1
|
Liu H, Dang R, Zhang W, Hong J, Li X. SNARE proteins: Core engines of membrane fusion in cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2024:189148. [PMID: 38960006 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2024.189148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 06/23/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Vesicles are loaded with a variety of cargoes, including membrane proteins, secreted proteins, signaling molecules, and various enzymes, etc. Not surprisingly, vesicle transport is essential for proper cellular life activities including growth, division, movement and cellular communication. Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) mediate membrane fusion of vesicles with their target compartments that is fundamental for cargo delivery. Recent studies have shown that multiple SNARE family members are aberrantly expressed in human cancers and actively contribute to malignant proliferation, invasion, metastasis, immune evasion and treatment resistance. Here, the localization and function of SNARE proteins in eukaryotic cells are firstly mapped. Then we summarize the expression and regulation of SNAREs in cancer, and describe their contribution to cancer progression and mechanisms, and finally we propose engineering botulinum toxin as a strategy to target SNAREs for cancer treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hongyi Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Brain Tumor Research, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Ruiyue Dang
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Brain Tumor Research, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Jidong Hong
- Department of Oncology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
| | - Xuejun Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Hunan International Scientific and Technological Cooperation Base of Brain Tumor Research, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Wojick JA, Paranjapye A, Chiu JK, Mahmood M, Oswell C, Kimmey BA, Wooldridge LM, McCall NM, Han A, Ejoh LL, Chehimi SN, Crist RC, Reiner BC, Korb E, Corder G. A nociceptive amygdala-striatal pathway for chronic pain aversion. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.12.579947. [PMID: 38405972 PMCID: PMC10888915 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.12.579947] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
The basolateral amygdala (BLA) is essential for assigning positive or negative valence to sensory stimuli. Noxious stimuli that cause pain are encoded by an ensemble of nociceptive BLA projection neurons (BLAnoci ensemble). However, the role of the BLAnoci ensemble in mediating behavior changes and the molecular signatures and downstream targets distinguishing this ensemble remain poorly understood. Here, we show that the same BLAnoci ensemble neurons are required for both acute and chronic neuropathic pain behavior. Using single nucleus RNA-sequencing, we characterized the effect of acute and chronic pain on the BLA and identified enrichment for genes with known functions in axonal and synaptic organization and pain perception. We thus examined the brain-wide targets of the BLAnoci ensemble and uncovered a previously undescribed nociceptive hotspot of the nucleus accumbens shell (NAcSh) that mirrors the stability and specificity of the BLAnoci ensemble and is recruited in chronic pain. Notably, BLAnoci ensemble axons transmit acute and neuropathic nociceptive information to the NAcSh, highlighting this nociceptive amygdala-striatal circuit as a unique pathway for affective-motivational responses across pain states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Wojick
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Biology, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Alekh Paranjapye
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Juliann K Chiu
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Malaika Mahmood
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Corinna Oswell
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Blake A Kimmey
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lisa M Wooldridge
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nora M McCall
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Alan Han
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Lindsay L Ejoh
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Samar Nasser Chehimi
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Richard C Crist
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Benjamin C Reiner
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Erica Korb
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Gregory Corder
- Dept. of Psychiatry, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
- Dept. of Neuroscience, Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tan J, Lu Y, Li H, Sun H, Han W, Zhang J. Functional analysis of circSTX8 in chicken macrophages under lipopolysaccharide stimulation. Res Vet Sci 2023; 165:105053. [PMID: 37856945 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2023.105053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have a regulatory role in gene expression, development, differentiation, and immune response. In a previous study, circular RNA STX8 (circSTX8) exhibited low expression in chicken lungs during lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing showed that circSTX8 was created by back-splicing of exons 5 to 6 of STX8. RNase R exonuclease treatment indicated that circSTX8 was a stable circular RNA. RT-qPCR showed that circSTX8 was highly expressed in cecum, spleen, harderian gland, stomach, thymus, liver, small intestine, and lung instead of that in muscle, cerebrum, and cerebellum (n = 8). Chicken macrophages were then divided into four groups: control, overexpression of circSTX8 group, LPS group, and overexpression of circSTX8 + LPS group. CCK8 and RT-qPCR showed that circSTX8 can exacerbate the cellular injury induced by LPS, resulting in a reduction of cell viability and an increase of the pro-inflammatory cytokines expression. In addition, four miRNAs were identified to interact with circSTX8, potentially targeting 914 genes, which were significantly enriched in the pathways of Tight junction, mTOR signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, TGF-beta signaling pathway, Notch signaling pathway, ErbB signaling pathway, and Cell adhesion molecules. These findings showed that circSTX8 was able to regulate the LPS induced cellular immune and inflammatory response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jishuang Tan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Yue Lu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Huan Li
- School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Yangzhou Polytechnic College, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Hongyan Sun
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China.
| | - Wei Han
- The Poultry Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Yangzhou, China
| | - Jibin Zhang
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Comprehensive Cancer Center, City of Hope, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Haas-Neil S, Dvorkin-Gheva A, Forsythe P. Severe, but not moderate asthmatics share blood transcriptomic changes with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275864. [PMID: 36206293 PMCID: PMC9543640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Asthma, an inflammatory disorder of the airways, is one of the most common chronic illnesses worldwide and is associated with significant morbidity. There is growing recognition of an association between asthma and mood disorders including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD). Although there are several hypotheses regarding the relationship between asthma and mental health, there is little understanding of underlying mechanisms and causality. In the current study we utilized publicly available datasets of human blood mRNA collected from patients with severe and moderate asthma, MDD, and PTSD. We performed differential expression (DE) analysis and Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) on diseased subjects against the healthy subjects from their respective datasets, compared the results between diseases, and validated DE genes and gene sets with 4 more independent datasets. Our analysis revealed that commonalities in blood transcriptomic changes were only found between the severe form of asthma and mood disorders. Gene expression commonly regulated in PTSD and severe asthma, included ORMDL3 a gene known to be associated with asthma risk and STX8, which is involved in TrkA signaling. We also identified several pathways commonly regulated to both MDD and severe asthma. This study reveals gene and pathway regulation that potentially drives the comorbidity between severe asthma, PTSD, and MDD and may serve as foci for future research aimed at gaining a better understanding of both the relationship between asthma and PTSD, and the pathophysiology of the individual disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandor Haas-Neil
- The Brain Body Institute, St. Joseph’s Hospital, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anna Dvorkin-Gheva
- McMaster Immunology Research Centre, Department of Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Paul Forsythe
- Alberta Respiratory Centre, Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chen B, Sang Y, Song X, Zhang D, Wang L, Zhao W, Liang Y, Zhang N, Yang Q. Exosomal miR-500a-5p derived from cancer-associated fibroblasts promotes breast cancer cell proliferation and metastasis through targeting USP28. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:3932-3947. [PMID: 33664871 PMCID: PMC7914354 DOI: 10.7150/thno.53412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment contributes to tumor progression and metastasis. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) form a major cellular component of the tumor microenvironment. In this study, we further explored the mechanisms underlying the tumor-promoting roles of CAFs. Methods: Patient-derived CAFs and normal fibroblasts (NFs) were isolated from breast carcinomas and adjacent normal breast tissue. Exosomes were isolated by ultracentrifugation and CAF-derived exosomal microRNAs were screened using next-generation sequencing technology. MiR-500a-5p expression was assessed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and in situ hybridization; Tumor cell proliferation was determined by MTT assays and three-dimensioned (3D) cultures, and tumor metastasis was determined by Transwell assays in vitro. In vivo assays were performed in a nude mouse subcutaneous xenograft model. Results: We confirmed that CAF-derived exosomes significantly promoted the proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer cells. MiR-500a-5p was highly expressed in MDA-MB-231 and MCF7 cells treated with CAF-derived exosomes. The upregulation of miR-500a-5p was also confirmed in CAFs and CAF-derived exosomes. MiR-500a-5p was transferred from CAFs to the cancer cells, and subsequently promoted proliferation and metastasis by binding to ubiquitin-specific peptidase 28 (USP28). Conclusions: The present study demonstrates that CAFs promote breast cancer progression and metastasis via exosomal miR-500a-5p and indicate that inhibiting CAF-derived miR-500a-5p is an alternative modality for the treatment of breast cancer.
Collapse
|
6
|
Ferrero Restelli F, Fontanet PA, De Vincenti AP, Falzone TL, Ledda F, Paratcha G. Tetraspanin1 promotes NGF signaling by controlling TrkA receptor proteostasis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 77:2217-2233. [PMID: 31440771 PMCID: PMC11104797 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-019-03282-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms that control the biosynthetic trafficking, surface delivery, and degradation of TrkA receptor are essential for proper nerve growth factor (NGF) function, and remain poorly understood. Here, we identify Tetraspanin1 (Tspan1) as a critical regulator of TrkA signaling and neuronal differentiation induced by NGF. Tspan1 is expressed by developing TrkA-positive dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons and its downregulation in sensory neurons inhibits NGF-mediated axonal growth. In addition, our data demonstrate that Tspan1 forms a molecular complex with the immature form of TrkA localized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Finally, knockdown of Tspan1 reduces the surface levels of TrkA by promoting its preferential sorting towards the autophagy/lysosomal degradation pathway. Together, these data establish a novel homeostatic role of Tspan1, coordinating the biosynthetic trafficking and degradation of TrkA, regardless the presence of NGF.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Facundo Ferrero Restelli
- División de Neurobiología Molecular y Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), CP1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Paula Aldana Fontanet
- División de Neurobiología Molecular y Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), CP1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana Paula De Vincenti
- División de Neurobiología Molecular y Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), CP1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Tomás Luis Falzone
- Laboratorio de Transporte Axonal y Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), CP1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernanda Ledda
- División de Neurobiología Molecular y Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), CP1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Fundación Instituto Leloir, Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de Buenos Aires (IIBBA), CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gustavo Paratcha
- División de Neurobiología Molecular y Celular, Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias (IBCN)-CONICET-UBA, Facultad de Medicina, University of Buenos Aires (UBA), CP1121, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Sensitization of the transient receptor potential ion channel vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) is critically involved in inflammatory pain. To date, manifold signaling cascades have been shown to converge onto TRPV1 and enhance its sensitization. However, many of them also play a role for nociceptive pain, which limits their utility as targets for therapeutic intervention. Here, we show that the vesicle transport through interaction with t-SNAREs homolog 1B (Vti1b) protein promotes TRPV1 sensitization upon inflammation in cell culture but leaves normal functioning of TRPV1 intact. Importantly, the effect of Vti1b can be recapitulated in vivo: Virus-mediated knockdown of Vti1b in sensory neurons attenuated thermal hypersensitivity during inflammatory pain without affecting mechanical hypersensitivity or capsaicin-induced nociceptive pain. Interestingly, TRPV1 and Vti1b are localized in close vicinity as indicated by proximity ligation assays and are likely to bind to each other, either directly or indirectly, as suggested by coimmunoprecipitations. Moreover, using a mass spectrometry-based quantitative interactomics approach, we show that Vti1b is less abundant in TRPV1 protein complexes during inflammatory conditions compared with controls. Alongside, we identify numerous novel and pain state-dependent binding partners of native TRPV1 in dorsal root ganglia. These data represent a unique resource on the dynamics of the TRPV1 interactome and facilitate mechanistic insights into TRPV1 regulation. We propose that inflammation-related differences in the TRPV1 interactome identified here could be exploited to specifically target inflammatory pain in the future.
Collapse
|
8
|
Dingjan I, Linders PTA, Verboogen DRJ, Revelo NH, Ter Beest M, van den Bogaart G. Endosomal and Phagosomal SNAREs. Physiol Rev 2018; 98:1465-1492. [PMID: 29790818 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00037.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein family is of vital importance for organelle communication. The complexing of cognate SNARE members present in both the donor and target organellar membranes drives the membrane fusion required for intracellular transport. In the endocytic route, SNARE proteins mediate trafficking between endosomes and phagosomes with other endosomes, lysosomes, the Golgi apparatus, the plasma membrane, and the endoplasmic reticulum. The goal of this review is to provide an overview of the SNAREs involved in endosomal and phagosomal trafficking. Of the 38 SNAREs present in humans, 30 have been identified at endosomes and/or phagosomes. Many of these SNAREs are targeted by viruses and intracellular pathogens, which thereby reroute intracellular transport for gaining access to nutrients, preventing their degradation, and avoiding their detection by the immune system. A fascinating picture is emerging of a complex transport network with multiple SNAREs being involved in consecutive trafficking routes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilse Dingjan
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands ; and Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - Peter T A Linders
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands ; and Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - Danielle R J Verboogen
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands ; and Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - Natalia H Revelo
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands ; and Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - Martin Ter Beest
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands ; and Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| | - Geert van den Bogaart
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands ; and Department of Molecular Immunology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen , Groningen , The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Paddock N, Sheppard P, Gardiner P. Chronic Increases in Daily Neuromuscular Activity Promote Changes in Gene Expression in Small and Large Dorsal Root Ganglion Neurons in Rat. Neuroscience 2018; 388:171-180. [PMID: 30031124 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the response, in rat, to chronic physical activity in small and large DRG neurons. Rats were cage-confined or underwent 16-18 weeks of daily increased activity, via 2 h of treadmill running per day or free access to voluntary exercise wheels, following which small (≤30 µm) and large (≥40 µm) diameter DRG neurons were harvested by laser capture microdissection from flash-frozen lumbar DRGs. Relative mRNA levels were determined using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Following chronic treadmill and voluntary wheel exercise, gene expression responses in neurons mostly differed between exercise types. Changes in both small and large DRG neurons included increases in opioid receptor mu subunit (MOR), NGF and GAP43, and decreases in 5HT1A, TrkA, TrkB, and delta-type opioid receptor (DOR) mRNAs. In small DRG neurons, treadmill exercise increased the expression of mRNA for 5HT1D and decreased expression for 5HT1F receptors. In large DRG neurons, voluntary wheel exercise decreased the expression for 5HT1D receptors, whereas both treadmill and voluntary wheel exercise decreased the expression of mRNA for TrkC receptors. DRG neurons show slightly more changes in gene expression after voluntary exercise compared to the treadmill exercise group. Small and large lumbar sensory neurons are responsive to chronically increased neuromuscular activity by changing the expression of genes, the products of which could potentially change the sensory processing of nociceptors and proprioceptors, which could in turn alter functions such as pain transmission and locomotor coordination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Paddock
- Spinal Cord Research Center, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Patricia Sheppard
- Spinal Cord Research Center, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Phillip Gardiner
- Spinal Cord Research Center, Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zheng C, Wang S, Bai Y, Luo T, Wang J, Dai C, Guo B, Luo S, Wang D, Yang Y, Wang Y. Lentiviral Vectors and Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors: Useful Tools for Gene Transfer in Pain Research. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:825-836. [PMID: 29149775 PMCID: PMC6585677 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pain, especially chronic pain, has always been a heated point in both basic and clinical researches since it puts heavy burdens on both individuals and the whole society. A better understanding of the role of biological molecules and various ionic channels involved in pain can shed light on the mechanism under pain and advocate the development of pain management. Using viral vectors to transfer specific genes at targeted sites is a promising method for both research and clinical applications. Lentiviral vectors and adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors which allow stable and long-term expression of transgene in non-dividing cells are widely applied in pain research. In this review, we thoroughly outline the structure, category, advantages and disadvantages and the delivery methods of lentiviral and AAV vectors. The methods through which lentiviral and AAV vectors are delivered to targeted sites are closely related with the sites, level and period of transgene expression. Focus is placed on the various delivery methods applied to deliver vectors to spinal cord and dorsal root ganglion both of which play important roles in primary nociception. Our goal is to provide insight into the features of these two viral vectors and which administration approach can be chosen for different pain researches. Anat Rec, 301:825-836, 2018. © 2017 The Authors. The Anatomical Record published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American Association of Anatomists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chen‐Xi Zheng
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Sheng‐Ming Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Yun‐Hu Bai
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xi‐Jing HospitalThe Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Ting‐Ting Luo
- Department of Neurobiology and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, School of Basic MedicineThe Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Jia‐Qi Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Chun‐Qiu Dai
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Bao‐Lin Guo
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Shi‐Cheng Luo
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Dong‐Hui Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Yan‐Ling Yang
- Department of Hepatobiliary Surgery, Xi‐Jing HospitalThe Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| | - Ya‐Yun Wang
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and EmbryologyK.K. Leung Brain Research Centre, The Fourth Military Medical UniversityXi'an 710032China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Critchley WR, Pellet-Many C, Ringham-Terry B, Harrison MA, Zachary IC, Ponnambalam S. Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Ubiquitination and De-Ubiquitination in Signal Transduction and Receptor Trafficking. Cells 2018; 7:E22. [PMID: 29543760 PMCID: PMC5870354 DOI: 10.3390/cells7030022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are membrane-based sensors that enable rapid communication between cells and their environment. Evidence is now emerging that interdependent regulatory mechanisms, such as membrane trafficking, ubiquitination, proteolysis and gene expression, have substantial effects on RTK signal transduction and cellular responses. Different RTKs exhibit both basal and ligand-stimulated ubiquitination, linked to trafficking through different intracellular compartments including the secretory pathway, plasma membrane, endosomes and lysosomes. The ubiquitin ligase superfamily comprising the E1, E2 and E3 enzymes are increasingly implicated in this post-translational modification by adding mono- and polyubiquitin tags to RTKs. Conversely, removal of these ubiquitin tags by proteases called de-ubiquitinases (DUBs) enables RTK recycling for another round of ligand sensing and signal transduction. The endocytosis of basal and activated RTKs from the plasma membrane is closely linked to controlled proteolysis after trafficking and delivery to late endosomes and lysosomes. Proteolytic RTK fragments can also have the capacity to move to compartments such as the nucleus and regulate gene expression. Such mechanistic diversity now provides new opportunities for modulating RTK-regulated cellular responses in health and disease states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- William R Critchley
- Endothelial Cell Biology Unit, School of Molecular & Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| | - Caroline Pellet-Many
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology & Medicine, Rayne Building, University College London, London WC1E 6PT, UK.
| | - Benjamin Ringham-Terry
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology & Medicine, Rayne Building, University College London, London WC1E 6PT, UK.
| | | | - Ian C Zachary
- Centre for Cardiovascular Biology & Medicine, Rayne Building, University College London, London WC1E 6PT, UK.
| | - Sreenivasan Ponnambalam
- Endothelial Cell Biology Unit, School of Molecular & Cellular Biology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Chartier SR, Mitchell SA, Majuta LA, Mantyh PW. Immunohistochemical localization of nerve growth factor, tropomyosin receptor kinase A, and p75 in the bone and articular cartilage of the mouse femur. Mol Pain 2017; 13:1744806917745465. [PMID: 29166838 PMCID: PMC5724636 DOI: 10.1177/1744806917745465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequestration of nerve growth factor (NGF) significantly attenuates skeletal pain in both animals and humans. However, relatively little is known about the specific cell types that express NGF or its cognate receptors tropomyosin receptor kinase A (TrkA) and p75 in the intact bone and articular cartilage. In the present study, antibodies raised against NGF, TrkA, and p75 (also known as CD271) were used to explore the expression of these antigens in the non-decalcified young mouse femur. In general, all three antigens displayed a remarkably restricted expression in bone and cartilage with less than 2% of all DAPI+ cells in the femur displaying expression of any one of the three antigens. Robust NGF immunoreactivity was found in mostly CD-31− blood vessel-associated cells, a small subset of CD-31+ endothelial cells, an unidentified group of cells located at the subchondral bone/articular cartilage interface, and a few isolated, single cells in the bone marrow. In contrast, p75 and TrkA were almost exclusively expressed by nerve fibers located nearby NGF+ blood vessels. The only non-neuronal expression of either p75 or TrkA in the femur was the expression of p75 by a subset of cells located in the deep and middle zone of the articular cartilage. Understanding the factors that tightly regulate the basal level of expression in normal bone and how the expression of NGF, TrkA, and p75 change in injury, disease, and aging may provide insights into novel therapies that can reduce skeletal pain and improve skeletal health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lisa A Majuta
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Patrick W Mantyh
- 1 Department of Pharmacology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,2 Cancer Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Wang T, Li L, Hong W. SNARE proteins in membrane trafficking. Traffic 2017; 18:767-775. [PMID: 28857378 DOI: 10.1111/tra.12524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
SNAREs are the core machinery mediating membrane fusion. In this review, we provide an update on the recent progress on SNAREs regulating membrane fusion events, especially the more detailed fusion processes dissected by well-developed biophysical methods and in vitro single molecule analysis approaches. We also briefly summarize the relevant research from Chinese laboratories and highlight the significant contributions on our understanding of SNARE-mediated membrane trafficking from scientists in China.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tuanlao Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Liangcheng Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Wanjin Hong
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China.,Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research), Singapore, Singapore
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Uzdensky A, Demyanenko S, Fedorenko G, Lapteva T, Fedorenko A. Protein Profile and Morphological Alterations in Penumbra after Focal Photothrombotic Infarction in the Rat Cerebral Cortex. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:4172-4188. [PMID: 27324898 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9964-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
After ischemic stroke, cell damage propagates from infarct core to surrounding tissues (penumbra). To reveal proteins involved in neurodegeneration and neuroprotection in penumbra, we studied protein expression changes in 2-mm ring around the core of photothrombotic infarct induced in the rat brain cortex by local laser irradiation after administration of Bengal Rose. The ultrastructural study showed edema and degeneration of neurons, glia, and capillaries. Morphological changes gradually decreased across the penumbra. Using the antibody microarrays, we studied changes in expression of >200 neuronal proteins in penumbra 4 or 24 h after focal photothrombotic infarct. Diverse cellular subsystems were involved in the penumbra tissue response: signal transduction pathways such as protein kinase Bα/GSK-3, protein kinase C and its β1 and β2 isoforms, Wnt/β-catenin (axin1, GSK-3, FRAT1), Notch/NUMB, DYRK1A, TDP43; mitochondria quality control (Pink1, parkin, HtrA2); ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis (ubiquilin-1, UCHL1); axon outgrowth and guidance (NAV-3, CRMP2, PKCβ2); vesicular trafficking (syntaxin-8, TMP21, Munc-18-3, synip, ALS2, VILIP1, syntaxin, synaptophysin, synaptotagmin); biosynthesis of neuromediators (tryptophan hydroxylase, monoamine oxidase B, glutamate decarboxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase, DOPA decarboxylase, dopamine transporter); intercellular interactions (N-cadherin, PMP22); cytoskeleton (neurofilament 68, neurofilament-M, doublecortin); and other proteins (LRP1, prion protein, β-amyloid). These proteins are involved in neurodegeneration or neuroprotection. Such changes were most expressed 4 h after photothrombotic impact. Immunohistochemical and Western blot studies of expression of monoamine oxidase B, UCHL1, DYRK1A, and Munc-18-3 confirmed the proteomic data. These data provide the integral view on the penumbra response to photothrombotic infarct. Some of these proteins can be potential targets for ischemic stroke therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anatoly Uzdensky
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, 194/1 Stachky pr., Rostov-on-Don, 344090, Russia.
| | - Svetlana Demyanenko
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, 194/1 Stachky pr., Rostov-on-Don, 344090, Russia
| | - Grigory Fedorenko
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, 194/1 Stachky pr., Rostov-on-Don, 344090, Russia.,Institute of Arid Zones, Southern Scientific Center of Russian Academy of Sciences, 41 Chekhov prosp., Rostov-on-Don, 344006, Russia
| | - Tayana Lapteva
- Regional Consulting and Diagnostic Center, 127 Pushkinskaya st., Rostov-on-Don, 344010, Russia
| | - Alexej Fedorenko
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Academy of Biology and Biotechnology, Southern Federal University, 194/1 Stachky pr., Rostov-on-Don, 344090, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Chang DS, Hsu E, Hottinger DG, Cohen SP. Anti-nerve growth factor in pain management: current evidence. J Pain Res 2016; 9:373-83. [PMID: 27354823 PMCID: PMC4908933 DOI: 10.2147/jpr.s89061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
There continues to be an unmet need for safe and effective pain medications. Opioids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) dominate the clinical landscape despite limited effectiveness and considerable side-effect profiles. Although significant advancements have identified myriad potential pain targets over the past several decades, the majority of new pain pharmacotherapies have failed to come to market. The discovery of nerve growth factor (NGF) and its interaction with tropomyosin receptor kinase A (trkA) have been well characterized as important mediators of pain initiation and maintenance, and pharmacotherapies targeting this pathway have the potential to be considered promising methods in the treatment of a variety of nociceptive and neuropathic pain conditions. Several methodologic approaches, including sequestration of free NGF, prevention of NGF binding and trkA activation, and inhibition of trkA function, have been investigated in the development of new pharmacotherapies. Among these, NGF-sequestering antibodies have exhibited the most promise in clinical trials. However, in 2010, reports of rapid joint destruction leading to joint replacement prompted the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to place a hold on all clinical trials involving anti-NGF antibodies. Although the FDA has since lifted this hold and a number of new trials are under way, the long-term efficacy and safety profile of anti-NGF antibodies are yet to be established.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David S Chang
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Eugene Hsu
- Clinical Excellence Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Daniel G Hottinger
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven P Cohen
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Department of Anesthesiology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD, USA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Gupta B, Chakraborty S, Saha S, Chandel SG, Baranwal AK, Banerjee M, Chatterjee M, Chaudhury A. Antinociceptive properties of shikonin: in vitro and in vivo studies. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2016; 94:788-96. [PMID: 27223482 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2015-0465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Shikonin possess a diverse spectrum of pharmacological properties in multiple therapeutic areas. However, the nociceptive effect of shikonin is not largely known. To investigate the antinociceptive potential of shikonin, panel of GPCRs, ion channels, and enzymes involved in pain pathogenesis were studied. To evaluate the translation of shikonin efficacy in vivo, it was tested in 3 established rat pain models. Our study reveals that shikonin has significant inhibitory effect on pan sodium channel/N1E115 and NaV1.7 channel with half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of 7.6 μmol/L and 6.4 μmol/L, respectively, in a cell-based assay. Shikonin exerted significant dose dependent antinociceptive activity at doses of 0.08%, 0.05%, and 0.02% w/v in pinch pain model. In mechanical hyperalgesia model, dose of 10 and 3 mg/kg (intraperitoneal) produced dose-dependent analgesia and showed 67% and 35% reversal of hyperalgesia respectively at 0.5 h. Following oral administration, it showed 39% reversal at 30 mg/kg dose. When tested in first phase of formalin induced pain, shikonin at 10 mg/kg dose inhibited paw flinching by ∼71%. In all studied preclinical models, analgesic effect was similar or better than standard analgesic drugs. The present study unveils the mechanistic role of shikonin on pain modulation, predominantly via sodium channel modulation, suggesting that shikonin could be developed as a potential pain blocker.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bhawana Gupta
- a Department of Bio and Nano Technology, Bio and Nano Technology Centre, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar 125 001 (Haryana), India.,b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Sabyasachi Chakraborty
- b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Soumya Saha
- b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Sunita Gulabsingh Chandel
- b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Atul Kumar Baranwal
- b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Manish Banerjee
- b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Mousumi Chatterjee
- b TCG Life Sciences Private Ltd., R&D Centre Biology, Bengal Intelligent Park Ltd., Block EP and GP, Sector V, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700091 (West Bengal), India
| | - Ashok Chaudhury
- a Department of Bio and Nano Technology, Bio and Nano Technology Centre, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar 125 001 (Haryana), India
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Golebiewska EM, Harper MT, Williams CM, Savage JS, Goggs R, Fischer von Mollard G, Poole AW. Syntaxin 8 regulates platelet dense granule secretion, aggregation, and thrombus stability. J Biol Chem 2014; 290:1536-45. [PMID: 25404741 PMCID: PMC4340400 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.602615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Platelet secretion not only drives thrombosis and hemostasis, but also mediates a variety of other physiological and pathological processes. The ubiquitous SNARE machinery and a number of accessory proteins have been implicated in regulating secretion in platelet. Although several platelet SNAREs have been identified, further members of the SNARE family may be needed to fine-tune platelet secretion. In this study we identified expression of the t-SNARE syntaxin 8 (STX8) (Qc SNARE) in mouse and human platelets. In mouse studies, whereas STX8 was not essential for α-granule or lysosome secretion, Stx8−/− platelets showed a significant defect in dense granule secretion in response to thrombin and CRP. This was most pronounced at intermediate concentrations of agonists. They also showed an aggregation defect that could be rescued with exogenous ADP and increased embolization in Stx8−/− mice in vivo consistent with an important autocrine and paracrine role for ADP in aggregation and thrombus stabilization. STX8 therefore specifically contributes to dense granule secretion and represents another member of a growing family of genes that play distinct roles in regulating granule release from platelets and thus platelet function in thrombosis and hemostasis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina M Golebiewska
- From the School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew T Harper
- From the School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher M Williams
- From the School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua S Savage
- the School of Cancer Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Goggs
- the Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, and
| | | | - Alastair W Poole
- From the School of Physiology and Pharmacology, Medical Sciences Building, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom,
| |
Collapse
|