induced injury, NRIF(-/-) mice showed an increase in p75(NTR) expression in the hippocampus; however, these neurons failed to undergo apoptosis in contrast to wild-type mice. Treatment of cultured hippocampal neurons with proneurotrophins induced association of NRIF with p75(NTR) and subsequent translocation of NRIF to the nucleus, which was dependent on cleavage of the receptor. Neurons lacking NRIF were resistant to p75(NTR)-mediated apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we demonstrate some mechanistic differences in p75(NTR) signaling in hippocampal neurons compared with other cell types. Overall, these studies demonstrate the requirement for NRIF to signal p75(NTR)-mediated apoptosis of hippocampal neurons and that blocking pro-NGF can inhibit neuronal loss after seizures.

NRAGE, a p75NTR adaptor protein, is required for developmental apoptosis in vivo

NRAGE (also known as Maged1, Dlxin) is a member of the MAGE gene family that may play a role in the neuronal apoptosis that is regulated by the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR). To test this hypothesis in vivo, we generated NRAGE knockout mice and found that NRAGE deletion caused a defect in developmental apoptosis of sympathetic neurons of the superior cervical ganglia, similar to that observed in p75NTR knockout mice. Primary sympathetic neurons derived from NRAGE knockout mice were resistant to apoptosis induced by brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a pro-apoptotic p75NTR ligand, and NRAGE-deficient sympathetic neurons show attenuated BDNF-dependent JNK activation. Hair follicle catagen is an apoptosis-like process that is dependent on p75NTR signaling; we show that NRAGE and p75NTR show regulated co-expression in the hair follicle and that identical defects in hair follicle catagen are present in NRAGE and p75NTR knockout mice. Interestingly, NRAGE knockout mice have severe defects in motoneuron apoptosis that are not observed in p75NTR knockout animals, raising the possibility that NRAGE may facilitate apoptosis induced by receptors other than p75NTR. Together, these studies demonstrate that NRAGE plays an important role in apoptotic-signaling in vivo.

Bone marrow stromal cells protect oligodendrocytes from oxygen-glucose deprivation injury

Oligodendrocyte (OLG) damage leads to demyelination, which is frequently observed in ischemic cerebrovascular diseases. In this study, we investigated the effect of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) on OLGs subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). N20.1 cells (mouse OLG cell line) were transferred into an anaerobic chamber for 3 hr in glucose-free and serum-free medium. After OGD incubation, OLG cultures were divided into the following groups: 1) OGD alone, 2) OLG cocultured with BMSCs, 3) treatment with the phosphoinostide 3-kinase (PI3k) inhibitor LY294002, 4) LY294002-treated OLGs with BMSC cocultured, and 5) anti-p75 antibody-treated OLGs. After an additional 3 hr of reoxygenation incubation, OLG viability and apoptosis were measured. The mRNA expression in the BMSCs and OLGs was analyzed using quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR). Serine/threonine-specific protein kinase (Akt), phosphorylated Akt (p-Akt), p75, and caspase 3 protein expressions in OLGs were measured by Western blot. Our results suggest that BMSCs produce growth factors, activate the Akt pathway, and increase the survival of OLGs. BMSCs also reduce p75 and caspase 3 expressions in the OGD-OLGs, which leads to decreased OLG apoptosis. BMSCs participate in OLG protection that may occur with promoting growth factors/PI3K/Akt and inhibiting the p75/caspase pathways. Our study provides insight into white matter damage and the therapeutic benefits of BMSC-based remyelinating therapy after stroke and demyelinating diseases.

LINGO-1 and its role in CNS repair

LINGO-1 is selectively expressed in the CNS on both oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) and neurons. Its expression is developmentally regulated in the normal CNS, as well as up-regulated in human or rat models of neuropathologies. LINGO-1 functions as a negative regulator of oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination, neuronal survival and axonal regeneration. Across diverse animal CNS disease models, targeted LINGO-1 inhibition was found to promote neuron and oligodendrocyte survival, axon regeneration, oligodendrocyte differentiation, remyelination and improved functional recovery. The targeted inhibition of LINGO-1 therefore presents a novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of neurological diseases.

Neurotrophins and their receptors stimulate melanoma cell proliferation and migration

Melanoma is a highly aggressive skin tumor that originates in the epidermis from melanocytes. As melanocytes share with the nervous system a common neuroectodermal origin and express all neurotrophins (NTs), we evaluated the expression and function of NTs and their receptors in melanoma. We report that primary and metastatic melanoma cell lines synthesize and secrete all NTs. Moreover, melanoma cells express the low-affinity (p75NTR) and the high-affinity tyrosine kinase NT receptors (Trk). The inhibition of Trk receptors by either K252a or Trk/Fc chimeras prevents proliferation, indicating that autocrine NTs are responsible for this effect. NT-3, NT-4, and nerve growth factor (NGF) induce cell migration, with a stronger effect on metastatic cell lines. Transfection with p75NTR small interfering RNA (p75NTRsiRNA) or treatment with K252a inhibits NT-induced melanoma cell migration, indicating that both the low- and high-affinity NT receptors mediate this effect. All melanoma cell lines express the p75NTR coreceptor sortilin by which proNGF stimulates migration in melanoma cells, but not in cells transfected with p75NTRsiRNA. These results indicate that NTs, through their receptors, play a critical role in the progression of melanoma.

The p38 MAPK pathway mediates aryl propionic acid induced messenger rna stability of p75 NTR in prostate cancer cells

The p75(NTR) acts as a tumor suppressor in the prostate, but its expression is lost as prostate cancer progresses and is minimal in established prostate cancer cell lines such as PC-3, DU-145, and LNCaP. Previously, we showed that treatment with R-flurbiprofen or ibuprofen induced p75(NTR) expression in PC-3 and DU-145 cells leading to p75(NTR)-mediated decreased survival. Here, we investigate the mechanism by which these drugs induce p75(NTR) expression. We show that the observed increase in p75(NTR) protein due to R-flurbiprofen and ibuprofen treatment was accompanied by an increase in p75(NTR) mRNA, and this increase in mRNA was the result of increased mRNA stability and not by an up-regulation of transcription. In addition, we show that treatment with R-flurbiprofen or ibuprofen led to sustained activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. Furthermore, inhibition of the p38 MAPK pathway with the p38 MAPK-specific inhibitor SB202190 or by small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of p38 MAPK protein prevented induction of p75(NTR) by R-flurbiprofen and ibuprofen. We also observed that siRNA knockdown of MAPK-activated protein kinase (MK)-2 and MK3, the kinases downstream of p38 MAPK that are responsible for the mRNA stabilizing effects of the p38 MAPK pathway, also prevented an induction of p75(NTR) by R-flurbiprofen and ibuprofen. Finally, we identify the RNA stabilizing protein HuR and the posttranscriptional regulator eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E as two possible mechanisms by which the p38 MAPK pathway may increase p75(NTR) expression. Collectively, the data suggest that R-flurbiprofen and ibuprofen induce p75(NTR) expression by increased mRNA stability that is mediated through the p38 MAPK pathway.

The biological role of the low-affinity p75 neurotrophin receptor in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

In this study, we investigated the clinicopathologic significance of the low-affinity p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR; which is expressed in the stem/progenitor cell fraction of normal esophageal epithelial cells) in 187 resected esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) specimens and found that approximately 50% of ESCC expressed p75NTR. Our investigation using ESCC cell lines showed that p75NTR was intensely expressed in the cells with high colony-forming capacity but they were sensitive to cell death on inhibition of p75NTR expression with transient transfection of small interfering RNA (siRNA). These findings suggest that p75NTR is necessary for survival and maintenance of ESCC tumors, providing us with a potential target for novel therapies.

PURPOSE

p75NTR is expressed in a stem/progenitor cell fraction of human normal esophageal epithelial cells. In this study, we investigated the expression and biological role of p75NTR in ESCC.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

The expression of p75NTR in 187 resected ESCC specimens was immunohistochemically investigated. The expression of p75NTR in 30 ESCC cell lines (KYSEs) was assessed by reverse transcription-PCR, immunocytochemistry, and flow cytometry. The p75NTR-bright and p75NTR-dim/negative cells were isolated from KYSE150 by magnetic beads and colony formation was investigated. The role of p75NTR in KYSEs was assessed by transient transfection of siRNA.

RESULTS

p75NTR was expressed in 92 of 187 (49.2%) tumors. In well-differentiated tumors, positive staining was apparent in the first one to two layers from infiltrative margin of the tumors where most of the cells were actively proliferating. In moderately differentiated tumors, p75NTR was expressed in wider range from the margin of the tumors whereas p75NTR was diffusely distributed in poorly differentiated tumors. p75NTR was expressed in all examined KYSEs and the mean proportion of the p75NTR-bright fraction was 30.1%. The size of p75NTR-positive colonies was larger than that of p75NTR-negative colonies derived from KYSE150 (P<0.0001). The purified p75NTR-bright cells formed p75NTR-positive large colonies more frequently than the p75NTR-dim/negative cells (P<0.0001). Down-regulation of p75NTR expression by siRNA resulted in marked growth inhibition with induction of apoptosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that p75NTR is necessary for survival and maintenance of ESCC tumors, providing us with a potential target for novel therapies.

Nerve growth factor beta/pro-nerve growth factor and their receptors in normal human oral mucosa

Nerve growth factor beta (NGF-beta) and its precursor proNGF are important for the differentiation and survival of neurons and dermal keratinocytes. The aim of this study was to determine the role that NGF might play in the differentiation and wound healing of oral mucosa. Cultured normal human oral mucosal keratinocytes expressed mRNA for NGF-beta/proNGF and for their receptors TrkA and p75(NTR). Lysates from cultured oral mucosal keratinocytes did not contain detectable amounts of mature 14-kDa NGF-beta but did contain several NGF proforms with molecular weights between 32 and 114 kDa. Culture medium from oral mucosal keratinocytes contained 75 kDa proNGF. The addition of NGF-beta significantly enhanced the proliferation of oral mucosal keratinocyte cultures and in vitro scratch closure. Immunostaining of biopsies from normal oral mucosa showed the presence of proNGF in all epithelial layers. NGF staining was observed in the granular and upper spinous cell layers. TrkA immunoreactivity was detected in basal and parabasal cells, with weak to moderate staining in spinous and granular cell layers. p75(NTR) staining was seen in basal cell layers. These findings indicate that NGF-beta/proNGF have mitogenic and motogenic effects on oral mucosal keratinocytes and therefore may aid in the healing of oral wounds. Differential expression of NGF and NGF receptors throughout the epithelium suggests a role in epithelial differentiation.

The p75 neurotrophin receptor is essential for neuronal cell survival and improvement of functional recovery after spinal cord injury

The mechanisms initiating post-spinal cord injury (SCI) apoptotic cell death remain incompletely understood. The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) has been shown to exert both pro-survival and pro-apoptotic effects on neural cells in vitro. While a previous study had shown that there is decreased oligodendrocyte apoptosis distal to a clean partial transection injury of the cord in mice with nonfunctional p75(NTR), most human spinal cord injuries do not involve partial transections but are rather due to compression/contusion injuries with significant perilesional ischemia. Therefore, we sought to examine the role of the p75(NTR) in a clinically relevant clip compression model of SCI in p75 null mice with an exon III mutation. Mice with a functional p75(NTR) had increased caspase-9 activation at 3 days after SCI in comparison to the functionally deficient p75(NTR) mice. However, at 7 days following SCI there was no difference in the activation of the effector caspases (caspase-3 and caspase-6) at the spinal cord lesion. Moreover, at 7 days after injury, there was increased terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick-end (TUNEL) positive cell death at the injury site in the functionally deficient p75(NTR) mice. Using double labeling with TUNEL and cell specific markers we showed that the absence of p75(NTR) function increased the extent of neuronal but not oligodendroglial cell death at the injury site. This selective loss of neuronal cells after SCI was confirmed with a decrease in levels of microtubule-associated protein 2 in the p75 null mice. Furthermore, the wild-type animals had dramatically improved survival and enhanced locomotor recovery at 8 weeks after SCI when compared with the p75(NTR) null mice. Also at 8 weeks, there were significantly more neurons present at the injury site of wild-type mice when compared with p75 null mice. We conclude that the p75(NTR) receptor is integral to neuronal cell survival and endogenous reparative mechanisms after compressive/contusive SCI.

Inhibition of the leucine-rich repeat protein LINGO-1 enhances survival, structure, and function of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease models

The nervous system-specific leucine-rich repeat Ig-containing protein LINGO-1 is associated with the Nogo-66 receptor complex and is endowed with a canonical EGF receptor (EGFR)-like tyrosine phosphorylation site. Our studies indicate that LINGO-1 expression is elevated in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's disease (PD) patients compared with age-matched controls and in animal models of PD after neurotoxic lesions. LINGO-1 expression is present in midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the human and rodent brain. Therefore, the role of LINGO-1 in cell damage responses of DA neurons was examined in vitro and in experimental models of PD induced by either oxidative (6-hydroxydopamine) or mitochondrial (N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) toxicity. In LINGO-1 knockout mice, DA neuron survival was increased and behavioral abnormalities were reduced compared with WT. This neuroprotection was accompanied by increased Akt phosphorylation (p-Akt). Similar neuroprotective in vivo effects on midbrain DA neurons were obtained in WT mice by blocking LINGO-1 activity using LINGO-1-Fc protein. Neuroprotection and enhanced neurite growth were also demonstrated for midbrain DA neurons in vitro. LINGO-1 antagonists (LINGO-1-Fc, dominant negative LINGO-1, and anti-LINGO-1 antibody) improved DA neuron survival in response to MPP+ in part by mechanisms that involve activation of the EGFR/Akt signaling pathway through a direct inhibition of LINGO-1's binding to EGFR. These results show that inhibitory agents of LINGO-1 activity can protect DA neurons against degeneration and indicate a role for the leucine-rich repeat protein LINGO-1 and related classes of proteins in the pathophysiological responses of midbrain DA neurons in PD.

Mitochondrial superoxide production and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 activation in p75 neurotrophin receptor-induced motor neuron apoptosis

Nerve growth factor (NGF) can induce apoptosis by signaling through the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) in several nerve cell populations. Cultured embryonic motor neurons expressing p75(NTR) are not vulnerable to NGF unless they are exposed to an exogenous flux of nitric oxide (*NO). In the present study, we show that p75(NTR)-mediated apoptosis in motor neurons involved neutral sphingomyelinase activation, increased mitochondrial superoxide production, and cytochrome c release to the cytosol. The mitochondria-targeted antioxidants mitoQ and mitoCP prevented neuronal loss, further evidencing the role of mitochondria in NGF-induced apoptosis. In motor neurons overexpressing the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-linked superoxide dismutase 1(G93A) (SOD1(G93A)) mutation, NGF induced apoptosis even in the absence of an external source of *NO. The increased susceptibility of SOD1(G93A) motor neurons to NGF was associated to decreased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and downregulation of the enzymes involved in glutathione biosynthesis. In agreement, depletion of glutathione in nontransgenic motor neurons reproduced the effect of SOD1(G93A) expression, increasing their sensitivity to NGF. In contrast, rising antioxidant defenses by Nrf2 activation prevented NGF-induced apoptosis. Together, our data indicate that p75(NTR)-mediated motor neuron apoptosis involves ceramide-dependent increased mitochondrial superoxide production. This apoptotic pathway is facilitated by the expression of ALS-linked SOD1 mutations and critically modulated by Nrf2 activity.

Overexpressions of nerve growth factor and its tropomyosin-related kinase A receptor on chordoma cells

STUDY DESIGN

Immunohistochemistry and in situ apoptosis detection assay were performed on chordoma and notochordal cells.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the expression levels of nerve growth factor (NGF) and its 2 receptors, tropomyosin-related kinase A (TrkA) and p75, as well as proliferation potential and apoptosis indexes in chordoma and notochordal cells.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

Chordomas arise from primitive notochordal remnants. Why these notochordal remnants undergo malignant transformation to chordoma remains unknown. The binding of NGF to the TrkA receptor promotes cell survival, while its binding to the p75 receptor triggers apoptosis. If there is simultaneous expression of both receptors, the effect of TrkA supersedes and the cells survive.

METHODS

We examined 10 surgically obtained sacral chordoma tissue samples to determine the expressions of NGF and TrkA and p75 receptors as well as markers of cellular proliferation and apoptosis. As controls, we used notochordal cells of L4-L5 discs obtained from ten 1-month old rats. We quantified the expressions of NGF and TrkA and p75 receptors as well as markers of cellular proliferation and apoptosis for both groups, respectively.

RESULTS

Chordoma and notochordal cells both expressed NGF as well as TrkA and p75 receptors. While the mean percentage of p75 receptor expression was very similar between chordoma and notochordal cells (P = 0.394), the mean percentages of TrkA and NGF expressions were significantly higher in chordoma cells than in notochordal cells (both P = 0.002). The mean proliferation potential index of chordoma cells was significantly higher than in notochordal cells (P < 0.01). Conversely, the mean apoptosis index of chordoma cells was significantly lower compared with that of notochordal cells (P = 0.03).

CONCLUSION

The current results suggest that increased expressions of NGF and TrkA receptor in chordoma cells might be a possible mechanism of malignant transformation of notochordal remnants to chordoma by negating apoptotic signal of p75 receptor.

p75 neurotrophin receptor suppresses the proliferation of human gastric cancer cells

Identifying an effective therapeutic target is pivotal in the treatment of gastric cancer. In this study, we investigated the expression of p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) in gastric cancer and the impact of its alteration on tumor growth. p75NTR expression was absent or significantly decreased in 212 cases of gastric cancers compared with the normal gastric mucosa (P < .05). Moreover, p75NTR expression was also lost or significantly decreased in various human gastric cancer cell lines. p75NTR inhibited in vitro growth activities and caused dramatic attenuation of tumor growth in animal models by induction of cell cycle arrest. Upregulation of p75NTR led to downregulation of cyclin A, cyclin D1, cyclin E, cyclin-dependent kinase 2, p-Rb, and PCNA, but to upregulation of Rb and p27 expressions. Conversely, downregulating p75NTR with specific siRNA yielded inverse results. The rescue of tumor cells from cell cycle progression by a death domain-deleted dominant-negative antagonist of p75NTR (Deltap75NTR) showed that the death domain transduced antiproliferative activity in a ligand-independent manner and further demonstrated the inhibitive effect of p75NTR on growth in gastric cancer. Therefore, we provided evidence that p75NTR was a potential tumor suppressor and may be used as a therapeutic target for gastric cancer.

p75 Neurotrophin Receptor Inhibits Invasion and Metastasis of Gastric Cancer

The p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) is a focus for study at present. However, its function in gastric cancer was not elucidated. Here, we investigated its relation with metastasis of gastric cancer. By immunohistochemistry, we found that the positive rate of p75NTR expression in metastatic gastric cancer was 15.09% (16 of 106), which was lower compared with nonmetastatic gastric cancer (64.15%; 68 of 106). The average staining score in nonmetastatic gastric cancer was significantly higher than in metastatic gastric cancer (1.21 +/- 0.35 versus 0.23 +/- 0.18; P<0.01). p75NTR protein level was also lowly expressed in the highly liver-metastatic gastric cancer cell line XGC9811-L compared with other gastric cancer cell lines by Western blotting. It could also significantly inhibit the in vitro adhesive, invasive, and migratory and in vivo metastatic abilities of gastric cancer cell lines SGC7901 and MKN45 by reducing urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA) and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 proteins and by increasing tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 protein. Further studies showed that p75NTR could suppress the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) signal. SN50, a specific inhibitor of NF-kappaB, which could inhibit in vitro invasive and migratory abilities of gastric cancer cells, reduced expression of uPA and MMP9 proteins and increased expression of TIMP1 protein. Taken together, p75NTR had the function of inhibiting the invasive and metastatic abilities of gastric cancer cells, which was mediated, at least partially, by down-regulation of uPA and MMP9 proteins and up-regulation of TIMP1 protein via the NF-kappaB signal transduction pathway. Our studies suggested that p75NTR may be used as a new potential therapeutic target in metastatic gastric cancer.