TIA proteins are necessary but not sufficient for the tissue-specific splicing of the myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1

Cooperative Binding of SRSF3 to Structured 3'ss-α Exon RNA during α Exon Inclusion in the ZO-1 mRNA

ZO-1α+ and ZO-1α- proteins are expressed in hermetic and leaky tight junctions, respectively. Two cis-acting distant exonic elements partly activate the 240 nucleotide-long α exon producing the ZO-1α+ isoform. However, the elements within and around the α exon and their respective factors involved in its splicing are unknown. To study the dynamic interaction between SRSF3 and its bioinformatically predicted target sites around the 3'ss upstream of the α exon during its activation, we performed EMSA, crosslinking, and in vivo splicing assays by ZO-1 minigene expression and siRNA-mediated silencing in transfected cells. Using V1 RNase, we probed the possible formation of a hairpin RNA structure between the intronic and proximal exonic SRSF3 binding sites. The hairpin sufficed for complex formations in the EMSA. The interaction of SRSF3 with the intronic site promoted the cooperative binding of SRSF3 to the exonic site. Finally, SRSF3 restored α exon activation in SRSF3 knockdown transfectants. Altogether, our results show that SRSF3-hairpin RNA interaction is crucial in the early recognition of 3'ss for α exon activation. It remains to be explored whether SRSF3 recruits or stabilizes the binding of other factors or brings separate splice sites into proximity.

T-Cell Intracellular Antigen 1-Like Protein in Physiology and Pathology

T-cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1)-related/like (TIAR/TIAL1) protein is a multifunctional RNA-binding protein (RBP) involved in regulating many aspects of gene expression, independently or in combination with its paralog TIA1. TIAR was first described in 1992 by Paul Anderson’s lab in relation to the development of a cell death phenotype in immune system cells, as it possesses nucleolytic activity against cytotoxic lymphocyte target cells. Similar to TIA1, it is characterized by a subcellular nucleo-cytoplasmic localization and ubiquitous expression in the cells of different tissues of higher organisms. In this paper, we review the relevant structural and functional information available about TIAR from a triple perspective (molecular, cellular and pathophysiological), paying special attention to its expression and regulation in cellular events and processes linked to human pathophysiology.

Principles and correction of 5'-splice site selection

In Eukarya, immature mRNA transcripts (pre-mRNA) often contain coding sequences, or exons, interleaved by non-coding sequences, or introns. Introns are removed upon splicing, and further regulation of the retained exons leads to alternatively spliced mRNA. The splicing reaction requires the stepwise assembly of the spliceosome, a macromolecular machine composed of small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). This review focuses on the early stage of spliceosome assembly, when U1 snRNP defines each intron 5'-splice site (5'ss) in the pre-mRNA. We first introduce the splicing reaction and the impact of alternative splicing on gene expression regulation. Thereafter, we extensively discuss splicing descriptors that influence the 5'ss selection by U1 snRNP, such as sequence determinants, and interactions mediated by U1-specific proteins or U1 small nuclear RNA (U1 snRNA). We also include examples of diseases that affect the 5'ss selection by U1 snRNP, and discuss recent therapeutic advances that manipulate U1 snRNP 5'ss selectivity with antisense oligonucleotides and small-molecule splicing switches.

The RNAissance family: SR proteins as multifaceted regulators of gene expression

Serine and arginine-rich (SR) proteins play multiple roles in the eukaryotic gene expression pathway. Initially described as constitutive and alternative splicing factors, now it is clear that SR proteins are key determinants of exon identity and function as molecular adaptors, linking the pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) to the splicing machinery. In addition, now SR proteins are implicated in many aspects of mRNA and noncoding RNA (ncRNA) processing well beyond splicing. These unexpected roles, including RNA transcription, export, translation, and decay, may prove to be the rule rather than the exception. To simply define, this family of RNA-binding proteins as splicing factors belies the broader roles of SR proteins in post-transcriptional gene expression.

Distinct binding properties of TIAR RRMs and linker region

The RNA-binding protein TIAR is an mRNA-binding protein that acts as a translational repressor, particularly important under conditions of cellular stress. It binds to target mRNA and DNA via its RNA recognition motif (RRM) domains and is involved in both splicing regulation and translational repression via the formation of "stress granules." TIAR has also been shown to bind ssDNA and play a role in the regulation of transcription. Here we show, using surface plasmon resonance and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, specific roles of individual TIAR domains for high-affinity binding to RNA and DNA targets. We confirm that RRM2 of TIAR is the major RNA- and DNA-binding domain. However, the strong nanomolar affinity binding to U-rich RNA and T-rich DNA depends on the presence of the six amino acid residues found in the linker region C-terminal to RRM2. On its own, RRM1 shows preferred binding to DNA over RNA. We further characterize the interaction between RRM2 with the C-terminal extension and an AU-rich target RNA sequence using NMR spectroscopy to identify the amino acid residues involved in binding. We demonstrate that TIAR RRM2, together with its C-terminal extension, is the major contributor for the high-affinity (nM) interactions of TIAR with target RNA sequences.

Different modes of interaction by TIAR and HuR with target RNA and DNA

TIAR and HuR are mRNA-binding proteins that play important roles in the regulation of translation. They both possess three RNA recognition motifs (RRMs) and bind to AU-rich elements (AREs), with seemingly overlapping specificity. Here we show using SPR that TIAR and HuR bind to both U-rich and AU-rich RNA in the nanomolar range, with higher overall affinity for U-rich RNA. However, the higher affinity for U–rich sequences is mainly due to faster association with U-rich RNA, which we propose is a reflection of the higher probability of association. Differences between TIAR and HuR are observed in their modes of binding to RNA. TIAR is able to bind deoxy-oligonucleotides with nanomolar affinity, whereas HuR affinity is reduced to a micromolar level. Studies with U-rich DNA reveal that TIAR binding depends less on the 2′-hydroxyl group of RNA than HuR binding. Finally we show that SAXS data, recorded for the first two domains of TIAR in complex with RNA, are more consistent with a flexible, elongated shape and not the compact shape that the first two domains of Hu proteins adopt upon binding to RNA. We thus propose that these triple-RRM proteins, which compete for the same binding sites in cells, interact with their targets in fundamentally different ways.

Vascular smooth muscle phenotypic diversity and function

The control of force production in vascular smooth muscle is critical to the normal regulation of blood flow and pressure, and altered regulation is common to diseases such as hypertension, heart failure, and ischemia. A great deal has been learned about imbalances in vasoconstrictor and vasodilator signals, e.g., angiotensin, endothelin, norepinephrine, and nitric oxide, that regulate vascular tone in normal and disease contexts. In contrast there has been limited study of how the phenotypic state of the vascular smooth muscle cell may influence the contractile response to these signaling pathways dependent upon the developmental, tissue-specific (vascular bed) or disease context. Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscle lineages are traditionally classified into fast or slow sublineages based on rates of contraction and relaxation, recognizing that this simple dichotomy vastly underrepresents muscle phenotypic diversity. A great deal has been learned about developmental specification of the striated muscle sublineages and their phenotypic interconversions in the mature animal under the control of mechanical load, neural input, and hormones. In contrast there has been relatively limited study of smooth muscle contractile phenotypic diversity. This is surprising given the number of diseases in which smooth muscle contractile dysfunction plays a key role. This review focuses on smooth muscle contractile phenotypic diversity in the vascular system, how it is generated, and how it may determine vascular function in developmental and disease contexts.

Characterization of conserved tandem donor sites and intronic motifs required for alternative splicing in corticosteroid receptor genes

Alternative splicing events from tandem donor sites result in mRNA variants coding for additional amino acids in the DNA binding domain of both the glucocorticoid (GR) and mineralocorticoid (MR) receptors. We now show that expression of both splice variants is extensively conserved in mammalian species, providing strong evidence for their functional significance. An exception to the conservation of the MR tandem splice site (an A at position +5 of the MR+12 donor site in the mouse) was predicted to decrease U1 small nuclear RNA binding. In accord with this prediction, we were unable to detect the MR+12 variant in this species. The one exception to the conservation of the GR tandem splice site, an A at position +3 of the platypus GRgamma donor site that was predicted to enhance binding of U1 snRNA, was unexpectedly associated with decreased expression of the variant from the endogenous gene as well as a minigene. An intronic pyrimidine motif present in both GR and MR genes was found to be critical for usage of the downstream donor site, and overexpression of TIA1/TIAL1 RNA binding proteins, which are known to bind such motifs, led to a marked increase in the proportion of GRgamma and MR+12. These results provide striking evidence for conservation of a complex splicing mechanism that involves processes other than stochastic spliceosome binding and identify a mechanism that would allow regulation of variant expression.

Mutation of mapped TIA-1/TIAR binding sites in the 3' terminal stem-loop of West Nile virus minus-strand RNA in an infectious clone negatively affects genomic RNA amplification

Previous data showed that the cellular proteins TIA-1 and TIAR bound specifically to the West Nile virus 3' minus-strand stem-loop [WNV3'(-)SL] RNA (37) and colocalized with flavivirus replication complexes in WNV- and dengue virus-infected cells (21). In the present study, the sites on the WNV3'(-)SL RNA required for efficient in vitro T-cell intracellular antigen-related (TIAR) and T-cell intracellular antigen-1 (TIA-1) protein binding were mapped to short AU sequences (UAAUU) located in two internal loops of the WNV3'(-)SL RNA structure. Infectious clone RNAs with all or most of the binding site nucleotides in one of the 3' (-)SL loops deleted or substituted did not produce detectable virus after transfection or subsequent passage. With one exception, deletion/mutation of a single terminal nucleotide in one of the binding sequences had little effect on the efficiency of protein binding or virus production, but mutation of a nucleotide in the middle of a binding sequence reduced both the in vitro protein binding efficiency and virus production. Plaque size, intracellular genomic RNA levels, and virus production progressively decreased with decreasing in vitro TIAR/TIA-1 binding activity, but the translation efficiency of the various mutant RNAs was similar to that of the parental RNA. Several of the mutant RNAs that inefficiently interacted with TIAR/TIA-1 in vitro rapidly reverted in vivo, indicating that they could replicate at a low level and suggesting that an interaction between TIAR/TIA-1 and the viral 3'(-)SL RNA is not required for initial low-level symmetric RNA replication but instead facilitates the subsequent asymmetric amplification of genome RNA from the minus-strand template.

A systematic analysis of intronic sequences downstream of 5' splice sites reveals a widespread role for U-rich motifs and TIA1/TIAL1 proteins in alternative splicing regulation

To identify human intronic sequences associated with 5' splice site recognition, we performed a systematic search for motifs enriched in introns downstream of both constitutive and alternative cassette exons. Significant enrichment was observed for U-rich motifs within 100 nucleotides downstream of 5' splice sites of both classes of exons, with the highest enrichment between positions +6 and +30. Exons adjacent to U-rich intronic motifs contain lower frequencies of exonic splicing enhancers and higher frequencies of exonic splicing silencers, compared with exons not followed by U-rich intronic motifs. These findings motivated us to explore the possibility of a widespread role for U-rich motifs in promoting exon inclusion. Since cytotoxic granule-associated RNA binding protein (TIA1) and TIA1-like 1 (TIAL1; also known as TIAR) were previously shown in vitro to bind to U-rich motifs downstream of 5' splice sites, and to facilitate 5' splice site recognition in vitro and in vivo, we investigated whether these factors function more generally in the regulation of splicing of exons followed by U-rich intronic motifs. Simultaneous knockdown of TIA1 and TIAL1 resulted in increased skipping of 36/41 (88%) of alternatively spliced exons associated with U-rich motifs, but did not affect 32/33 (97%) alternatively spliced exons that are not associated with U-rich motifs. The increase in exon skipping correlated with the proximity of the first U-rich motif and the overall "U-richness" of the adjacent intronic region. The majority of the alternative splicing events regulated by TIA1/TIAL1 are conserved in mouse, and the corresponding genes are associated with diverse cellular functions. Based on our results, we estimate that approximately 15% of alternative cassette exons are regulated by TIA1/TIAL1 via U-rich intronic elements.

OsRRM, a Spen-like rice gene expressed specifically in the endosperm

We used the promoter trap technique to identify a rice plant, named 107#, in which the beta-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene was expressed specifically in the endosperm. A single copy of the T-DNA was inserted into the plant genome, and a candidate gene OsRRM was identified by the insertion. The OsRRM promoter directed GUS expression specifically in rice endosperm, analogous to the GUS expression pattern observed in 107#. OsRRM is a single-copy gene in rice and encodes a nuclear protein containing 1005 amino-acid residues with two RNA recognition motifs and one Spen paralog and ortholog C-terminal domain. Western blot analysis confirmed that the OsRRM protein was specifically expressed in rice endosperm. Ectopic expression of OsRRM in transgenic plants led to abnormalities, such as short stature, retarded growth and low fructification rates. Our data, in conjunction with the reported function of Spen genes, implicated OsRRM in the regulation of cell development in rice endosperm.

Elucidation of a C-rich signature motif in target mRNAs of RNA-binding protein TIAR

The RNA-binding protein TIAR (related to TIA-1 [T-cell-restricted intracellular antigen 1]) was shown to associate with subsets of mRNAs bearing U-rich sequences in their 3' untranslated regions. TIAR can function as a translational repressor, particularly in response to cytotoxic agents. Using unstressed colon cancer cells, collections of mRNAs associated with TIAR were isolated by immunoprecipitation (IP) of (TIAR-RNA) ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes, identified by microarray analysis, and used to elucidate a common signature motif present among TIAR target transcripts. The predicted TIAR motif was an unexpectedly cytosine-rich, 28- to 32-nucleotide-long element forming a stem and a loop of variable size with an additional side loop. The ability of TIAR to bind an RNA oligonucleotide with a representative C-rich TIAR motif sequence was verified in vitro using surface plasmon resonance. By this analysis, TIAR containing two or three RNA recognition domains (TIAR12 and TIAR123) showed low but significant binding to the C-rich sequence. In vivo, insertion of the C-rich motif into a heterologous reporter strongly suppressed its translation in cultured cells. Using this signature motif, an additional approximately 2,209 UniGene targets were identified (2.0% of the total UniGene database). A subset of specific mRNAs were validated by RNP IP analysis. Interestingly, in response to treatment with short-wavelength UV light (UVC), a stress agent causing DNA damage, each of these target mRNAs bearing C-rich motifs dissociated from TIAR. In turn, expression of the encoded proteins was elevated in a TIAR-dependent manner. In sum, we report the identification of a C-rich signature motif present in TIAR target mRNAs whose association with TIAR decreases following exposure to a stress-causing agent.

Fas-activated serine/threonine phosphoprotein (FAST) is a regulator of alternative splicing

Fas-activated serine/threonine phosphoprotein (FAST) is a survival protein that is tethered to the outer mitochondrial membrane. In cells subjected to environmental stress, FAST moves to stress granules, where it interacts with TIA1 to modulate the process of stress-induced translational silencing. Both FAST and TIA1 are also found in the nucleus, where TIA1 promotes the inclusion of exons flanked by weak splice recognition sites such as exon IIIb of the fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (FGFR2) mRNA. Two-hybrid interaction screens and biochemical analysis reveal that FAST binds to several alternative and constitutive splicing regulators, suggesting that FAST might participate in this process. The finding that FAST is concentrated at nuclear speckles also supports this contention. We show that FAST, like TIA1, promotes the inclusion of exon IIIb of the FGFR2 mRNA. Both FAST and TIA1 target a U-rich intronic sequence (IAS1) adjacent the 5' splice site of exon IIIb. However, unlike TIA1, FAST does not bind to the IAS1 sequence. Surprisingly, knockdown experiments reveal that FAST and TIA1 act independently of one another to promote the inclusion of exon IIIb. Mutational analysis reveals that FAST-mediated alternative splicing is separable from the survival effects of FAST. Our data reveal that nuclear FAST can regulate the splicing of FGFR2 transcripts.

Cooperative binding of TIA-1 and U1 snRNP in K-SAM exon splicing activation

In 293 cells, splicing of the human fibroblast growth factor receptor-2 K-SAM alternative exon is inefficient, but can be made efficient by provoking TIA-1 binding to the U-rich IAS1 sequence downstream from the exon's 5' splice site. We show here that TIA-1 domains known to interact with U1 snRNP and to recruit it to 5' splice sites in vitro are required for TIA-1 activation of K-SAM exon splicing in vivo. We further show that tethering downstream from the K-SAM exon a fusion between the U1 snRNP component U1C and the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein provokes IAS1-dependent exon splicing, and present evidence that the fusion functions after its incorporation into U1 snRNP. Our in vivo data, taken together with previous in vitro results, show that K-SAM splicing activation involves cooperative binding of TIA-1 and U1 snRNP to the exon's 5' splice site region.

Translational repression by RNA-binding protein TIAR

The RNA-binding protein TIAR has been proposed to inhibit protein synthesis transiently by promoting the formation of translationally silent stress granules. Here, we report the selective binding of TIAR to several mRNAs encoding translation factors such as eukaryotic initiation factor 4A (eIF4A) and eIF4E (translation initiation factors), eEF1B (a translation elongation factor), and c-Myc (which transcriptionally controls the expression of numerous translation regulatory proteins). TIAR bound the 3'-untranslated regions of these mRNAs and potently suppressed their translation, particularly in response to low levels of short-wavelength UV (UVC) irradiation. The UVC-imposed global inhibition of the cellular translation machinery was significantly relieved after silencing of TIAR expression. We propose that the TIAR-mediated inhibition of translation factor expression elicits a sustained repression of protein biosynthesis in cells responding to stress.

ZIP kinase, a key regulator of myosin protein phosphatase 1

Two major physiological roles have been defined for zipper interacting protein kinase (ZIPK), regulation of apoptosis in non-muscle cells and regulation of Ca(2+) sensitization in smooth muscle. Although much attention has focused on the role of ZIPK in the regulation of apoptotic events, its roles in smooth muscle are likely to have equal if not greater physiological relevance. We first identified ZIPK as a major protein kinase controlling the phosphorylation of myosin phosphatase (SMPP-1M) and the inhibitor protein CPI17 in smooth muscle. Phosphorylation of SMPP-1M and CPI17 by ZIPK inhibits phosphatase activity towards myosin and causes profound Ca(2+) sensitization and contraction in smooth muscle. ZIPK will also directly phosphorylate both muscle and non-muscle myosin. The highly selective actions of ZIPK in the control of myosin phosphorylation potentially make the enzyme an ideal candidate for the development of novel therapeutics to treat smooth muscle related disorders such as hypertension or asthma.

Competition of PTB with TIA proteins for binding to a U-rich cis-element determines tissue-specific splicing of the myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1

A considerable amount of smooth muscle phenotypic diversity is generated by tissue-specific and developmentally regulated splicing of alternative exons. The control mechanisms are unknown. We are using a myosin phosphatase targeting subunit-1 (MYPT1) alternative exon as a model to investigate this question. In the present study, we show that the RNA binding proteins TIA and PTB function as antagonistic enhancers and suppressors of splicing of the alternative exon, respectively. Each functions through a single U-rich element, containing two UCUU motifs, just downstream of the alternative exon 5' splice site. Tissue-specific down-regulation of TIA protein in the perinatal period allows PTB to bind to the U-rich element and suppress splicing of the alternative exon as the visceral smooth muscle acquires the fast-phasic smooth muscle contractile phenotype. This provides a novel role for PTB in the tissue-specific regulation of splicing of alternative exons during the generation of smooth muscle phenotypic diversity.

Novel DNA-binding properties of the RNA-binding protein TIAR

TIA-1 related protein binds avidly to uridine-rich elements in mRNA and pre-mRNAs of a wide range of genes, including interleukin (IL)-8 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). The protein has diverse regulatory roles, which in part depend on the locus of binding within the transcript, including translational control, splicing and apoptosis. Here, we observed selective and potent inhibition of TIAR–RNP complex formation with IL-8 and VEGF 3′-untranslated regions (3′-UTRs) using thymidine-rich deoxyoligonucleotide (ODN) sequences derived from the VEFG 3′-UTR. We show by ultraviolet crosslinking and electrophoretic mobility shift assays that TIAR can bind directly to single-stranded, thymidine-rich ODNs but not to double-stranded ODNs containing the same sequence. TIAR had a nearly 6-fold greater affinity for DNA than RNA (Kdapp=1.6×10−9M versus 9.4 × 10⁻⁹ M). Truncation of TIAR indicated that the high affinity DNA-binding site overlaps with the RNA-binding site involving RNA recognition motif 2 (RRM2). However, RRM1 alone could also bind to DNA. Finally, we show that TIAR can be displaced from single-stranded DNA by active transcription through the binding site. These results provide a potential mechanism by which TIAR can shuttle between RNA and DNA ligands.

Alternative splicing of type II procollagen exon 2 is regulated by the combination of a weak 5' splice site and an adjacent intronic stem-loop cis element

Alternative splicing of the type II procollagen gene (COL2A1) is developmentally regulated during chondrogenesis. Chondroprogenitor cells produce the type IIA procollagen isoform by splicing (including) exon 2 during pre-mRNA processing, whereas differentiated chondrocytes synthesize the type IIB procollagen isoform by exon 2 skipping (exclusion). Using a COL2A1 mini-gene and chondrocytes at various stages of differentiation, we identified a non-classical consensus splicing sequence in intron 2 adjacent to the 5' splice site, which is essential in regulating exon 2 splicing. RNA mapping confirmed this region contains secondary structure in the form of a stem-loop. Mutational analysis identified three cis elements within the conserved double-stranded stem region that are functional only in the context of the natural weak 5' splice site of exon 2; they are 1) a uridine-rich enhancer element in all cell types tested except differentiated chondrocytes; 2) an adenine-rich silencer element, and 3) an enhancer cis element functional in the context of secondary structure. This is the first report identifying key cis elements in the COL2A1 gene that modulate the cell type-specific alternative splicing switch of exon 2 during cartilage development.

Global analysis of Pub1p targets reveals a coordinate control of gene expression through modulation of binding and stability

Regulation of mRNA turnover is an important cellular strategy for posttranscriptional control of gene expression, mediated by the interplay of cis-acting sequences and associated trans-acting factors. Pub1p, an ELAV-like yeast RNA-binding protein with homology to T-cell internal antigen 1 (TIA-1)/TIA-1-related protein (TIAR), is an important modulator of the decay of two known classes of mRNA. Our goal in this study was to determine the range of mRNAs whose stability is dependent on Pub1p, as well as to identify specific transcripts that directly bind to this protein. We have examined global mRNA turnover in isogenic PUB1 and pub1delta strains through gene expression analysis and demonstrate that 573 genes exhibit a significant reduction in half-life in a pub1delta strain. We also examine the binding specificity of Pub1p using affinity purification followed by microarray analysis to comprehensively distinguish between direct and indirect targets and find that Pub1p significantly binds to 368 cellular transcripts. Among the Pub1p-associated mRNAs, 53 transcripts encoding proteins involved in ribosomal biogenesis and cellular metabolism are selectively destabilized in the pub1delta strain. In contrast, genes involved in transporter activity demonstrate association with Pub1p but display no measurable changes in transcript stability. Characterization of two candidate genes, SEC53 and RPS16B, demonstrate that both Pub1p-dependent regulation of stability and Pub1p binding require 3' untranslated regions, which harbor distinct sequence motifs. These results suggest that Pub1p binds to discrete subsets of cellular transcripts and posttranscriptionally regulates their expression at multiple levels.