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Ellett LJ, Revill ZT, Koo YQ, Lawson VA. Strain variation in treatment and prevention of human prion diseases. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2020; 175:121-145. [PMID: 32958230 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or prion diseases describe a number of different human disorders that differ in their clinical phenotypes, which are nonetheless united by their transmissible nature and common pathology. Clinical variation in the absence of a conventional infectious agent is believed to be encoded by different conformations of the misfolded prion protein. This misfolded protein is the target of methods designed to prevent disease transmission in a surgical setting and reduction of the misfolded seed or preventing its continued propagation have been the focus of therapeutic strategies. It is therefore possible that strain variation may influence the efficacy of prevention and treatment approaches. Historically, an understanding of prion disease transmission and pathogenesis has been focused on research tools developed using agriculturally relevant strains of prion disease. However, an increased understanding of the molecular biology of human prion disorders has highlighted differences not only between different forms of the disease affecting humans and animals but also within diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (CJD), which is represented by several sporadic CJD specific conformations and an additional conformation associated with variant CJD. In this chapter we will discuss whether prion strain variation can affect the efficacy of methods used to decontaminate prions and whether strain variation in pre-clinical models of prion disease can be used to identify therapeutic strategies that have the best possible chance of success in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura J Ellett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Zoe T Revill
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Yong Qian Koo
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Victoria A Lawson
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.
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Maiti P, Manna J, Ilavazhagan G, Rossignol J, Dunbar GL. Molecular regulation of dendritic spine dynamics and their potential impact on synaptic plasticity and neurological diseases. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 59:208-37. [PMID: 26562682 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The structure and dynamics of dendritic spines reflect the strength of synapses, which are severely affected in different brain diseases. Therefore, understanding the ultra-structure, molecular signaling mechanism(s) regulating dendritic spine dynamics is crucial. Although, since last century, dynamics of spine have been explored by several investigators in different neurological diseases, but despite countless efforts, a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental etiology and molecular signaling pathways involved in spine pathology is lacking. The purpose of this review is to provide a contextual framework of our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of dendritic spine signaling, as well as their potential impact on different neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases, as a format for highlighting some commonalities in function, as well as providing a format for new insights and perspectives into this critical area of research. Additionally, the potential strategies to restore spine structure-function in different diseases are also pointed out. Overall, these informations should help researchers to design new drugs to restore the structure-function of dendritic spine, a "hot site" of synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panchanan Maiti
- Field Neurosciences Institute, St. Mary's of Michigan, Saginaw, MI, USA; Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA.
| | - Jayeeta Manna
- Department of Physiology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, USA.
| | - G Ilavazhagan
- Hindustan University, Rajiv Gandhi Salai (OMR), Padur, Kelambakam, Chennai, TN, India.
| | - Julien Rossignol
- Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA; College of Medicine, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA.
| | - Gary L Dunbar
- Field Neurosciences Institute, St. Mary's of Michigan, Saginaw, MI, USA; Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Program, Central Michigan University, Mt. Pleasant, MI, USA.
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Characterization of peptides obtained from digests of bovine brain which accelerate structural conversions of the recombinant bovine prion protein. FEBS Lett 2013; 587:673-6. [PMID: 23376025 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Revised: 12/24/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Structural changes of proteins are thought to involve specific protein-peptide interactions, thus we hypothesize that certain peptides may contribute to the conformational change of prion proteins. Hence peptide libraries were constructed from partial digests of bovine brain. Using a recently developed conversion assay method, we have screened peptides responsible for structural conversion. Positive components were identified of which amino acid sequences were elucidated by top-down sequencing using mass spectrometry. A database search identified a peptide derived from synaptophysin. This peptide was chemically synthesized to confirm acceleration of the structural change of recombinant bovine prion protein.
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Zampieri M, Legname G, Segre D, Altafini C. A system-level approach for deciphering the transcriptional response to prion infection. Bioinformatics 2011; 27:3407-14. [DOI: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btr580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Didonna A, Vaccari L, Bek A, Legname G. Infrared microspectroscopy: a multiple-screening platform for investigating single-cell biochemical perturbations upon prion infection. ACS Chem Neurosci 2011; 2:160-74. [PMID: 22778865 DOI: 10.1021/cn1000952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2010] [Accepted: 12/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are a group of fatal neurodegenerative disorders characterized by the accumulation of prions in the central nervous system. The pathogenic prion (PrP(Sc)) possesses the capability to convert the host-encoded cellular isoform of the prion protein, PrP(C), into nascent PrP(Sc). The present work aims at providing novel insight into cellular response upon prion infection evidenced by synchrotron radiation infrared microspectroscopy (SR-IRMS). This non-invasive, label-free analytical technique was employed to investigate the biochemical perturbations undergone by prion infected mouse hypothalamic GT1-1 cells at the cellular and subcellular level. A decrement in total cellular protein content upon prion infection was identified by infrared (IR) whole-cell spectra and validated by bicinchoninic acid assay and single-cell volume analysis by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) of IR data discriminated between infected and uninfected cells and allowed to deduce an increment of lysosomal bodies within the cytoplasm of infected GT1-1 cells, a hypothesis further confirmed by SR-IRMS at subcellular spatial resolution and fluorescent microscopy. The purpose of this work, therefore, consists of proposing IRMS as a powerful multiscreening platform, drawing on the synergy with conventional biological assays and microscopy techniques in order to increase the accuracy of investigations performed at the single-cell level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Didonna
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Neurobiology Sector, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), via Bonomea 265, I-34136 Trieste, Italy
| | - Lisa Vaccari
- ELETTRA Synchrotron Light Laboratory, S.S. 14 Km. 163.5, 34149 Basovizza, Trieste, Italy
| | - Alpan Bek
- CBM S.c.r.l., Consorzio per il Centro di Biomedicina Molecolare—Center for Molecular Biomedicine, Area Science Park—Basovizza SS 14, Km 163.5, I-34149 Trieste (TS), Italy
| | - Giuseppe Legname
- Laboratory of Prion Biology, Neurobiology Sector, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), via Bonomea 265, I-34136 Trieste, Italy
- ELETTRA Synchrotron Light Laboratory, S.S. 14 Km. 163.5, 34149 Basovizza, Trieste, Italy
- CBM S.c.r.l., Consorzio per il Centro di Biomedicina Molecolare—Center for Molecular Biomedicine, Area Science Park—Basovizza SS 14, Km 163.5, I-34149 Trieste (TS), Italy
- Italian Institute of Technology, SISSA Unit, Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
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Increased proportions of C1 truncated prion protein protect against cellular M1000 prion infection. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2009; 68:1125-35. [PMID: 19918124 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3181b96981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion disease pathogenesis is linked to the cell-associated propagation of misfolded protease-resistant conformers (PrP) of the normal cellular prion protein (PrP). Ongoing PrP expression is the only known absolute requirement for successful prion disease transmission and PrP propagation. Further typifying prion disease is selective neuronal dysfunction and loss, although the precise mechanisms underlying this are undefined. We utilized a single prion strain (M1000) and a range of neuronal and nonneuronal, PrP endogenously expressing and transgenically modified overexpressing cell lines, to evaluate whether PrP glycosylation patterns or constitutive N-terminal cleavage events may be determinants of sustained PrP propagation. Our data demonstrates that relative proportions of full-length and C1 truncated PrP are the most important characteristics influencing susceptibility to sustained M1000 prion infection, supporting PrP alpha-cleavage as a protective event, which may contribute to the selective neuronal vulnerability observed in vivo.
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Chasseigneaux S, Pastore M, Britton-Davidian J, Manié E, Stern MH, Callebert J, Catalan J, Casanova D, Belondrade M, Provansal M, Zhang Y, Bürkle A, Laplanche JL, Sévenet N, Lehmann S. Genetic heterogeneity versus molecular analysis of prion susceptibility in neuroblasma N2a sublines. Arch Virol 2008; 153:1693-702. [PMID: 18696008 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-008-0177-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2008] [Accepted: 07/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The neuroblastoma-derived cell line N2a is permissive to certain prion strains but resistant sublines unable to accumulate the pathological proteinase-K resistant form of the prion protein can be isolated. We compared for gene expression and phenotypes different N2a sublines that were susceptible or resistant to the 22L prion strain. Karyotypes and comparative genomic hybridization arrays revealed chromosomal imbalances but did not demonstrate a characteristic profile of genomic alterations linked to prion susceptibility. Likewise, we showed that this phenotype was not dependent on the binding of PrPres, the expression of the prion protein gene, or on its primary sequence. We completed this analysis by looking using real-time quantitative PCR at the expression of a set of genes encoding proteins linked to prion biology. None of the candidates could account by itself for the infection phenotype, nevertheless sublines had distinct transcriptional profiles. Taken together, our results do not support a role for specific genomic abnormalities and possible candidate proteins in N2a prion susceptibility. They also reveal genetic heterogeneity among the sublines and serve as a guidance for further investigation into the molecular mechanisms of prion infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphanie Chasseigneaux
- EA 3621, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris 5, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France
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Asuni AA, Cunningham C, Vigneswaran P, Perry VH, O'Connor V. Unaltered SNARE complex formation in an in vivo model of prion disease. Brain Res 2008; 1233:1-7. [PMID: 18706894 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2008] [Revised: 07/02/2008] [Accepted: 07/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The ME7 model of prion disease is a chronic slowly evolving model of neurodegeneration in which cell death is preceded by synaptic dysfunction. Previous studies in cell culture show that accumulation of misfolded prion inhibits the formation of the SNARE complexes involving synaptobrevin, syntaxin and SNAP-25 that play an essential role in neurotransmitter release. Such observations suggest that similar phenomenon may contribute to synaptic dysfunction observed in vivo. We have thus used detergent extraction of hippocampal tissue to investigate the status of SNARE complexes in the ME7 model. In the presence of increasing PrP(Sc) deposition we failed to see a change in the amount of SNARE complexes directly extracted into SDS and resolved by SDS-PAGE. Conversely pre-extraction in Triton X-100, a treatment that promotes SNARE complexes ex vivo, demonstrated a modest reduction in hippocampal SNARE complexes when homogenates were made from tissue at late stage disease. This suggests that accumulated PrP(Sc), or perhaps fibrillar complexes formed of prion only inhibit SNARE complexes that are formed ex vivo following biochemical extraction. Thus the accumulation of PrP(Sc) although deleterious to synaptic function in vivo, does not exert its synaptic effects by disrupting the formation of SNARE complexes that are core to transmitter release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayodeji A Asuni
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Southampton, Bassett Crescent East, Southampton, SO16 7PX, UK
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Bate C, Williams A. Do prion-induced changes in membrane cholesterol trigger neurodegeneration? FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2008. [DOI: 10.2217/14796708.3.4.367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clive Bate
- Royal Veterinary College, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Hawkshead, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
| | - Alun Williams
- Royal Veterinary College, Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Hawkshead, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, UK
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Bate C, Tayebi M, Williams A. Sequestration of free cholesterol in cell membranes by prions correlates with cytoplasmic phospholipase A2 activation. BMC Biol 2008; 6:8. [PMID: 18269734 PMCID: PMC2270799 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7007-6-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2007] [Accepted: 02/12/2008] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), otherwise known as the prion diseases, occur following the conversion of the normal cellular prion protein (PrPC) to an alternatively folded isoform (PrPSc). The accumulation of PrPSc within the brain leads to neurodegeneration through an unidentified mechanism. Since many neurodegenerative disorders including prion, Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases may be modified by cholesterol synthesis inhibitors, the effects of prion infection on the cholesterol balance within neuronal cells were examined. Results We report the novel observation that prion infection altered the membrane composition and significantly increased total cholesterol levels in two neuronal cell lines (ScGT1 and ScN2a cells). There was a significant correlation between the concentration of free cholesterol in ScGT1 cells and the amounts of PrPSc. This increase was entirely a result of increased amounts of free cholesterol, as prion infection reduced the amounts of cholesterol esters in cells. These effects were reproduced in primary cortical neurons by the addition of partially purified PrPSc, but not by PrPC. Crucially, the effects of prion infection were not a result of increased cholesterol synthesis. Stimulating cholesterol synthesis via the addition of mevalonate, or adding exogenous cholesterol, had the opposite effect to prion infection on the cholesterol balance. It did not affect the amounts of free cholesterol within neurons; rather, it significantly increased the amounts of cholesterol esters. Immunoprecipitation studies have shown that cytoplasmic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) co-precipitated with PrPSc in ScGT1 cells. Furthermore, prion infection greatly increased both the phosphorylation of cPLA2 and prostaglandin E2 production. Conclusion Prion infection, or the addition of PrPSc, increased the free cholesterol content of cells, a process that could not be replicated by the stimulation of cholesterol synthesis. The presence of PrPSc increased solubilisation of free cholesterol in cell membranes and affected their function. It increased activation of the PLA2 pathway, previously implicated in PrPSc formation and in PrPSc-mediated neurotoxicity. These observations suggest that the neuropathogenesis of prion diseases results from PrPSc altering cholesterol-sensitive processes. Furthermore, they raise the possibility that disturbances in membrane cholesterol are major triggering events in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clive Bate
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, North Mymms, Herts, AL9 7TA, UK.
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Fuhrmann M, Mitteregger G, Kretzschmar H, Herms J. Dendritic pathology in prion disease starts at the synaptic spine. J Neurosci 2007; 27:6224-33. [PMID: 17553995 PMCID: PMC6672160 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5062-06.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Spine loss represents a common hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases. However, little is known about the underlying mechanisms, especially the relationship between spine elimination and neuritic destruction. We imaged cortical dendrites throughout a neurodegenerative disease using scrapie in mice as a model. Two-photon in vivo imaging over 2 months revealed a linear decrease of spine density. Interestingly, only persistent spines (lifetime > or = 8 d) disappeared, whereas the density of transient spines (lifetime < or = 4 d) was unaffected. Before spine loss, dendritic varicosities emerged preferentially at sites where spines protrude from the dendrite. These results implicate that the location where the spine protrudes from the dendrite may be particularly vulnerable and that dendritic varicosities may actually cause spine loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Fuhrmann
- Center of Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilians University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Gerda Mitteregger
- Center of Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilians University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Hans Kretzschmar
- Center of Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilians University, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Jochen Herms
- Center of Neuropathology and Prion Research, Ludwig Maximilians University, 81377 Munich, Germany
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Shimada M, Yanai Y, Okazaki T, Yamashita Y, Sriraman V, Wilson MC, Richards JS. Synaptosomal-associated protein 25 gene expression is hormonally regulated during ovulation and is involved in cytokine/chemokine exocytosis from granulosa cells. Mol Endocrinol 2007; 21:2487-502. [PMID: 17595323 DOI: 10.1210/me.2007-0042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During ovulation, granulosa cells and cumulus cells synthesize and secrete a wide variety of factors including members of the IL cytokine family via the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis is controlled by the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor complex consisting of proteins residing in the vesicle membrane and the plasma membrane. One of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein attachment protein receptor proteins, synaptosomal-associated protein (SNAP)25, is expressed abundantly in neuronal cells and is also induced transiently in the rat ovary in response to LH. Therefore, we sought to determine the molecular mechanisms controlling ovarian expression of the Snap25 gene, and the role of SNAP25 in exocytosis of secreted factors, such as ILs from cumulus cells and granulosa cells. In preovulatory follicles of equine (e) chorionic gonadotropin (CG)-primed mice, expression of Snap25 mRNA was negligible but was induced markedly 8 h after human (h) CG stimulation. In Pgr null mice Snap25 mRNA and protein levels were significantly lower at 8 h after hCG compared with wild-type mice. To analyze the molecular mechanisms by which progesterone receptor regulates this gene, a 1517-bp murine Snap25 promoter-luciferase reporter construct was generated and transfected into granulosa cell cultures. Three specificity protein (SP)-1/SP-3 sites, but not consensus activator protein 1 or cAMP response element sites, were essential for basal and forskolin/phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced promoter activity in granulosa cells. The induction was significantly suppressed by PGR antagonist, RU486. Treatment of cumulus oocyte complexes or granulosa cells with FSH/amphiregulin, LH, or forskolin/phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced elevated expression of Snap25 mRNA and increased the secretion of eight cytokine and chemokine factors. Transfection of granulosa cells with Snap25 small interfering RNA significantly reduced the levels of both SNAP25 protein and the secretion of cytokines. From these results, we conclude that progesterone-progesterone receptor-mediated SNAP25 expression in cumulus oocyte complexes and granulosa cells regulates cytokine and chemokine secretion via an exocytosis system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Shimada
- Department of Applied Animal Science, Graduate School of Biosphere Science, Hiroshima University, 1-4-4, Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8528, Japan.
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Chich JF, Schaeffer B, Bouin AP, Mouthon F, Labas V, Larramendy C, Deslys JP, Grosclaude J. Prion infection-impaired functional blocks identified by proteomics enlighten the targets and the curing pathways of an anti-prion drug. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2006; 1774:154-67. [PMID: 17174161 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2006.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2006] [Revised: 10/30/2006] [Accepted: 10/31/2006] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Prion-induced neurodegeneration results from multiple cellular alterations among which the accumulation of a modified form of the host protein PrP is but a hallmark. Drug treatments need understanding of underlying mechanisms. Proteomics allows getting a comprehensive view of perturbations leading to neuronal death. Heparan sulfate mimetics has proved to be efficient to clear scrapie protein in cultured cells and in animals. To investigate the mechanisms of drug attack, protein profiles of the neuronal cell line GT1 and its chronically Chandler strain infected counterpart were compared, either in steady state cultures or after a 4-day drug treatment. Differentially expressed proteins were associated into functional blocks relevant to neurodegenerative diseases. Protein structure repair and modification, proteolysis, cell shape and energy/oxidation players were affected by infection, in agreement with prion biology. Unexpectedly, novel affected blocks related to translation, nucleus structure and DNA replication were unravelled displaying commonalities with proliferative processes. The drug had a double action in infected cells by reversing protein levels back to normal in some blocks and by heightening survival functions in others. This study emphasizes the interest of a proteomic approach to unravel novel networks involved in prion infection and curing.
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Affiliation(s)
- J-F Chich
- Biologie Physico-Chimique des Prions, Virologie et Immunologie Moléculaires, INRA, 78352 Jouy-en-Josas Cedex, France.
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