Bimp1, a MAGUK family member linking protein kinase C activation to Bcl10-mediated NF-kappaB induction

Adaptor protein 3BP2 regulates gene expression in addition to the ubiquitination and proteolytic activity of MALT1 in dectin-1-stimulated cells

Dectin-1, a C-type lectin, plays important roles in the induction of antifungal immunity. Caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 9 (CARD9) is essential for the dectin-1-induced production of cytokines through the activation of NF-κB. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the dectin-1-mediated activation of CARD9 have not been fully elucidated. Recently, we reported that the adaptor protein SH3 domain-binding protein 2 (3BP2) is required for the dectin-1-induced production of cytokines and activation of NF-κB, although the relationship between 3BP2 and CARD9 in dectin-1-mediated signaling remains unclear. Here, we report that 3BP2 is required for dectin-1-induced expression of several genes that may contribute to antifungal immunity in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs). The results of reporter assays using HEK-293T cells indicate that 3BP2 induces CARD9-mediated activation of NF-κB through B-cell leukemia/lymphoma 10, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation protein 1 (MALT1), and TNF receptor-associated factor 6-dependent mechanisms. In addition, we show that 3BP2 induces CARD9-mediated ubiquitination of cellular proteins and that MALT1 cleaves 3BP2 in a CARD9-dependent manner. Furthermore, we show that 3BP2 is required for the ubiquitination, in addition to the activation, of MALT1, which leads to MALT1-depenedent cleavage of 3BP2 in dectin-1-stimulated BMDCs. Finally, we identified hematopoietic cell-specific Lyn substrate 1 as a target of 3BP2, which is essential for dectin-1-induced expression of interleukin 10 in BMDCs. These results indicate that 3BP2 regulates gene expression and functions of MALT1 in dectin-1-stimulated cells and that 3BP2 plays an important role in the dectin-1-mediated antifungal immunity.

Targeting autophagy in urological system cancers: From underlying mechanisms to therapeutic implications

The urological system, including kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra and prostate is known to be vital for blood filtration, waste elimination and electrolyte balance. Notably, urological system cancers represent a significant portion of global cancer diagnoses and mortalities. The current therapeutic strategies for early-stage cancer primarily involve resection surgery, which significantly affects the quality of life of patients, whereas advanced-stage cancer often relies on less effective chemo- or radiotherapy. Recently, accumulating evidence has revealed that autophagy, a crucial process in which excess organelles or inclusions within cells are removed to maintain cell homeostasis, has numerous links to urological system cancers. In this review, we focus on summarizing the underlying two-sided mechanisms of autophagy in urological system cancers. We also review the current clinical drugs targeting autophagy, which demonstrate significant potential in improving treatment outcomes for urological system cancers. In addition, we provide an overview of the research status of novel small molecule compounds targeting autophagy that are in the preclinical stages of investigation. Furthermore, drug combinations based on autophagy modulation strategies in urological system cancers are systematically summarized and discussed. These findings provide comprehensive new insight for the future discovery of more autophagy-related drug candidates.

CARD11 gain-of-function mutation drives cell-autonomous accumulation of PD-1+ ICOShigh activated T cells, T-follicular, T-regulatory and T-follicular regulatory cells

Introduction

Germline CARD11 gain-of-function (GOF) mutations cause B cell Expansion with NF-κB and T cell Anergy (BENTA) disease, whilst somatic GOF CARD11 mutations recur in diffuse large B cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and in up to 30% of the peripheral T cell lymphomas (PTCL) adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL), cutaneous T cell lymphoma (CTCL) and Sezary Syndrome. Despite their frequent acquisition by PTCL, the T cell-intrinsic effects of CARD11 GOF mutations are poorly understood.

Methods

Here, we studied B and T lymphocytes in mice with a germline Nethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU)-induced Card11^M365K mutation identical to a mutation identified in DLBCL and modifying a conserved region of the CARD11 coiled-coil domain recurrently mutated in DLBCL and PTCL.

Results and discussion

Our results demonstrate that CARD11.M365K is a GOF protein that increases B and T lymphocyte activation and proliferation following antigen receptor stimulation. Germline Card11^M365K mutation was insufficient alone to cause B or T-lymphoma, but increased accumulation of germinal center (GC) B cells in unimmunized and immunized mice. Card11^M365K mutation caused cell-intrinsic over-accumulation of activated T cells, T regulatory (T_REG), T follicular (T_FH) and T follicular regulatory (T_FR) cells expressing increased levels of ICOS, CTLA-4 and PD-1 checkpoint molecules. Our results reveal CARD11 as an important, cell-autonomous positive regulator of T_FH, T_REG and T_FR cells. They highlight T cell-intrinsic effects of a GOF mutation in the CARD11 gene, which is recurrently mutated in T cell malignancies that are often aggressive and associated with variable clinical outcomes.

Impact of the microenvironment on the pathogenesis of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphomas

Approximately 8% of all non-Hodgkin lymphomas are extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphomas of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), also known as MALT lymphomas. These arise at a wide range of different extranodal sites, with most cases affecting the stomach, the lung, the ocular adnexa and the thyroid. The small intestine is involved in a lower percentage of cases. Lymphoma growth in the early stages is associated with long-lasting chronic inflammation provoked by bacterial infections (e.g., Helicobacter pylori or Chlamydia psittaci infections) or autoimmune conditions (e.g., Sjögren’s syndrome or Hashimoto thyroiditis). While these inflammatory processes trigger lymphoma cell proliferation and/or survival, they also shape the microenvironment. Thus, activated immune cells are actively recruited to the lymphoma, resulting in either direct lymphoma cell stimulation via surface receptor interactions and/or indirect lymphoma cell stimulation via secretion of soluble factors like cytokines. In addition, chronic inflammatory conditions cause the acquisition of genetic alterations resulting in autonomous lymphoma cell growth. Recently, novel agents targeting the microenvironment have been developed and clinically tested in MALT lymphomas as well as other lymphoid malignancies. In this review, we aim to describe the composition of the microenvironment of MALT lymphoma, the interaction of activated immune cells with lymphoma cells and novel therapeutic approaches in MALT lymphomas using immunomodulatory and/or microenvironment-targeting agents.

MALT1 as a promising target to treat lymphoma and other diseases related to MALT1 anomalies

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation protein 1 (MALT1) is a key adaptor protein that regulates the NF-κB pathway, in which MALT1 functions as a scaffold protein and protease to trigger downstream signals. The abnormal expression of MALT1 is closely associated with lymphomagenesis and other diseases, including solid tumors and autoimmune diseases. MALT1 is the only protease in the underlying pathogenesis of these diseases, and its proteolytic activity can be pharmacologically regulated. Therefore, MALT1 is a potential and promising target for anti-lymphoma and other MALT1-related disease treatments. Currently, the development of MALT1 inhibitors is still in its early stages. This review presents an overview of MALT1, particularly its X-ray structures and biological functions, and elaborates on the pathogenesis of diseases associated with its dysregulation. We then summarize previously reported MALT1 inhibitors, focusing on their molecular structure, biological activity, structure-activity relationship, and limitations. Finally, we propose future research directions to accelerate the discovery of novel MALT1 inhibitors with clinical applications. Overall, this review provides a comprehensive and systematic overview of MALT1-related research advances and serves as a theoretical basis for drug discovery and research.

Multiplexed Functional Assessment of Genetic Variants in CARD11

Genetic testing has increased the number of variants identified in disease genes, but the diagnostic utility is limited by lack of understanding variant function. CARD11 encodes an adaptor protein that expresses dominant-negative and gain-of-function variants associated with distinct immunodeficiencies. Here, we used a "cloning-free" saturation genome editing approach in a diploid cell line to simultaneously score 2,542 variants for decreased or increased function in the region of CARD11 associated with immunodeficiency. We also described an exon-skipping mechanism for CARD11 dominant-negative activity. The classification of reported clinical variants was sensitive (94.6%) and specific (88.9%), which rendered the data immediately useful for interpretation of seven coding and splicing variants implicated in immunodeficiency found in our clinic. This approach is generalizable for variant interpretation in many other clinically actionable genes, in any relevant cell type.

Critical protein-protein interactions within the CARMA1-BCL10-MALT1 complex: Take-home points for the cell biologist

The CBM complex, which is composed of the proteins CARMA1, BCL10, and MALT1, serves multiple pivotal roles as a mediator of T-cell receptor and B-cell receptor-dependent NF-κB induction and lymphocyte activation. CARMA1, BCL10, and MALT1 are each proto-oncoproteins and dysregulation of CBM signaling, as a result of somatic gain-of-function mutation or chromosomal translocation, is a hallmark of multiple lymphoid malignancies including Activated B-cell Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma. Moreover, loss-of-function as well as gain-of-function germline mutations in CBM complex proteins have been associated with a range of immune dysregulation syndromes. A wealth of detailed structural information has become available over the past decade through meticulous interrogation of the interactions between CBM components. Here, we review key findings regarding the biochemical nature of these protein-protein interactions which have ultimately led the field to a sophisticated understanding of how these proteins assemble into high-order filamentous CBM complexes. To date, approaches to therapeutic inhibition of the CBM complex for the treatment of lymphoid malignancy and/or auto-immunity have focused on blocking MALT1 protease function. We also review key studies relating to the structural impact of MALT1 protease inhibitors on key protein-protein interactions.

Germline CBM-opathies: From immunodeficiency to atopy

Caspase recruitment domain (CARD) protein-B cell CLL/lymphoma 10 (BCL10)-MALT1 paracaspase (MALT1) [CBM] complexes are critical signaling adaptors that facilitate immune and inflammatory responses downstream of both cell surface and intracellular receptors. Germline mutations that alter the function of members of this complex (termed CBM-opathies) cause a broad array of clinical phenotypes, ranging from profound combined immunodeficiency to B-cell lymphocytosis. With an increasing number of patients being described in recent years, the clinical spectrum of diseases associated with CBM-opathies is rapidly expanding and becoming unexpectedly heterogeneous. Here we review major discoveries that have shaped our understanding of CBM complex biology, and we provide an overview of the clinical presentation, diagnostic approach, and treatment options for those carrying germline mutations affecting CARD9, CARD11, CARD14, BCL10, and MALT1.

Silencing of CARMA3 inhibits bladder cancer cell migration and invasion via deactivating β-catenin signaling pathway

Background

Bladder cancer (BC) is the ninth most common cancer and the fourteenth leading death worldwide. CARD-containing MAGUK 3 (CARMA3) protein is a novel scaffold protein known to activate NF-κB pathway and is overexpressed in BC tissues.

Purpose

The objective of this study was to identify how CARMA3 affects the metastasis of BC cells via the β-catenin signaling pathway.

Materials and methods

In the present study, 5637 and T24 BC cells with stable low expression of CARMA3 were established, and their migratory and invasive capabilities were further evaluated by wound-healing and transwell assay. The activity and expression of β-catenin were determined by Luciferase assay and immunofluoresence staining. The mRNA and protein expression levels of CARMA3, matrix metallopeptidase (MMP) 9 and MMP2 were detected by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blot analysis. The nude mouse tumor xenograft model was established for in vivo study.

Results

By comparison to the control cells, CARMA3-silenced cells acquired a less aggressive phenotype: decreased migration and invasion. More importantly, we confirmed that CARM3 knockdown could inhibit β-catenin mRNA and protein expression and activity, and reduce the expression and/or activity of matrix metallopeptidase (MMP) 9, MMP2 and C-myc. Also, CARM3 silencing increased E-cadherin expression and attenuated the expression of β-catenin. Moreover, we demonstrated that β-catenin overexpression reversed the inhibiting effect of CARMA3 silencing on cell invasion and migration. Furthermore, our study illustrated that knockdown of CARMA3 suppressed BC cells xenograft tumor growth in nude mice.

Conclusion

We demonstrated that CARMA3 contributes to the malignant phenotype of BC cells at least by activating β-catenin signaling pathway, and it may serve as a therapeutic target for clinic treatment in BC.

CARMA3: Scaffold Protein Involved in NF-κB Signaling

Scaffold proteins are defined as pivotal molecules that connect upstream receptors to specific effector molecules. Caspase recruitment domain protein 10 (CARD10) gene encodes a scaffold protein CARMA3, belongs to the family of CARD and membrane-associated guanylate kinase-like protein (CARMA). During the past decade, investigating the function of CARMA3 has revealed that it forms a complex with BCL10 and MALT1 to mediate different receptors-dependent signaling, including GPCR and EGFR, leading to activation of the transcription factor NF-κB. More recently, CARMA3 and its partners are also reported to be involved in antiviral innate immune response and DNA damage response. In this review, we summarize the biology of CARMA3 in multiple receptor-induced NF-κB signaling. Especially, we focus on discussing the function of CARMA3 in regulating NF-κB activation and antiviral IFN signaling in the context of recent progress in the field.

Ubiquitination and phosphorylation of the CARD11-BCL10-MALT1 signalosome in T cells

Antigen receptor-induced signaling plays an important role in inflammation and immunity. Formation of a CARD11-BCL10-MALT1 (CBM) signaling complex is a key event in T- and B cell receptor-induced gene expression by regulating NF-κB activation and mRNA stability. Deregulated CARD11, BCL10 or MALT1 expression or CBM signaling have been associated with immunodeficiency, autoimmunity and cancer, indicating that CBM formation and function have to be tightly regulated. Over the past years great progress has been made in deciphering the molecular mechanisms of assembly and disassembly of the CBM complex. In this context, several posttranslational modifications play an indispensable role in regulating CBM function and downstream signal transduction. In this review we summarize how the different CBM components as well as their interplay are regulated by protein ubiquitination and phosphorylation in the context of T cell receptor signaling.

CARD14/CARMA2 Signaling and its Role in Inflammatory Skin Disorders

CARMA proteins represent a family of scaffold molecules which play several crucial biological functions, including regulation of immune response and inflammation, tissue homeostasis, and modulation of G-Protein Coupled Receptor (GPCR) signaling. Among the CARMA proteins, CARD14/CARMA2 and its alternatively spliced isoforms are specifically expressed in epithelial cells and keratinocytes. Recent evidences have shown that CARD14/CARMA2 mediates induction of inflammatory response in keratinocytes, and that mutations in CARD14/CARMA2 gene segregate with familial transmission of chronic inflammatory disorders of the human skin. Similarly to CARD11/CARMA1 and CARD10/CARMA3, CARD14/CARMA2 signaling occurs trough formation of a trimeric complex which includes BCL10 and MALT1 proteins. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that in addition to the CBM complex components, a number of accessory molecules are able to finely modulate the signals conveyed on and amplified by CARD14/CARMA2. The study of these molecules is important both to understand the molecular mechanisms that underlie the role of CARMA2 in keratinocytes and because they represent potential therapeutic targets for the development of therapeutic strategies aiming at the treatment of inflammatory diseases of the human skin. In this review, we provide an overview on the molecular mechanisms mediating CARD14/CARMA2 signaling and its implication in our understanding of the pathogenesis of human inflammatory skin disorders.

The CBM-opathies-A Rapidly Expanding Spectrum of Human Inborn Errors of Immunity Caused by Mutations in the CARD11-BCL10-MALT1 Complex

The caspase recruitment domain family member 11 (CARD11 or CARMA1)-B cell CLL/lymphoma 10 (BCL10)-MALT1 paracaspase (MALT1) [CBM] signalosome complex serves as a molecular bridge between cell surface antigen receptor signaling and the activation of the NF-κB, JNK, and mTORC1 signaling axes. This positions the CBM complex as a critical regulator of lymphocyte activation, proliferation, survival, and metabolism. Inborn errors in each of the CBM components have now been linked to a diverse group of human primary immunodeficiency diseases termed "CBM-opathies." Clinical manifestations range from severe combined immunodeficiency to selective B cell lymphocytosis, atopic disease, and specific humoral defects. This surprisingly broad spectrum of phenotypes underscores the importance of "tuning" CBM signaling to preserve immune homeostasis. Here, we review the distinct clinical and immunological phenotypes associated with human CBM complex mutations and introduce new avenues for targeted therapeutic intervention.

Holding All the CARDs: How MALT1 Controls CARMA/CARD-Dependent Signaling

The scaffold proteins CARMA1-3 (encoded by the genes CARD11, -14 and -10) and CARD9 play major roles in signaling downstream of receptors with immunoreceptor tyrosine activation motifs (ITAMs), G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK). These receptors trigger the formation of oligomeric CARMA/CARD-BCL10-MALT1 (CBM) complexes via kinases of the PKC family. The CBM in turn regulates gene expression by the activation of NF-κB and AP-1 transcription factors and controls transcript stability. The paracaspase MALT1 is the only CBM component having an enzymatic (proteolytic) activity and has therefore recently gained attention as a potential drug target. Here we review recent advances in the understanding of the molecular function of the protease MALT1 and summarize how MALT1 scaffold and protease function contribute to the transmission of CBM signals. Finally, we will highlight how dysregulation of MALT1 function can cause pathologies such as immunodeficiency, autoimmunity, psoriasis, and cancer.

CARMA3 Is a Critical Mediator of G Protein-Coupled Receptor and Receptor Tyrosine Kinase-Driven Solid Tumor Pathogenesis

The CARMA–Bcl10–MALT1 (CBM) signalosome is an intracellular protein complex composed of a CARMA scaffolding protein, the Bcl10 linker protein, and the MALT1 protease. This complex was first recognized because the genes encoding its components are targeted by mutation and chromosomal translocation in lymphoid malignancy. We now know that the CBM signalosome plays a critical role in normal lymphocyte function by mediating antigen receptor-dependent activation of the pro-inflammatory, pro-survival NF-κB transcription factor, and that deregulation of this signaling complex promotes B-cell lymphomagenesis. More recently, we and others have demonstrated that a CBM signalosome also operates in cells outside of the immune system, including in several solid tumors. While CARMA1 (also referred to as CARD11) is expressed primarily within lymphoid tissues, the related scaffolding protein, CARMA3 (CARD10), is more widely expressed and participates in a CARMA3-containing CBM complex in a variety of cell types. The CARMA3-containing CBM complex operates downstream of specific G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and/or growth factor receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Since inappropriate expression and activation of GPCRs and/or RTKs underlies the pathogenesis of several solid tumors, there is now great interest in elucidating the contribution of CARMA3-mediated cellular signaling in these malignancies. Here, we summarize the key discoveries leading to our current understanding of the role of CARMA3 in solid tumor biology and highlight the current gaps in our knowledge.

Caspase recruitment domain (CARD) family (CARD9, CARD10, CARD11, CARD14 and CARD15) are increased during active inflammation in patients with inflammatory bowel disease

Background

The CARD family plays an important role in innate immune response by the activation of NF-κB. The aim of this study was to determine the gene expression and to enumerate the protein-expressing cells of some members of the CARD family (CARD9, CARD10, CARD11, CARD14 and CARD15) in patients with IBD and normal controls without colonic inflammation.

Methods

We included 48 UC patients, 10 Crohn’s disease (CD) patients and 18 non-inflamed controls. Gene expression was performed by RT-PCR and protein expression by immunohistochemistry. CARD-expressing cells were assessed by estimating the positively staining cells and reported as the percentage.

Results

The CARD9 and CARD10 gene expression was significantly higher in UC groups compared with CD (P < 0.001). CARD11 had lower gene expression in UC than in CD patients (P < 0.001). CARD14 gene expression was higher in the group with active UC compared to non-inflamed controls (P < 0.001). The low expression of CARD14 gene was associated with a benign clinical course of UC, characterized by initial activity followed by long-term remission longer than 5 years (P = 0.01, OR = 0.07, 95%CI:0.007–0.70). CARD15 gene expression was lower in UC patients versus CD (P = 0.004). CARD9 protein expression was detected in inflammatory infiltrates; CARD14 in parenchymal cells, while CARD15 in inflammatory and parenchymal cells. CARD9−, CARD14− and CARD15 − expressing cells were significantly higher in patients with active UC versus non-inflamed controls (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The CARD family is involved in the inflammatory process and might be involved in the IBD pathophysiology.

BCL10 - Bridging CARDs to Immune Activation

Since the B-cell lymphoma/leukemia 10 (BCL10) protein was first described in 1999, numerous studies have elucidated its key functions in channeling adaptive and innate immune signaling downstream of CARMA/caspase-recruitment domain (CARD) scaffold proteins. While T and B cell antigen receptor (TCR/BCR) signaling induces the recruitment of BCL10 bound to mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)1 to the lymphocyte-specific CARMA1/CARD11–BCL10–MALT1 (CBM-1) signalosome, alternative CBM complexes utilize different CARMA/CARD scaffolds in distinct innate or inflammatory pathways. BCL10 constitutes the smallest subunit in all CBM signalosomes, containing a 233 amino acid coding for N-terminal CARD as well as a C-terminal Ser/Thr-rich region. BCL10 forms filaments, thereby aggregating into higher-order clusters that mediate and amplify stimulation-induced signals, ultimately leading to MALT1 protease activation and canonical NF-κB and JNK signaling. BCL10 additionally undergoes extensive post-translational regulation involving phosphorylation, ubiquitination, MALT1-catalyzed cleavage, and degradation. Through these feedback and feed-forward events, BCL10 integrates positive and negative regulatory processes that govern the function as well as the dynamic assembly, disassembly, and destruction of CBM complexes. Thus, BCL10 is a critical regulator for activation as well as termination of immune cell signaling, revealing that its role extends far beyond that of a mere linking factor in CBM complexes.

NF-κB Activation in Lymphoid Malignancies: Genetics, Signaling, and Targeted Therapy

The NF-κB transcription factor family plays a crucial role in lymphocyte proliferation and survival. Consequently, aberrant NF-κB activation has been described in a variety of lymphoid malignancies, including diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, Hodgkin lymphoma, and adult T-cell leukemia. Several factors, such as persistent infections (e.g., with Helicobacter pylori), the pro-inflammatory microenvironment of the cancer, self-reactive immune receptors as well as genetic lesions altering the function of key signaling effectors, contribute to constitutive NF-κB activity in these malignancies. In this review, we will discuss the molecular consequences of recurrent genetic lesions affecting key regulators of NF-κB signaling. We will particularly focus on the oncogenic mechanisms by which these alterations drive deregulated NF-κB activity and thus promote the growth and survival of the malignant cells. As the concept of a targeted therapy based on the mutational status of the malignancy has been supported by several recent preclinical and clinical studies, further insight in the function of NF-κB modulators and in the molecular mechanisms governing aberrant NF-κB activation observed in lymphoid malignancies might lead to the development of additional treatment strategies and thus improve lymphoma therapy.

MALT1 Protease Activation Triggers Acute Disruption of Endothelial Barrier Integrity via CYLD Cleavage

Microvascular endothelial cells maintain a tight barrier to prevent passage of plasma and circulating immune cells into the extravascular tissue compartment, yet endothelial cells respond rapidly to vasoactive substances, including thrombin, allowing transient paracellular permeability. This response is a cornerstone of acute inflammation, but the mechanisms responsible are still incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate that thrombin triggers MALT1 to proteolytically cleave cylindromatosis (CYLD). Fragmentation of CYLD results in microtubule disruption and a cascade of events leading to endothelial cell retraction and an acute permeability response. This finding reveals an unexpected role for the MALT1 protease, which previously has been viewed mostly as a driver of pro-inflammatory NF-κB signaling in lymphocytes. Thus, MALT1 not only promotes immune cell activation but also acutely regulates endothelial cell biology, actions that together facilitate tissue inflammation. Pharmacologic inhibition of MALT1 may therefore have synergistic impact by targeting multiple disparate steps in the overall inflammatory response.

A Genome-Wide Scan for MicroRNA-Related Genetic Variants Associated With Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma

Purpose

To identify microRNAs (miRNAs) involved in primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), using genetic data. MiRNAs are small noncoding RNAs that posttranscriptionally regulate gene expression. Genetic variants in miRNAs or miRNA-binding sites within gene 3'-untranslated regions (3'UTRs) are expected to affect miRNA function and contribute to disease risk.

Methods

Data from the recent genome-wide association studies on intraocular pressure, vertical cup-to-disc ratio (VCDR), cupa area and disc area were used to investigate the association of miRNAs with POAG endophenotypes. Putative targets of the associated miRNAs were studied according to their association with POAG and tested in cell line by transfection experiments for regulation by the miRNAs.

Results

Of 411 miRNA variants, rs12803915:A/G in the terminal loop of pre-miR-612 and rs2273626:A/C in the seed sequence of miR-4707 were significantly associated with VCDR and cup area (P values < 1.2 × 10-4). The first variant is demonstrated to increase the miR-612 expression. We showed that the second variant does not affect the miR-4707 biogenesis, but reduces the binding of miR-4707-3p to CARD10, a gene known to be involved in glaucoma. Moreover, of 72,052 miRNA-binding-site variants, 47 were significantly associated with four POAG endophenotypes (P value < 6.9 × 10-6). Of these, we highlighted 10 variants that are more likely to affect miRNA-mediated gene regulation in POAG. These include rs3217992 and rs1063192, which have been shown experimentally to affect miR-138-3p- and miR-323b-5p-mediated regulation of CDKN2B.

Conclusions

We identified a number of miRNAs that are associated with POAG endophenotypes. The identified miRNAs and their target genes are candidates for future studies on miRNA-related therapies for POAG.

Rare variants in optic disc area gene CARD10 enriched in primary open-angle glaucoma

BACKGROUND

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified association of common alleles with primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG) and its quantitative endophenotypes near numerous genes. This study aims to determine whether rare pathogenic variants in these disease-associated genes contribute to POAG.

METHODS

Participants fulfilled strict inclusion criteria of advanced POAG at a young age of diagnosis. Myocilin mutation carriers were excluded using direct sequencing. Whole exome sequencing was performed on 187 glaucoma cases and 103 local screened nonglaucoma controls then joint-called with exomes of 993 previously sequenced Australian controls. GWAS-associated genes were assessed for enrichment of rare predicted pathogenic variants in POAG. Significantly enriched genes were compared against Exome Aggregation Consortium (ExAC) public control.

RESULTS

Eighty-six GWAS disease or trait-associated glaucoma genes were captured and sequenced. CARD10 showed enrichment after Bonferroni correction for rare variants in glaucoma cases (OR = 13.2, P = 6.94 × 10^-5) with mutations identified in 4.28% of our POAG cohort compared to 0.27% in controls. CARD10 was significantly associated with optic disc parameters in previous GWAS. The whole GWAS gene set showed no enrichment in POAG overall (OR = 1.12, P = 0.51).

CONCLUSION

We report here an enrichment of rare predicted pathogenic coding variants within a GWAS-associated locus in POAG (CARD10). These findings indicate that both common and rare pathogenic coding variants in CARD10 may contribute to POAG pathogenesis.

Recurrent mutations in genes involved in nuclear factor-κB signalling in nodal marginal zone lymphoma-diagnostic and therapeutic implications

AIMS

To investigate the spectrum of mutations in 20 genes involved in B-cell receptor and/or Toll-like receptor signalling resulting in activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in 20 nodal marginal zone lymphomas (NMZLs), 20 follicular lymphomas (FLs), and 11 cases of B-cell lymphoma, unclassifiable (BCL-u).

METHODS AND RESULTS

Nodal marginal zone lymphomas were diagnosed according to strict criteria, including the expression of at least one putative marginal zone marker (MNDA and/or IRTA1). Cases that showed features of NMZL but did not fulfil all criteria were included as BCL-u. All FLs were required to have a BCL2 rearrangement. Mutations were found in: nine NMZLs, with recurrent mutations in TNFAIP3 and CD79B; 12 FLs, with recurrent mutations in TNFRSF14, TNFAIP3, and CARD11; and five cases of BCL-u, with recurrent mutations in TNFRSF14. TNFRSF14 mutations were present in FL and BCL-u, but not in any of the NMZLs. In the BCL-u group, TNFRSF14 mutations clustered with a FL immunophenotype.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that TNFRSF14 mutations point towards a diagnosis of FL, and can be used in the sometimes difficult distinction between NMZL and FL, but to apply this in diagnostics would require confirmation in an independent cohort. In addition, the presence or absence of specific mutations in pathways converging on NF-κB could be important for decisions regarding targeted treatment.

CARMA3 regulates the invasion, migration, and apoptosis of non-small cell lung cancer cells by activating NF-кB and suppressing the P38 MAPK signaling pathway

In our previous study, CARMA3 overexpression in lung cancer cells promoted cell proliferation and invasion; however, the mechanism underlying the role of CARMA3 in cancer cell invasion remained unclear. In the present study, knockdown of CARMA3 in A549 and H1299 cells suppressed cell invasion and migration, and downregulated matrix metalloprotease 9 expression at the protein and mRNA levels, as shown by Western blotting and real-time PCR. CARMA3 knockdown increased cell apoptosis, as shown by flow cytometry, increased the mRNA and protein expression levels of Bax and Caspase3, and downregulated Bcl-2 in A549 and H1299 cells. Phosphorylated P38 levels increased and NF-кB activation decreased following knockdown of CARMA3. SB203580, a P38 MAPK inhibitor, activated NF-кB, increased cell migration, and inhibited cell apoptosis after knockdown of CARMA3 compared to knockdown of CARMA3 without SB203580. These findings indicate that CARMA3 may suppress the activation of the P38 MAPK signaling pathway to regulate invasion, migration and apoptosis of lung cancer cells by activating NF-кB (P65) in the nucleus.

The Paracaspase MALT1

The human paracaspase MALT1 is a caspase homolog that plays a central role in NF-κB signaling. Over the past few years it has become clear that this is due to a combination of its scaffolding and proteolytic function. Knockout mice and mice expressing a catalytically dead variant of the protease have provided valuable information. This review aims to provide an overview of recent developments regarding the enzymatic mechanism and specificity of MALT1, its substrates discovered to date, different mouse models, as well as the role of MALT1 in NF-κB signaling downstream of a variety of different receptors.

The Role of PKC-θ in CD4+ T Cells and HIV Infection: To the Nucleus and Back Again

Protein kinase C (PKC)-θ is the only member of the PKC family that has the ability to translocate to the immunological synapse between T cells and antigen-presenting cells upon T cell receptor and MHC-II recognition. PKC-θ interacts functionally and physically with other downstream effector molecules to mediate T cell activation, differentiation, and migration. It plays a critical role in the generation of Th2 and Th17 responses and is less important in Th1 and CTL responses. PKC-θ has been recently shown to play a role in the nucleus, where it mediates inducible gene expression in the development of memory CD4+ T cells. This novel PKC (nPKC) can up-regulate HIV-1 transcription and PKC-θ activators such as Prostratin have been used in early HIV-1 reservoir eradication studies. The exact manner of the activation of virus by these compounds and the role of PKC-θ, particularly its nuclear form and its association with NF-κB in both the cytoplasmic and nuclear compartments, needs further precise elucidation especially given the very important role of NF-κB in regulating transcription from the integrated retrovirus. Continued studies of this nPKC isoform will give further insight into the complexity of T cell signaling kinases.

MALT1--a universal soldier: multiple strategies to ensure NF-κB activation and target gene expression

The paracaspase MALT1 (mucosa associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma translocation gene 1) is an intracellular signaling protein that plays a key role in innate and adaptive immunity. It is essential for nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation and proinflammatory gene expression downstream of several cell surface receptors. MALT1 has been most studied in the context of T-cell receptor-induced NF-κB signaling, supporting T-cell activation and proliferation. In addition, MALT1 hyperactivation is associated with specific subtypes of B-cell lymphoma, where it controls tumor cell proliferation and survival. For a long time, MALT1 was believed to function solely as a scaffold protein, providing a platform for the assembly of other NF-κB signaling proteins. However, this view changed dramatically when MALT1 was found to have proteolytic activity that further fine-tunes signaling. MALT1 proteolytic activity is essential for T-cell activation and lymphomagenesis, suggesting that MALT1 is a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and distinct lymphoma entities. However, interference with MALT1 activity may pose a dangerous threat to the normal functioning of the immune system and should be evaluated with great care. Here we discuss the current knowledge on the scaffold and protease functions of MALT1, including an overview of its substrates and the functional implications of their cleavage.

Functional characterization of zebrafish (Danio rerio) Bcl10

The complexes formed by BCL10, MALT1 and specific members of the family of CARMA proteins (CBM complex), have recently focused much attention because they represent a central hub regulating activation of the transcription factor NF-κB following various cellular stimulations. In this manuscript, we report the functional characterization of a Danio rerio 241 amino acids polypeptide ortholog of the Caspase recruiting domain (CARD)-containing protein BCL10. Biochemical studies show that zebrafish Bcl10 (zBcl10) dimerizes and binds to components of the CBM complex. Fluorescence microscopy observations demonstrate that zBcl10 forms cytoplasmic filaments similar to that formed by human BCL10 (hBCL10). Functionally, in human cells zBcl10 is more effective in activating NF-κB compared to hBCL10, possibly due to the lack of carboxy-terminal inhibitory serine residues present in the human protein. Also, depletion experiments carried out through expression of short hairpin RNAs targeting hBCL10 indicate that zBcl10 can functionally replace the human protein. Finally, we show that the zebrafish cell line PAC2 is suitable to carry out reporter assays for monitoring the activation state of NF- kB transcription factor. In conclusion, this work shows that zebrafish may excellently serve as a model organism to study complex and intricate signal transduction pathways, such as those that control NF-κB activation.

Molecular Pathogenesis of MALT Lymphoma

Approximately 8% of all non-Hodgkin lymphomas are extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma of mucosa associated lymphoid tissue (MALT), also known as MALT lymphoma, which was first described in 1983 by Isaacson and Wright. MALT lymphomas arise at a wide range of different extranodal sites, with the highest frequency in the stomach, followed by lung, ocular adnexa, and thyroid, and with a low percentage in the small intestine. Interestingly, at least 3 different, apparently site-specific, chromosomal translocations and missense and frameshift mutations, all pathway-related genes affecting the NF-κB signal, have been implicated in the development and progression of MALT lymphoma. However, these genetic abnormalities alone are not sufficient for malignant transformation. There is now increasing evidence suggesting that the oncogenic product of translocation cooperates with immunological stimulation in oncogenesis, that is, the association with chronic bacterial infection or autoaggressive process. This review mainly discusses MALT lymphomas in terms of their genetic aberration and association with chronic infections and summarizes recent advances in their molecular pathogenesis.

The Dishevelled, EGL-10 and pleckstrin (DEP) domain-containing protein DEPDC7 binds to CARMA2 and CARMA3 proteins, and regulates NF-κB activation

The molecular complexes containing BCL10, MALT1 and CARMA proteins (CBM complex) have been recently identified as a key component in the signal transduction pathways that regulate activation of Nuclear Factor kappaB (NF-κB) transcription factor. Herein we identified the DEP domain-containing protein DEPDC7 as cellular binding partners of CARMA2 and CARMA3 proteins. DEPDC7 displays a cytosolic distribution and its expression induces NF-κB activation. Conversely, shRNA-mediated abrogation of DEPDC7 results in impaired NF-κB activation following G protein-coupled receptors stimulation, or stimuli that require CARMA2 and CARMA3, but not CARMA1. Thus, this study identifies DEPDC7 as a CARMA interacting molecule, and provides evidence that DEPDC7 may be required to specifically convey on the CBM complex signals coming from activated G protein-coupled receptors.

Epithelial growth factor receptor-activated nuclear factor κB signaling and its role in epithelial growth factor receptor-associated tumors

Dysregulated epithelial growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling is directly associated with a number of cancers, such as brain, lung, and breast cancer. The downstream signaling pathways activated by EGFR have been extensively studied, such as PI3K/AKT pathway, MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) pathway, and STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) pathway. There are growing numbers of evidence suggesting that EGFR activates nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), which is a key transcription factor controlling a variety of cellular functions. However, relatively less is known about the signal transduction mechanism that links EGFR to NF-κB activation. Here, we discuss recent progress in EGFR-induced NF-κB pathways, including the identification of CARMA3-Bcl10-MALT1 complex and protein kinase C[Latin Small Letter Open E] as 2 essential signaling components linking EGFR to the activation of IκBα kinase. In addition, we discuss the multifunctional roles of NF-κB in EGFR-associated tumors, including proliferation, tumor invasiveness, metabolism, tumor-promoting microenvironment, and EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance.

The three CARMA sisters: so different, so similar: a portrait of the three CARMA proteins and their involvement in human disorders

Initially identified by their ability to modulate the functional activity of BCL10, the three CARMA proteins, CARMA1, -2, and -3, have recently themselves taken a leading role on the stage of molecular medicine. Although considered for some time as simple ancillary proteins, increasingly accumulating recent data evidently indicate a role of primary importance for these three proteins in the pathophysiology of several human tumors and inflammatory disorders. In fact, recent scientific literature clearly establishes that CARMA1 is one of the most mutated genes in a subtype of B-cell lymphoma and, at the same time, responsible for some rare human immunodeficiency conditions. On the other hand, mutations in CARMA2 are responsible for the hereditary transmission of some inflammatory disorders of the skin, including familial psoriasis and ptiriasis; whereas expression of CARMA3 appears to be deregulated in different human tumors. Here we describe and summarize the mutations found in the genes coding for the three CARMA proteins in these different human pathological conditions, and offer an interpretation of the molecular mechanisms from which arise the biological outcomes in which these proteins are involved.

N-Ethyl-N-nitrosourea mutagenesis in the mouse provides strong genetic and in vivo evidence for the role of the Caspase Recruitment Domain (CARD) of CARD-MAGUK1 in T regulatory cell development

Natural regulatory T (nTreg) cells generated in the thymus are essential throughout life for the maintenance of T-cell homeostasis and the prevention of autoimmunity. T-cell receptor (TCR)/CD28-mediated activation of nuclear factor-κB and (J)un (N)-terminal kinase pathways is known to play a key role in nTreg cell development but many of the predicted molecular interactions are based on extrapolations from non-Treg cell TCR stimulation with non-physiological ligands. For the first time, we provide strong genetic evidence of a scaffold function for the Caspase Recruitment Domain (CARD) of the TCR signalling protein CARD-MAGUK1 (CARMA1) in nTreg cell development in vivo. We report two, new, N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea-derived mutant mice, Vulpo and Zerda, with a profound block in the development of nTreg cells in the thymus as well as impaired inducible Treg cell differentiation in the periphery. Despite independent heritage, both mutants harbour different point mutations in the CARD of the CARMA1 protein. Mutations in vulpo and zerda do not affect expression levels of CARMA1 but still impair signalling through the TCR due to defective downstream Bcl-10 recruitment by the mutated CARD of CARMA1. Phenotypic differences observed between Vulpo and Zerda mutants suggest a role for the CARD of CARMA1 independent of Bcl-10 activation of downstream pathways. We conclude that our forward genetic approach demonstrates a critical role for the CARD function of CARMA1 in Treg cell development in vivo.

Phosphorylation of Carma1, but not Bcl10, by Akt regulates TCR/CD28-mediated NF-κB induction and cytokine production

Previous studies from our group and others have shown that the Akt kinase can contribute to induction of NF-κB by antigen receptor signaling. However, the direct targets of Akt in this pathway are not known. Here we show that Akt-mediated NF-κB activation is mediated at least in part through direct phosphorylation of the adaptor protein Carma1, which we previously demonstrated could interact with Akt in a TCR ligation-dependent manner. The putative Akt phosphorylation sites in Carma1 are distinct from known PKC consensus sites. Mutation of S551, S637 and S645 in Carma1 to non-phosphorylatable residues decreased phosphorylation of GST-Carma1-linker construct by Akt in vitro. In addition, Carma1 S637A/S645A mutants were significantly impaired in their ability to restore TCR-mediated NF-κB activation and IL-2 expression in Carma1-deficient T cells. Thus, our data reveal Carma1 as a novel target for Akt phosphorylation and suggest that Akt-mediated phosphorylation of Carma1 is an additional regulatory mechanism tuning the NF-κB response downstream of antigen receptor and co-stimulatory signaling.

CARMA3 is overexpressed in human glioma and promotes cell invasion through MMP9 regulation in A172 cell line

Caspase recruitment domain-containing membrane-associated guanylate kinase protein 10 or CARMA3 (CARD10) is a recently characterized oncoprotein involved in the progression of several human malignancies. The present study aims to investigate the expression pattern and biological roles of CARMA3 protein in human glioma. CARMA3 expression was analyzed in 97 glioma specimens using immunohistochemistry. We observed negative staining in normal astrocytes and positive staining of CARMA3 in 25 out of 97 (25.8%) glioma samples. Overexpression of CARMA3 correlated with tumor grade (p < 0.001). Small interfering RNA knockdown was performed in A172 cell line with relatively high CARMA3 expression. Using colony formation assay and Matrigel invasion assay, we showed that CARMA3 depletion in A172 cell line inhibited cell proliferation and cell invasion. In addition, mRNA and protein levels of matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9) were downregulated, indicating CARMA3 might regulate invasion through MMP9. In conclusion, CARMA3 serves as an oncoprotein in human glioma by regulating cell invasion, possibly through MMP9 regulation.

Whole-exome sequencing and imaging genetics identify functional variants for rate of change in hippocampal volume in mild cognitive impairment

Whole-exome sequencing of individuals with mild cognitive impairment, combined with genotype imputation, was used to identify coding variants other than the apolipoprotein E (APOE) ε4 allele associated with rate of hippocampal volume loss using an extreme trait design. Matched unrelated APOE ε3 homozygous male Caucasian participants from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) were selected at the extremes of the 2-year longitudinal change distribution of hippocampal volume (eight subjects with rapid rates of atrophy and eight with slow/stable rates of atrophy). We identified 57 non-synonymous single nucleotide variants (SNVs) which were found exclusively in at least 4 of 8 subjects in the rapid atrophy group, but not in any of the 8 subjects in the slow atrophy group. Among these SNVs, the variants that accounted for the greatest group difference and were predicted in silico as 'probably damaging' missense variants were rs9610775 (CARD10) and rs1136410 (PARP1). To further investigate and extend the exome findings in a larger sample, we conducted quantitative trait analysis including whole-brain search in the remaining ADNI APOE ε3/ε3 group (N=315). Genetic variation within PARP1 and CARD10 was associated with rate of hippocampal neurodegeneration in APOE ε3/ε3. Meta-analysis across five independent cross sectional cohorts indicated that rs1136410 is also significantly associated with hippocampal volume in APOE ε3/ε3 individuals (N=923). Larger sequencing studies and longitudinal follow-up are needed for confirmation. The combination of next-generation sequencing and quantitative imaging phenotypes holds significant promise for discovery of variants involved in neurodegeneration.

CARMA3 overexpression accelerates cell proliferation and inhibits paclitaxel-induced apoptosis through NF-κB regulation in breast cancer cells

CARMA3 was recently reported to be overexpressed in several cancers and associated with malignant behavior of cancer cells. However, the expression pattern and biological roles of CARMA3 in breast cancer have not been reported. In the present study, we found that CARMA3 was overexpressed in 41.9 % of breast cancer specimens. Significant association was observed between CARMA3 overexpression and TNM stage (p = 0.0223), tumor size (p = 0.0227), and ErbB-2 status (p = 0.0049). Furthermore, knockdown of CARMA3 expression in MDA-MB-435 cells with high endogenous expression decreased cell proliferation and sensitized cell to paclitaxel-induced apoptosis, while overexpression of CARMA3 in MDA-MB-231 cell line promoted cell proliferation and inhibited apoptosis. Further analysis showed that CARMA3 depletion downregulated, and its overexpression upregulated cyclin D1, Bcl-2, and p-IκB levels. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that CARMA3 is overexpressed in breast cancers. CARMA3 facilitates proliferation and inhibits apoptosis through nuclear factor-kappaB signaling.

PKC-theta-mediated signal delivery from the TCR/CD28 surface receptors

Protein kinase C-theta (PKCθ) is a key enzyme in T lymphocytes, where it plays an important role in signal transduction downstream of the activated T cell antigen receptor (TCR) and the CD28 costimulatory receptor. Interest in PKCθ as a potential drug target has increased following recent findings that PKCθ is essential for harmful inflammatory responses mediated by Th2 (allergies) and Th17 (autoimmunity) cells as well as for graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) and allograft rejection, but is dispensable for beneficial responses such as antiviral immunity and graft-versus-leukemia (GvL) response. TCR/CD28 engagement triggers the translocation of the cytosolic PKCθ to the plasma membrane (PM), where it localizes at the center of the immunological synapse (IS), which forms at the contact site between an antigen-specific T cell and antigen-presenting cells (APC). However, the molecular basis for this unique localization, and whether it is required for its proper function have remained unresolved issues until recently. Our recent study resolved these questions by demonstrating that the unique V3 (hinge) domain of PKCθ and, more specifically, a proline-rich motif within this domain, is essential and sufficient for its localization at the IS, where it is anchored to the cytoplasmic tail of CD28 via an indirect mechanism involving Lck protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) as an intermediate. Importantly, the association of PKCθ with CD28 is essential not only for IS localization, but also for PKCθ-mediated activation of downstream signaling pathways, including the transcription factors NF-κB and NF-AT, which are essential for productive T cell activation. Hence, interference with formation of the PKCθ-Lck-CD28 complex provides a promising basis for the design of novel, clinically useful allosteric PKCθ inhibitors. An additional recent study demonstrated that TCR triggering activates the germinal center kinase (GSK)-like kinase (GLK) and induces its association with the SLP-76 adaptor at the IS, where GLK phosphorylates the activation loop of PKCθ, converting it into an active enzyme. This recent progress, coupled with the need to study the biology of PKCθ in human T cells, is likely to facilitate the development of PKCθ-based therapeutic modalities for T cell-mediated diseases.

CARMA3 is overexpressed in colon cancer and regulates NF-κB activity and cyclin D1 expression

CARMA3 was recently reported to be overexpressed in cancers and associated with the malignant behavior of cancer cells. However, the expression of CARMA3 and its biological roles in colon cancer have not been reported. In the present study, we analyzed the expression pattern of CARMA3 in colon cancer tissues and found that CARMA3 was overexpressed in 30.8% of colon cancer specimens. There was a significant association between CARMA3 overexpression and TNM stage (p=0.0383), lymph node metastasis (p=0.0091) and Ki67 proliferation index (p=0.0035). Furthermore, knockdown of CARMA3 expression in HT29 and HCT116 cells with high endogenous expression decreased cell proliferation and cell cycle progression while overexpression of CARMA3 in LoVo cell line promoted cell proliferation and facilitated cell cycle transition. Further analysis showed that CARMA3 knockdown downregulated and its overexpression upregulated cyclin D1 expression and phospho-Rb levels. In addition, we found that CARMA3 depletion inhibited p-IκB levels and NF-κB activity and its overexpression increased p-IκB expression and NF-κB activity. NF-κB inhibitor BAY 11-7082 reversed the role of CARMA3 on cyclin D1 upregulation. In conclusion, our study found that CARMA3 is overexpressed in colon cancers and contributes to malignant cell growth by facilitating cell cycle progression through NF-κB mediated upregulation of cyclin D1.

Pathogenetic importance and therapeutic implications of NF-κB in lymphoid malignancies

Derangement of the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) pathway initiates and/or sustains many types of human cancer. B-cell malignancies are particularly affected by oncogenic mutations, translocations, and copy number alterations affecting key components the NF-κB pathway, most likely owing to the pervasive role of this pathway in normal B cells. These genetic aberrations cause tumors to be 'addicted' to NF-κB, which can be exploited therapeutically. Since each subtype of lymphoid cancer utilizes different mechanisms to activate NF-κB, several different therapeutic strategies are needed to address this pathogenetic heterogeneity. Fortunately, a number of drugs that block signaling cascades leading to NF-κB are in early phase clinical trials, several of which are already showing activity in lymphoid malignancies.

Regulation of NF-κB by the CARD proteins

Scaffold proteins play pivotal roles in the regulation of signal transduction pathways by connecting upstream receptors to downstream effector molecules. During the last decade, many scaffold proteins that contain caspase-recruitment domains (CARD) have been identified. Investigating the roles of CARD proteins has revealed that many of them play crucial roles in signaling cascades leading to activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). In this review, we discuss the contributions of CARD proteins to NF-κB activation in various signaling cascades. In particular, we share some of our personal experiences during the initial investigation of the functions of the CARMA family of CARD proteins and then summarize the roles of these proteins in signaling pathways induced by antigen receptors, G protein-coupled receptors, receptor tyrosine kinase, and C-type lectin receptors in the context of recent progress in these field.

Latent HIV-1 infection occurs in multiple subsets of hematopoietic progenitor cells and is reversed by NF-κB activation

The ability of HIV-1 to establish a latent infection presents a barrier to curing HIV. The best-studied reservoir of latent virus in vivo is resting memory CD4(+) T cells, but it has recently been shown that CD34(+) hematopoietic progenitor cells (HPCs) can also become latently infected by HIV-1 in vitro and in vivo. CD34(+) cells are not homogenous, however, and it is not yet known which types of CD34(+) cells support a latent infection. Furthermore, the mechanisms through which latency is established in this cell type are not yet known. Here we report the development of a primary cell model for latent HIV-1 infection in HPCs. We demonstrate that in this model, latent infection can be established in all subsets of HPCs examined, including HPCs with cell surface markers consistent with immature hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. We further show that the establishment of latent infection in these cells can be reversed by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) through an NF-κB-dependent mechanism. In contrast, we do not find evidence for a role of positive transcription elongation factor b (P-TEFb) in the establishment of latent infection in HPCs. Finally, we demonstrate that prostratin and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA), but not hexamethylene bisacetamide (HMBA) or 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine (Aza-CdR), reactivate latent HIV-1 in HPCs. These findings illuminate the mechanisms through which latent infection can be established in HPCs and suggest common pathways through which latent virus could be reactivated in both HPCs and resting memory T cells to eliminate latent reservoirs of HIV-1.

Overexpression of CARMA3 in non-small-cell lung cancer is linked for tumor progression

We aimed to investigate the clinical significance of the expression of novel scaffold protein CARMA3 in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and the biological function of CARMA3 in NSCLC cell lines. We observed moderate to high CARMA3 staining in 68.8% of 141 NSCLC specimens compared to corresponding normal tissues. The overexpression of CARMA3 was significantly correlated with TNM stage (P = 0.022) and tumor status (P = 0.013). CARMA3 upregulation also correlated with a shorter survival rate of patients of nodal status N0 (P = 0.042)as well as the expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) (P = 0.009). In EGFR mutation positive cases, CARMA3 expression was much higher (87.5%) compared to non-mutation cases (66.1%). In addition, we observed that knockdown of CARMA3 inhibits tumor cell proliferation and invasion, and induces cell cycle arrest at the boundary between the G1 and S phase. We further demonstrated a direct link between CARMA3 and NF-κB activation. The change of biological behavior in CARMA3 knockdown cells may be NF-κB-related. Our findings demonstrated, for the first time, that CARMA3 was overexpressed in NSCLC and correlated with lung cancer progression, EGFR expression, and EGFR mutation. CARMA3 could serve as a potential companion drug target, along with NF-kB and EGFR in EGFR-mutant lung cancers.

Alternative splicing of CARMA2/CARD14 transcripts generates protein variants with differential effect on NF-κB activation and endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced cell death

The caspase recruitment domain (CARD)-containing proteins CARMA1-3 share high degree of sequence, structure and functional homology. Whereas CARMA1 and CARMA3 have been identified as crucial components of signal transduction pathways that lead to activation of NF-κB transcription factor, little is known about the function of CARMA2. Here we report the identification of two splice variants of CARMA2. One transcript, named CARMA2short (CARMA2sh), is predicted to encode for a CARMA2 polypeptide containing the CARD, coiled coil, and a PDZ domains, but lacking the SH3 and the GuK domains. The second variant, CARMA2cardless (CARMA2cl), encodes for a polypeptide lacking the CARD domain and containing only a portion of the coiled coil domain and a linker region. Expression analysis confirmed the presence of the CARMA2 alternatively spliced transcripts in both human cell lines and tissues. Fluorescence microscopy data show that both splice variants localize in the cytosol. Biochemical experiments indicate that CARMA2sh interacts with TRAF2 and activates NF-κB in a TRAF2-dependent manner. Finally, CARMA2sh variant protects cells from apoptosis induced by different stimuli. Taken together, these results demonstrate that multiple transcripts encoding several CARMA2 isoforms exist in vivo and regulate NF-κB activation and apoptosis. J. Cell. Physiol. 226: 3121–3131, 2011. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

MALT lymphoma: many roads lead to nuclear factor-κb activation

Extranodal marginal zone lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma is characterized genetically by several recurrent, but mutually exclusive, chromosome translocations. To date, it has been shown that at least the oncogenic products of t(1;14)(p22;q32)/BCL10-IGH, t(14;18)(q32;21)/IGH-MALT1 and t(11;18)(q21;q21)/API2-MALT1 activate the nuclear factor (NF)-κB activation pathway. Recently, A20, an essential global NF-κB inhibitor, was found to be inactivated by somatic deletion and/or mutation in translocation-negative MALT lymphomas. However, these genetic abnormalities alone are not sufficient for malignant transformation and thus need to cooperate with other factors in MALT lymphomagenesis. Recent studies have shown steady, exciting progresses in our understanding of the biological functions of BCL10, MALT1 and A20 in the regulation of the NF-κB activation pathways and the biology of lymphocytes. This review discusses the implication of these recent advances in the molecular pathogenesis of MALT lymphoma, and explores how the above genetic abnormalities cooperate with immunological stimulation in the development of lymphoma.

From MALT lymphoma to the CBM signalosome: three decades of discovery

The advent of molecular cytogenetics has led to the elucidation of genetic abnormalities that cause various congenital and oncological disorders. In B cell lymphoma, for example, a number of chromosomal translocations have been identified in and associated with the etiology of specific subtypes of lymphoma. Several recurrent chromosomal translocations have been identified in extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT lymphoma). Cloning and characterization of the products of three mutually exclusive translocation breakpoints found in MALT lymphoma led to the discovery of a novel NF-κB-activating complex comprising the CARMA, Bcl10, and MALT1 proteins. This "CBM signalosome" acts downstream of the antigen receptors in lymphocytes as well as a number of non-lymphoid cell-surface receptors involved in a variety of biological processes. CBM signalosome activity is important for normal cellular functions and is perturbed in neoplastic and inflammatory disorders, making it a viable target for novel therapeutic design.

CARMA3 is crucial for EGFR-Induced activation of NF-κB and tumor progression

EGF activates NF-κB, and constitutively activated NF-κB contributes to EGFR mutation-associated tumorigenesis, but it remains unclear precisely how EGFR signaling leads to NF-κB activation. Here we report that CARMA3, a caspase recruitment domain (CARD)-containing scaffold molecule, is required for EGF-induced NF-κB activation. CARMA3 deficiency impaired the activation of the IKK complex following EGF stimulation, resulting in a defect of EGF-induced IκBα phosphorylation and NF-κB activation. We found that CARMA3 and Bcl10 contributed to several characteristics of EGFR-associated malignancy, including proliferation, survival, migration, and invasion. Most importantly, CARMA3 contributed to tumor growth in vivo. Our findings elucidate a crucial link between EGFR-proximal signaling components and the downstream IKK complex, and they suggest a new therapeutic target for treatment of EGFR-driven cancers.