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Hackett JC, Krueger S, Urban VS, Zárate-Pérez F. Small angle scattering reveals the orientation of cytochrome P450 19A1 in lipoprotein nanodiscs. J Inorg Biochem 2024; 257:112579. [PMID: 38703512 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2024.112579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 04/18/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/06/2024]
Abstract
Human aromatase (CYP19A1), the cytochrome P450 enzyme responsible for conversion of androgens to estrogens, was incorporated into lipoprotein nanodiscs (NDs) and interrogated by small angle X-ray and neutron scattering (SAXS/SANS). CYP19A1 was associated with the surface and centered at the edge of the long axis of the ND membrane. In the absence of the N-terminal anchor, the amphipathic A'- and G'-helices were predominately buried in the lipid head groups, with the possibly that their hydrophobic side chains protrude into the hydrophobic, aliphatic tails. The prediction is like that for CYP3A4 based on SAXS employing a similar modeling approach. The orientation of CYP19A1 in a ND is consistent with our previous predictions based on molecular dynamics simulations and lends additional credibility to the notion that CYP19A1 captures substrates from the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Hackett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, United States.
| | - Susan Krueger
- National Institute of Standards and Technology Center for Neutron Research, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, United States
| | - Volker S Urban
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, United States
| | - Francisco Zárate-Pérez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and the Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, United States
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2
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Niwa T. [Metabolic Activities Catalyzed by Human Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 and CYP3A Subfamily Members and Effect of Various Compounds, Including Endogenous Steroid Hormones, on These Activities]. YAKUGAKU ZASSHI 2024; 144:197-202. [PMID: 38296497 DOI: 10.1248/yakushi.23-00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2024]
Abstract
My research focused on the effects of various drugs on (1) dopamine formation from p-tyramine catalyzed by polymorphic cytochrome P450 (CYP or P450) 2D6 variants and (2) endogenous steroid hormone hydroxylation catalyzed by CYP3A subfamily members (CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7). The activation (cooperativity) of metabolic reactions catalyzed by P450s was especially emphasized. The effects of various psychotropic agents on dopamine formation from p-tyramine, catalyzed by wild-type CYP2D6.1 and CYP2D6 variants, including CYP2D6.2 (Arg296Cys;Ser486Thr), CYP2D6.10 (Pro34Ser;Ser486Thr), and CYP2D6.39 (Ser486Thr) were compared. Michaelis (Km) and inhibition (Ki) constants of the psychotropic agents in the presence of CYP2D6.10 were higher than those observed in the presence of other CYP2D6 variants. Fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, milnacipran, and haloperidol activated CYP2D6-catalyzed dopamine formation [decreasing the Km and/or increasing the maximal velocity (kcat)], and this activation was CYP2D6 variant-dependent. Regarding the CYP3A subfamily, the effects of various compounds including endogenous steroid hormones on the 6β-hydroxylation of steroid hormones, such as testosterone, progesterone, and cortisol, were determined; it was found that testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, and/or α-naphthoflavone activated 6β-hydroxylation of cortisol and/or progesterone, but the effects varied in the presence of different CYP3A subfamily members. Further studies are required to confirm the mechanisms and therapeutic relevance of these activation phenomena.
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3
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Hsu MH, Johnson EF. Differential Effects of Clotrimazole on X-Ray Crystal Structures of Human Cytochromes P450 3A5 and 3A4. Drug Metab Dispos 2023; 51:1642-1650. [PMID: 37770228 PMCID: PMC10658909 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.123.001464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytochromes P450 CYP3A5 and CYP3A4 exhibit differential plasticity that underlies differences in drug metabolism and drug-drug interactions. To extend previous studies, CYP3A4 and CYP3A5 were cocrystallized with clotrimazole, a compact ligand that binds to the heme iron in the catalytic center of the active site. Binding studies indicate that clotrimazole exhibits tight binding to CYP3A5 with a binding affinity (Kd) of <0.01 μM like that of CYP3A4. A single clotrimazole is bound to the heme iron in CYP3A4 that triggers expansion of active site cavity that reflects a loss of aromatic interactions between phenylalanine sidechains in the distal active site and increased conformational entropy for the F-F' connector due to reorientation of Phe-304 to accommodate clotrimazole. In contrast to CYP3A4, the CYP3A5 Phe-304 exhibits an induced fit along with Phe-213 to form edge-to-face aromatic interactions with heme-bound clotrimazole. These aromatic interactions between aromatic amino acids propagate by induced fits with a second clotrimazole residing in the distal active site and a third clotrimazole bound in an expanded entrance channel as well as between the three clotrimazoles. The large, expanded entrance channel surrounded by the C-terminal loop and the F' and A' helices in CYP3A5 suggests conformational selection for the binding of clotrimazole due to its large girth, which may also cause the entrance channel to remain open after the binding of the first clotrimazole to the heme iron. The additional binding sites suggest a path for sequential binding of one molecule to reach and bind to the heme iron. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Clotrimazole binds to the heme iron of CYP3A5 and CYP3A4. In CYP3A5, two clotrimazoles also bind in the distal active site and in an expanded entrance channel. Aromatic interactions between clotrimazoles and phenylalanine sidechains including Phe-304 indicate induced fits for each clotrimazole. In contrast to CYP3A5, displacement of the CYP3A4 Phe-304 rotamer by clotrimazole leads to extensive disruption of phenylalanine interactions that limit the space above the heme, to an expanded active site cavity, and to increased CYP3A4 conformational heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Hui Hsu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California
| | - Eric F Johnson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California
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Sweeney DT, Zárate-Pérez F, Stokowa-Sołtys K, Hackett JC. Induced Fit Describes Ligand Binding to Membrane-Associated Cytochrome P450 3A4. Mol Pharmacol 2023; 104:154-163. [PMID: 37536953 PMCID: PMC10506697 DOI: 10.1124/molpharm.123.000698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is the dominant P450 involved in human xenobiotic metabolism. Competition for CYP3A4 therefore underlies several adverse drug-drug interactions. Despite its clinical significance, the mechanisms CYP3A4 uses to bind diverse ligands remain poorly understood. Highly monodisperse CYP3A4 embedded in anionic lipoprotein nanodiscs containing an equal mixture of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine and 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) were used to determine which of the limiting kinetic schemes that include protein conformational change, conformational selection (CS) or induced fit (IF), best described the binding of four known irreversible inhibitors. Azamulin, retapamulin, pleuromutilin, and mibrefadil binding to CYP3A4 nanodiscs conformed to a single-site binding model. Exponential fits of stopped-flow UV-visible absorption spectroscopy data supported multiple-step binding mechanisms. Trends in the rates of relaxation to equilibrium with increasing ligand concentrations were ambiguous as to whether IF or CS was involved; however, global fitting and consideration of the rate constants favored an IF mechanism. In the case of mibrefadil, a transient complex was observed in the stopped-flow UV-visible experiment, definitively assigning the presence of IF in ligand binding. While these studies only consider a small region of CYP3A4's vast ligand space, they provide kinetic evidence that CYP3A4 can use an IF mechanism. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: CYP3A4 is capable of oxidizing numerous xenobiotics, including many drugs. Such promiscuity could not be achieved without conformational changes to accommodate diverse substrates. It is unknown whether conformational heterogeneity is present before (conformational selection) or after (induced fit) ligand binding. Stopped-flow measurements of suicide inhibitors binding to nanodisc-embedded CYP3A4 combined with sophisticated numerical analyses support that induced fit better describes ligand binding to this important enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Tyler Sweeney
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida (J.C.H., K.S.S., F.Z.P.); Department of Physiology and Biophysics and The Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.T.S.); and Department of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland (K.S.S.)
| | - Francisco Zárate-Pérez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida (J.C.H., K.S.S., F.Z.P.); Department of Physiology and Biophysics and The Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.T.S.); and Department of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland (K.S.S.)
| | - Kamila Stokowa-Sołtys
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida (J.C.H., K.S.S., F.Z.P.); Department of Physiology and Biophysics and The Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.T.S.); and Department of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland (K.S.S.)
| | - John C Hackett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Biomolecular Sciences Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida (J.C.H., K.S.S., F.Z.P.); Department of Physiology and Biophysics and The Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia (D.T.S.); and Department of Biological and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland (K.S.S.)
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Sevrioukova IF. Interaction of CYP3A4 with caffeine: First insights into multiple substrate binding. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105117. [PMID: 37524132 PMCID: PMC10470200 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Human cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is a major drug-metabolizing enzyme that shows extreme substrate promiscuity. Moreover, its large and malleable active site can simultaneously accommodate several substrate molecules of the same or different nature, which may lead to cooperative binding and allosteric behavior. Due to difficulty of crystallization of CYP3A4-substrate complexes, it remains unknown how multiple substrates can arrange in the active site. We determined crystal structures of CYP3A4 bound to three and six molecules of caffeine, a psychoactive alkaloid serving as a substrate and modulator of CYP3A4. In the ternary complex, one caffeine binds to the active site suitably for C8-hydroxylation, most preferable for CYP3A4. In the senary complex, three caffeine molecules stack parallel to the heme with the proximal ligand poised for 3-N-demethylation. However, the caffeine stack forms extensive hydrophobic interactions that could preclude product dissociation and multiple turnovers. In both complexes, caffeine is also bound in the substrate channel and on the outer surface known as a peripheral site. At all sites, aromatic stacking with the caffeine ring(s) is likely a dominant interaction, while direct and water-mediated polar contacts provide additional stabilization for the substrate-bound complexes. Protein-ligand interactions via the active site R212, intrachannel T224, and peripheral F219 were experimentally confirmed, and the latter two residues were identified as important for caffeine association. Collectively, the structural, spectral, and mutagenesis data provide valuable insights on the ligand binding mechanism and help better understand how purine-based pharmaceuticals and other aromatic compounds could interact with CYP3A4 and mediate drug-drug interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina F Sevrioukova
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California, USA.
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6
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Paço L, Hackett JC, Atkins WM. Nanodisc-embedded cytochrome P450 P3A4 binds diverse ligands by distributing conformational dynamics to its flexible elements. J Inorg Biochem 2023; 244:112211. [PMID: 37080138 PMCID: PMC10175226 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2023.112211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 03/12/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) metabolizes a wide range of drugs and toxins. Interactions of CYP3A4 with ligands are difficult to predict due to promiscuity and conformational flexibility. To better understand CYP3A4 conformational responses to ligands we use hydrogen deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) to investigate the effect of ligands on nanodisc-embedded CYP3A4. For a subset of CYP3A4-ligand complexes, differences in the low-frequency modes derived by principal component analyses of molecular dynamics trajectories mirrored the HDX-MS results. The effects of ligands are distributed to flexible elements of CYP3A4 between stretches of secondary structure. The largest effects occur in the F- and G-helices, where most ligands increase the flexibility of the F-helix and connecting loops and decrease the flexibility of the C-term of the G-helix. Most ligands affect the E-F-G, CD and HI regions of the protein. Ligand-dependent differences are observed in the A"-A' loop, BC region, E-helix, K-β1 region, proximal loop, and C-term loop. Correlated HDX responses were observed in the CD region and the C-term of the G-helix that were most pronounced for Type II ligands. Collectively, the HDX and molecular dynamics results suggest that CYP3A4 accommodates diverse binding partners by propagating local backbone fluctuations from the binding site onto the flexible regions of the enzyme via long-range interactions that are differentially modulated by ligands. In contrast to the paradigm wherein ligands decrease protein dynamics at their binding site, a wide range of ligands modestly increase CYP3A4 dynamics throughout the protein including effects remote from the active site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorela Paço
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7610, United States of America
| | - John C Hackett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, United States of America
| | - William M Atkins
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7610, United States of America.
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Hlavica P. Key regulators in the architecture of substrate access/egress channels in mammalian cytochromes P450 governing flexibility in substrate oxyfunctionalization. J Inorg Biochem 2023; 241:112150. [PMID: 36731371 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2023.112150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450s (CYP) represent a superfamily of b-type hemoproteins catalyzing oxifunctionalization of a vast array of endogenous and exogenous compounds. The present review focuses on assessment of the topology of prospective determinants in substrate entry and product release channels of mammalian P450s, steering the conformational dynamics of substrate accessibility and productive ligand orientation toward the iron-oxene core. Based on a generalized, CYP3A4-related construct, the sum of critical elements from diverse target enzymes was found to cluster within the known substrate recognition sites. The majority of prevalent substrate access/egress tunnels revealed to be of fairly balanced functional importance. The hydrophobicity profile of the candidates revealed to be the most salient feature in functional interaction throughout the conduits, while bulkiness of the residues imposes steric restrictions on substrate traveling. Thus, small amino acids such as prolines and glycines serve as hinges, driving conformational flexibility in ligand passage. Similarly, bottlenecks in the tunnel architecture, being narrowest encounter points within the CYP3A4 model, have a vital function in substrate selectivity along with clusters of aromatic amino acids acting as gatekeepers. In addition, peripheral patches in conduits may house determinants modulating allosteric cooperativity between remote and central domains in the P450 structure. Remarkably, the bulk critical residues lining tunnels in the various isozymes reside in helices B'/C and F/G inclusive of their interhelical turns as well as in helix I. This suggests these regions to represent hotspots for targeted genetic engineering to tailor more sophisticated mammalian P450s exploitable in industrial, biotechnological and medicinal areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Hlavica
- Walther-Straub Institut fuer Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Goethestrasse 33, D80336 Muenchen, Germany.
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8
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Crystal Structure of CYP3A4 Complexed with Fluorol Identifies the Substrate Access Channel as a High-Affinity Ligand Binding Site. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232012591. [PMID: 36293445 PMCID: PMC9604483 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232012591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Revised: 10/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is a major human drug-metabolizing enzyme, notoriously known for its extreme substrate promiscuity, allosteric behavior, and implications in drug–drug interactions. Despite extensive investigations, the mechanism of ligand binding to CYP3A4 is not fully understood. We determined the crystal structure of CYP3A4 complexed with fluorol, a small fluorescent dye that can undergo hydroxylation. In the structure, fluorol associates to the substrate channel, well suited for the binding of planar polyaromatic molecules bearing polar groups, through which stabilizing H-bonds with the polar channel residues, such as Thr224 and Arg372, can be established. Mutagenesis, spectral, kinetic, and functional data confirmed the involvement but not strict requirement of Thr224 for the association of fluorol. Collectively, our data identify the substrate channel as a high-affinity ligand binding site and support the notion that hydrophobic ligands first dock to the nearby peripheral surface, before migrating to the channel and, subsequently, into the active site.
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Niwa T, Sasaki S, Yamamoto Y, Tanaka M. Effect of Human Cytochrome P450 2D6 Polymorphism on Progesterone Hydroxylation. Eur J Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2022; 47:741-747. [PMID: 35838883 DOI: 10.1007/s13318-022-00784-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Herein, hydroxylation activities at the 6β-position and 21-position of progesterone mediated by human cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6 and its variants and the effects of psychotropic drugs on these hydroxylation activities were compared to clarify whether CYP2D6 polymorphisms and psychotropic drugs impact neurosteroid levels in the brain. METHODS Progesterone was incubated with CYP2D6.1, CYP2D6.2 (Arg296Cys, Ser486Thr), CYP2D6.10 (Pro34Ser, Ser486Thr), and CYP2D6.39 (Ser486Thr) in the absence or presence of typical psychotropic drugs (fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, fluphenazine, and milnacipran) and endogenous steroids (testosterone and cortisol). Then, 6β- and 21-hydroxyprogesterone levels were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS Although the Michaelis-Menten constants (Km) for progesterone 6β- and 21-hydroxylation reactions mediated by the different CYP2D6 variants were similar, the maximal velocity (Vmax) values of the reactions mediated by CYP2D6.1 and CYP2D6.2 were the highest, followed by those mediated by CYP2D6.39 and CYP2D6.10. Thus, the of progesterone 6β- and/or 21-hydroxylation reactions mediated by CYP2D6.1 and CYP2D6.2 showed the highest Vmax/Km values, followed by the reactions mediated by CYP2D6.39. All investigated compounds inhibited progesterone 21-hydroxylation mediated by CYP2D6 variants at high concentrations. Interestingly, at low concentrations, fluoxetine increased progesterone 21-hydroxylation mediated by CYP2D6.1, but not that mediated by CYP2D6.2 or CYP2D6.10. In addition, the Km value for CYP2D6.2 was elevated in the presence of fluoxetine, whereas the value for CYP2D6.1 was unaltered; however, Vmax values of both CYP2D6.1 and CYP2D6.2 were increased. Paroxetine competitively inhibited CYP2D6.1- and CYP2D6.2-mediated progesterone 21-hydroxylation. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that CYP2D6 polymorphism can affect the stimulation/inhibition of progesterone 21-hydroxylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiro Niwa
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, 1-6-1 Nishigawara, Naka-ku, Okayama, 703-8516, Japan.
| | - Shoko Sasaki
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, 1-6-1 Nishigawara, Naka-ku, Okayama, 703-8516, Japan
| | - Yuka Yamamoto
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, 1-6-1 Nishigawara, Naka-ku, Okayama, 703-8516, Japan
| | - Mayu Tanaka
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, 1-6-1 Nishigawara, Naka-ku, Okayama, 703-8516, Japan
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Verdura S, Encinar JA, Fernández-Arroyo S, Joven J, Cuyàs E, Bosch-Barrera J, Menendez JA. Silibinin Suppresses the Hyperlipidemic Effects of the ALK-Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Lorlatinib in Hepatic Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23179986. [PMID: 36077379 PMCID: PMC9456400 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23179986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The third-generation anaplastic lymphoma tyrosine kinase inhibitor (ALK-TKI) lorlatinib has a unique side effect profile that includes hypercholesteremia and hypertriglyceridemia in >80% of lung cancer patients. Here, we tested the hypothesis that lorlatinib might directly promote the accumulation of cholesterol and/or triglycerides in human hepatic cells. We investigated the capacity of the hepatoprotectant silibinin to modify the lipid-modifying activity of lorlatinib. To predict clinically relevant drug−drug interactions if silibinin were used to clinically manage lorlatinib-induced hyperlipidemic effects in hepatic cells, we also explored the capacity of silibinin to interact with and block CYP3A4 activity using in silico computational descriptions and in vitro biochemical assays. A semi-targeted ultrahigh pressure liquid chromatography accurate mass quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS)-based lipidomic approach revealed that short-term treatment of hepatic cells with lorlatinib promotes the accumulation of numerous molecular species of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides. Silibinin treatment significantly protected the steady-state lipidome of hepatocytes against the hyperlipidemic actions of lorlatinib. Lipid staining confirmed the ability of lorlatinib to promote neutral lipid overload in hepatocytes upon long-term exposure, which was prevented by co-treatment with silibinin. Computational analyses and cell-free biochemical assays predicted a weak to moderate inhibitory activity of clinically relevant concentrations of silibinin against CYP3A4 when compared with recommended (rosuvastatin) and non-recommended (simvastatin) statins for lorlatinib-associated dyslipidemia. The elevated plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels in lorlatinib-treated lung cancer patients might involve primary alterations in the hepatic accumulation of lipid intermediates. Silibinin could be clinically explored to reduce the undesirable hyperlipidemic activity of lorlatinib in lung cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Verdura
- Metabolism and Cancer Group, Program Against Cancer Therapeutic Resistance (ProCURE), Catalan Institute of Oncology, 17007 Girona, Spain
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Salt, 17190 Girona, Spain
| | - José Antonio Encinar
- Institute of Research, Development and Innovation in Biotechnology of Elche (IDiBE) and Molecular and Cell Biology Institute (IBMC), Miguel Hernández University (UMH), 03207 Elche, Spain
| | - Salvador Fernández-Arroyo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43204 Reus, Spain
- Unitat de Recerca Biomèdica (URB-CRB), Hospital Universitari de Sant Joan, Institut d’Investigació Sanitaria Pere Virgili, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43204 Reus, Spain
| | - Jorge Joven
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43204 Reus, Spain
- Unitat de Recerca Biomèdica (URB-CRB), Hospital Universitari de Sant Joan, Institut d’Investigació Sanitaria Pere Virgili, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, 43204 Reus, Spain
| | - Elisabet Cuyàs
- Metabolism and Cancer Group, Program Against Cancer Therapeutic Resistance (ProCURE), Catalan Institute of Oncology, 17007 Girona, Spain
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Salt, 17190 Girona, Spain
- Correspondence: (E.C.); (J.A.M.)
| | - Joaquim Bosch-Barrera
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Salt, 17190 Girona, Spain
- Medical Oncology, Catalan Institute of Oncology, 17007 Girona, Spain
- Department of Medical Sciences, Medical School, University of Girona, 17071 Girona, Spain
| | - Javier A. Menendez
- Metabolism and Cancer Group, Program Against Cancer Therapeutic Resistance (ProCURE), Catalan Institute of Oncology, 17007 Girona, Spain
- Girona Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBGI), Salt, 17190 Girona, Spain
- Correspondence: (E.C.); (J.A.M.)
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11
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Hsu MH, Johnson EF. Structural characterization of the homotropic cooperative binding of azamulin to human cytochrome P450 3A5. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:101909. [PMID: 35398097 PMCID: PMC9079302 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.101909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 and 3A5 catalyze the metabolic clearance of a large portion of therapeutic drugs. Azamulin is used as a selective inhibitor for 3A4 and 3A5 to define their roles in metabolism of new chemical entities during drug development. In contrast to 3A4, 3A5 exhibits homotropic cooperativity for the sequential binding of two azamulin molecules at concentrations used for inhibition. To define the underlying sites and mechanisms for cooperativity, an X-ray crystal structure of 3A5 was determined with two azamulin molecules in the active site that are stacked in an antiparallel orientation. One azamulin resides proximal to the heme in a pose similar to the 3A4-azamulin complex. Comparison to the 3A5 apo structure indicates that the distal azamulin in 3A5 ternary complex causes a significant induced fit that excludes water from the hydrophobic surfaces of binding cavity and the distal azamulin, which is augmented by the stacking interaction with the proximal azamulin. Homotropic cooperativity was not observed for the binding of related pleuromutilin antibiotics, tiamulin, retapamulin, and lefamulin, to 3A5, which are larger and unlikely to bind in the distal site in a stacked orientation. Formation of the 3A5 complex with two azamulin molecules may prevent time-dependent inhibition that is seen for 3A4 by restricting alternate product formation and/or access of reactive intermediates to vulnerable protein sites. These results also contribute to a better understanding of sites for cooperative binding and the differential structural plasticity of 3A5 and 3A4 that contribute to differential substrate and inhibitor binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Hui Hsu
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Eric F Johnson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California, USA.
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12
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Fu T, Zheng Q, Zhang H. Investigation of the molecular and mechanistic basis for the regioselective metabolism of midazolam by cytochrome P450 3A4. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:8104-8112. [PMID: 35319551 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp00232a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is the most important P450 enzyme for drug metabolism and drug-drug interaction, due to it being responsible for the biotransformation of approximately 50% of clinically used drugs. Advance knowledge of the molecular and mechanistic basis of CYP3A4 regioselective metabolism is beneficial for understanding the production of metabolites, and may allow personalized metabolic pathways or designing pathway-specific therapeutics. In this work, we focus on investigating the ligand-receptor interactions, substrate conformational transition, and key factors regulating the specificity of metabolic pathways using midazolam (MDZ) as a probe. Here, three types of substrate-binding conformations related to the diversity of MDZ metabolites are identified. The results also suggest that an allosteric site for MDZ is located near the F'-helix, A-anchor, and C-terminal loop of CYP3A4. The presence of an effector in the allosteric site can accelerate the conformational transition of the substrate via modulating a "sandwich" structure, and may affect the proportion of metabolites at high substrate concentration. We hope that the results can improve the understanding of the CYP3A4 structure and function, and provide a new perspective for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Fu
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130023, China.
| | - Qingchuan Zheng
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130023, China. .,Key Laboratory for Molecular Enzymology and Engineering of the Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130023, China
| | - Hongxing Zhang
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130023, China.
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13
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Srdič M, Fessner ND, Yildiz D, Glieder A, Spiertz M, Schwaneberg U. Preparative Production of Functionalized (N- and O-Heterocyclic) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons by Human Cytochrome P450 3A4 in a Bioreactor. Biomolecules 2022; 12:biom12020153. [PMID: 35204652 PMCID: PMC8961652 DOI: 10.3390/biom12020153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their N- and O-containing derivatives (N-/O-PAHs) are environmental pollutants and synthetically attractive building blocks in pharmaceuticals. Functionalization of PAHs can be achieved via C-H activation by cytochrome P450 enzymes (e.g., P450 CYP3A4) in an environmentally friendly manner. Despite its broad substrate scope, the contribution of CYP3A4 to metabolize common PAHs in humans was found to be small. We recently showcased the potential of CYP3A4 in whole-cell biocatalysis with recombinant yeast Komagataella phaffii (Pichia pastoris) catalysts for the preparative-scale synthesis of naturally occurring metabolites in humans. In this study, we aimed at exploring the substrate scope of CYP3A4 towards (N-/O)-PAHs and conducted a bioconversion experiment at 10 L scale to validate the synthetic potential of CYP3A4 for the preparative-scale production of functionalized PAH metabolites. Hydroxylated products were purified and characterized using HPLC and NMR analysis. In total, 237 mg of fluorenol and 48 mg of fluorenone were produced from 498 mg of fluorene, with peak productivities of 27.7 μmol/L/h for fluorenol and 5.9 μmol/L/h for fluorenone; the latter confirmed that CYP3A4 is an excellent whole-cell biocatalyst for producing authentic human metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matic Srdič
- SeSaM-Biotech GmbH, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Institute of Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Nico D. Fessner
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology, Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz, 8010 Graz, Austria;
| | - Deniz Yildiz
- DWI—Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Institute for Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Markus Spiertz
- SeSaM-Biotech GmbH, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (U.S.)
| | - Ulrich Schwaneberg
- Institute of Biotechnology, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
- DWI—Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (U.S.)
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14
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Fessner ND, Grimm C, Srdič M, Weber H, Kroutil W, Schwaneberg U, Glieder A. Natural Product Diversification by One‐Step Biocatalysis using Human P450 3A4. ChemCatChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.202101564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nico D. Fessner
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology NAWI Graz Graz University of Technology Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Christopher Grimm
- Institute of Chemistry NAWI Graz University of Graz Heinrichstraße 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Matic Srdič
- SeSaM-Biotech GmbH Forckenbeckstraße 50 52074 Aachen Germany
- Bisy GmbH Wuenschendorf 292 Hofstätten an der Raab 8200 Hofstaetten Austria
| | - Hansjörg Weber
- Institute of Organic Chemistry NAWI Graz Graz University of Technology Stremayrgasse 9 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Wolfgang Kroutil
- Institute of Chemistry NAWI Graz University of Graz Heinrichstraße 28 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Ulrich Schwaneberg
- Institute of Biotechnology RWTH Aachen University Worringerweg 3 52074 Aachen Germany
| | - Anton Glieder
- Institute of Molecular Biotechnology NAWI Graz Graz University of Technology Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
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15
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Róg T, Girych M, Bunker A. Mechanistic Understanding from Molecular Dynamics in Pharmaceutical Research 2: Lipid Membrane in Drug Design. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:1062. [PMID: 34681286 PMCID: PMC8537670 DOI: 10.3390/ph14101062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We review the use of molecular dynamics (MD) simulation as a drug design tool in the context of the role that the lipid membrane can play in drug action, i.e., the interaction between candidate drug molecules and lipid membranes. In the standard "lock and key" paradigm, only the interaction between the drug and a specific active site of a specific protein is considered; the environment in which the drug acts is, from a biophysical perspective, far more complex than this. The possible mechanisms though which a drug can be designed to tinker with physiological processes are significantly broader than merely fitting to a single active site of a single protein. In this paper, we focus on the role of the lipid membrane, arguably the most important element outside the proteins themselves, as a case study. We discuss work that has been carried out, using MD simulation, concerning the transfection of drugs through membranes that act as biological barriers in the path of the drugs, the behavior of drug molecules within membranes, how their collective behavior can affect the structure and properties of the membrane and, finally, the role lipid membranes, to which the vast majority of drug target proteins are associated, can play in mediating the interaction between drug and target protein. This review paper is the second in a two-part series covering MD simulation as a tool in pharmaceutical research; both are designed as pedagogical review papers aimed at both pharmaceutical scientists interested in exploring how the tool of MD simulation can be applied to their research and computational scientists interested in exploring the possibility of a pharmaceutical context for their research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Róg
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Mykhailo Girych
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
| | - Alex Bunker
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland;
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16
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Niwa T, Arima J, Michihiro Y. Role of amino acids at positions 34, 296, and 486 of cytochrome P450 2D6 in the stimulatory and inhibitory effects of psychotropic agents on dopamine formation from p-tyramine. Xenobiotica 2021; 51:1229-1235. [PMID: 34605737 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2021.1989520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The effects of psychotropic agents such as fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, paroxetine, milnacipran, and fluphenazine on dopamine formation from p-tyramine catalysed by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2D6.2 (Arg296Cys;Ser486Thr), CYP2D6.10 (Pro34Ser;Ser486Thr), and CYP2D6.39 (Ser486Thr) were compared with the effects on dopamine formation from p-tyramine by CYP2D6.1. Michaelis constants (Km) and maximal velocity (kcat) values for dopamine formation and inhibition constants (Ki) of the psychotropic agents were determined.For CYP2D6.39, the kcat values for fluvoxamine, fluoxetine, and milnacipran, but not for paroxetine and fluphenazine, gradually increased with increasing concentrations, indicating activation of the catalysed reaction.Fluphenazine competitively inhibited dopamine formation catalysed by all variants, with a higher Ki value for CYP2D6.10. Among the three compounds that have a trifluoromethyl group in their chemical structure, only fluvoxamine and fluoxetine, as well as milnacipran that does not have this group, decreased Km values and/or increased kcat values for dopamine formation, suggesting that the group may not be essential for the activation.These findings indicate that substitution of amino acids at positions 34 and 486 can affect the affinity (Km) and enzymatic activity (kcat), respectively, for milnacipran and that the effect of substitution of arginine to cysteine at the 296th position on the activation would be effector dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshiro Niwa
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Okayama, Japan
| | - Juri Arima
- School of Pharmacy, Shujitsu University, Okayama, Japan
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17
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Ducharme J, Sevrioukova IF, Thibodeaux CJ, Auclair K. Structural Dynamics of Cytochrome P450 3A4 in the Presence of Substrates and Cytochrome P450 Reductase. Biochemistry 2021; 60:2259-2271. [PMID: 34196520 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.1c00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is the most important drug-metabolizing enzyme in humans and has been associated with harmful drug interactions. The activity of CYP3A4 is known to be modulated by several compounds and by the electron transfer partner, cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR). The underlying mechanism of these effects, however, is poorly understood. We have used hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to investigate the impact of binding of CPR and of three different substrates (7-benzyloxy-4-trifluoromethyl-coumarin, testosterone, and progesterone) on the conformational dynamics of CYP3A4. Here, we report that interaction of CYP3A4 with substrates or with the oxidized or reduced forms of CPR leads to a global rigidification of the CYP3A4 structure. This was evident from the suppression of deuterium exchange in several regions of CYP3A4, including regions known to be involved in protein-protein interactions (helix C) and substrate binding and specificity (helices B' and E, and loop K/β1). Furthermore, the bimodal isotopic distributions observed for some CYP3A4-derived peptides were drastically impacted upon binding to CPR and/or substrates, suggesting the existence of stable CYP3A4 conformational populations that are perturbed by ligand/CPR binding. The results have implications for understanding the mechanisms of ligand binding, allostery, and catalysis in CYP enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Ducharme
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B8
| | - Irina F Sevrioukova
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Christopher J Thibodeaux
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B8
| | - Karine Auclair
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B8
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18
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Niwa T, Toyota M, Kawasaki H, Ishii R, Sasaki S. Comparison of the Stimulatory and Inhibitory Effects of Steroid Hormones and α-Naphthoflavone on Steroid Hormone Hydroxylation Catalyzed by Human Cytochrome P450 3A Subfamilies. Biol Pharm Bull 2021; 44:579-584. [PMID: 33790108 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b20-00987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The inhibitory and stimulatory effects of steroid hormones and related compounds on the hydroxylation activity at the 6β-position of two steroid hormones, progesterone and testosterone, by CYP3A4, polymorphically expressed CYP3A5, and fetal CYP3A7 were compared to clarify the catalytic properties of the predominant forms of the human CYP3A subfamily. Hydroxylation activities of progesterone and testosterone by CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 were estimated using HPLC. The Michaelis constants (Km) for progesterone 6β-hydroxylation by CYP3A5 were markedly decreased in the presence of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and α-naphthoflavone (ANF), whereas progesterone and DHEA competitively inhibited testosterone 6β-hydroxylation mediated by CYP3A4, and progesterone competitively inhibited CYP3A5-mediated activity, which was weaker than that for CYP3A4. ANF noncompetitively inhibited testosterone 6β-hydroxylation mediated by both CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. Progesterone and testosterone 6β-hydroxylation mediated by CYP3A7 was inhibited or unaffected by DHEA, pregnenolone, and ANF. These results suggested that DHEA and ANF stimulated progesterone 6β-hydroxylation by CYP3A5 but not by CYP3A4 and CYP3A7; however, progesterone, DHEA, and ANF inhibited testosterone 6β-hydroxylation mediated by all CYP3A subfamily members. The inhibitory/stimulatory pattern of steroid-steroid interactions is different among CYP3A subfamily members and CYP3A5 is the most sensitive in terms of activation among the CYP3A subfamily members investigated.
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19
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Yamaguchi Y, Akiyoshi T, Kawamura G, Imaoka A, Miyazaki M, Guengerich FP, Nakamura K, Yamamoto K, Ohtani H. Comparison of the inhibitory effects of azole antifungals on cytochrome P450 3A4 genetic variants. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2021; 38:100384. [PMID: 33826998 DOI: 10.1016/j.dmpk.2021.100384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 is one of the major drug-metabolizing enzymes. Genetic variants of CYP3A4 with altered activity are one of the factors responsible for interindividual differences in drug metabolism. Azole antifungals inhibit CYP3A4 to cause clinically significant drug-drug interactions. In the present quantitative study, we investigated the inhibitory effects of three azole antifungals (ketoconazole, voriconazole, and fluconazole) on testosterone metabolism by recombinant CYP3A4 genetic variants (CYP3A4.1 (WT), CYP3A4.2, CYP3A4.7, CYP3A4.16, and CYP3A4.18) and compared them with those previously reported for itraconazole. The inhibition constants (Ki) of ketoconazole, voriconazole, and fluconazole for rCYP3A4.1 were 3.6 nM, 3.2 μM, and 16.1 μM, respectively. The Ki values of these azoles for rCYP3A4.16 were 13.9-, 13.6-, and 6.2-fold higher than those for rCYP3A4.1, respectively, whereas the Ki value of itraconazole for rCYP3A4.16 was 0.54-fold of that for rCYP3A4.1. The other genetic variants had similar effects on the Ki values of the three azoles, whereas a very different pattern was seen for itraconazole. In conclusion, itraconazole has unique characteristics that are distinct from those shared by the other azole anti-fungal drugs ketoconazole, voriconazole, and fluconazole with regard to the influence of genetic variations on the inhibition of CYP3A4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Yamaguchi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Keio University Faculty of Pharmacy, Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8512, Japan
| | - Takeshi Akiyoshi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Keio University Faculty of Pharmacy, Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8512, Japan
| | - Go Kawamura
- Division of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Keio University Faculty of Pharmacy, Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8512, Japan
| | - Ayuko Imaoka
- Division of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Keio University Faculty of Pharmacy, Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8512, Japan
| | - Mitsue Miyazaki
- Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showamachi, Maebashi-shi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, 2200 Pierce Avenue, Nashville, USA
| | - Katsunori Nakamura
- Ryukyus University School of Medicine, 207 Azauehara, Nishiharacho, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan
| | - Koujirou Yamamoto
- Gunma University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-39-22 Showamachi, Maebashi-shi, Gunma, 371-8511, Japan
| | - Hisakazu Ohtani
- Division of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Keio University Faculty of Pharmacy, Shibakoen, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-8512, Japan.
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20
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Paço L, Zarate-Perez F, Clouser AF, Atkins WM, Hackett JC. Dynamics and Mechanism of Binding of Androstenedione to Membrane-Associated Aromatase. Biochemistry 2020; 59:2999-3009. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.0c00460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lorela Paço
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7610, United States
| | - Francisco Zarate-Perez
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and Massey Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0035, United States
| | - Amanda F. Clouser
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7610, United States
| | - William M. Atkins
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-7610, United States
| | - John C. Hackett
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and Massey Cancer Center, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0035, United States
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21
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Fessner ND, Srdič M, Weber H, Schmid C, Schönauer D, Schwaneberg U, Glieder A. Preparative‐Scale Production of Testosterone Metabolites by Human Liver Cytochrome P450 Enzyme 3A4. Adv Synth Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/adsc.202000251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nico D. Fessner
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of Technology, NAWI Graz Petersgasse 14/3 Austria
| | - Matic Srdič
- SeSaM-Biotech GmbH Aachen Germany
- Bisy GmbH Hofstaetten Austria
| | - Hansjörg Weber
- Institute of Organic ChemistryGraz University of Technology, NAWI Graz Austria
| | - Christian Schmid
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of Technology, NAWI Graz Petersgasse 14/3 Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB) Graz Austria
| | | | | | - Anton Glieder
- Institute of Molecular BiotechnologyGraz University of Technology, NAWI Graz Petersgasse 14/3 Austria
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22
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Mustafa G, Nandekar PP, Mukherjee G, Bruce NJ, Wade RC. The Effect of Force-Field Parameters on Cytochrome P450-Membrane Interactions: Structure and Dynamics. Sci Rep 2020; 10:7284. [PMID: 32350331 PMCID: PMC7190701 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64129-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The simulation of membrane proteins requires compatible protein and lipid force fields that reproduce the properties of both the protein and the lipid bilayer. Cytochrome P450 enzymes are bitopic membrane proteins with a transmembrane helical anchor and a large cytosolic globular domain that dips into the membrane. As such, they are representative and challenging examples of membrane proteins for simulations, displaying features of both peripheral and integral membrane proteins. We performed molecular dynamics simulations of three cytochrome P450 isoforms (2C9, 2C19 and 1A1) in a 2-oleoyl-1-palmitoyl-sn-glycerol-3-phosphocholine bilayer using two AMBER force field combinations: GAFF-LIPID with ff99SB for the protein, and LIPID14 with ff14SB for the protein. Comparison of the structural and dynamic properties of the proteins, the lipids and the protein-membrane interactions shows differing sensitivity of the cytochrome P450 isoforms to the choice of force field, with generally better agreement with experiment for the LIPID14 + ff14SB combination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghulam Mustafa
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Heidelberg, Germany.,B-Zell-Immunologie (D130), German Cancer Research Center, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKF), Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Prajwal P Nandekar
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Heidelberg, Germany.,Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, INF 282, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Schrodinger Inc. #147, 3rd Floor, Jawaharlal Nehru main road, Above State Bank of India, Channasandra, 5th Stage, RR Nagar, Bengaluru, 560098, India
| | - Goutam Mukherjee
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Heidelberg, Germany.,Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, INF 282, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Neil J Bruce
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rebecca C Wade
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Heidelberg, Germany. .,Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, INF 282, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany. .,Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, INF 368, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
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23
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Comparison of steroid hormone hydroxylation mediated by cytochrome P450 3A subfamilies. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 682:108283. [PMID: 32001245 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Hydroxylation activity at the 6β-position of steroid hormones (testosterone, progesterone, and cortisol) by human cytochromes P450 (CYP) 3A4, polymorphic CYP3A5, and fetal CYP3A7 were compared to understand the catalytic properties of the major forms of human CYP3A subfamily. Testosterone, progesterone, and cortisol 6β-hydroxylation activities of recombinant CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 were determined by liquid chromatography. Michaelis constants (Km) for CYP3A7-mediated 6β-hydroxylation of testosterone, progesterone, and cortisol were similar to those of CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. The maximal velocity (kcat) and kcat/Km values for CYP3A4 were the highest, followed by CYP3A5 and those for CYP3A7 were the lowest among three CYP3A subfamily members. A decrease in Km values for progesterone 6β-hydroxylation by CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7 in the presence of testosterone was observed, and the kcat values for CYP3A5 gradually increased with increasing testosterone. This indicated that testosterone stimulated progesterone 6β-hydroxylation by all three CYP3A subfamily members. However, progesterone inhibited testosterone 6β-hydroxylation mediated by CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP3A7. In conclusion, the kcat values, rather than Km values, for 6β-hydroxylation of three steroid hormones mediated by CYP3A7 were different from those for CYP3A4 and CYP3A5. In addition, the inhibitory/stimulatory pattern of steroid-steroid interactions would be different among CYP3A subfamily members.
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24
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Redhair M, Hackett JC, Pelletier RD, Atkins WM. Dynamics and Location of the Allosteric Midazolam Site in Cytochrome P4503A4 in Lipid Nanodiscs. Biochemistry 2020; 59:766-779. [PMID: 31961139 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.9b01001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Promiscuous and allosteric drug interactions with cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) are ubiquitous but incompletely understood at the molecular level. A classic allosteric CYP3A4 drug interaction includes the benzodiazepine midazolam (MDZ). MDZ exhibits homotropic and heterotropic allostery when metabolized to 1'-hydroxy and 4-hydroxy metabolites in varying ratios. The combination of hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) and Gaussian accelerated molecular dynamics (GaMD) simulations of CYP3A4 in lipid nanodiscs and in a lipid bilayer, respectively, reveals MDZ-dependent changes in dynamics in a membrane environment. The F-, G-, and intervening helices, as well as the loop preceding the β1-sheets, display the largest observed changes in HDX. The GaMD suggests a potential allosteric binding site for MDZ in the F'- and G'-regions, which undergo significant increases in HDX at near-saturating MDZ concentrations. The HDX-MS and GaMD results confirm that changes in dynamics are most significant near the developing consensus allosteric site, and these changes are distinct from those observed previously with the nonallosteric inhibitor ketoconazole. The results suggest that the allosteric MDZ remains mobile in its binding site at the Phe-cluster. The results further suggest that this binding site remains dynamic or changes the depth of insertion in the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Redhair
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195-7610 , United States
| | - John C Hackett
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Massey Cancer Center, School of Medicine , Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond , Virginia 23298-0035 , United States
| | - Robert D Pelletier
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195-7610 , United States
| | - William M Atkins
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195-7610 , United States
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25
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Functional impact of cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) missense variants in cattle. Sci Rep 2019; 9:19672. [PMID: 31873175 PMCID: PMC6927969 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-56271-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 3A is the most important CYP subfamily in humans, and CYP3A4/CYP3A5 genetic variants contribute to inter-individual variability in drug metabolism. However, no information is available for bovine CYP3A (bCYP3A). Here we described bCYP3A missense single nucleotide variants (SNVs) and evaluated their functional effects. CYP3A28, CYP3A38 and CYP3A48 missense SNVs were identified in 300 bulls of Piedmontese breed through targeted sequencing. Wild-type and mutant bCYP3A cDNAs were cloned and expressed in V79 cells. CYP3A-dependent oxidative metabolism of testosterone (TST) and nifedipine (NIF) was assessed by LC-MS/MS. Finally, SNVs functional impact on TST hydroxylation was measured ex vivo in liver microsomes from individually genotyped animals. Thirteen missense SNVs were identified and validated. Five variants showed differences in CYP3A catalytic activity: three CYP3A28 SNVs reduced TST 6β-hydroxylation; one CYP3A38 variant increased TST 16β-hydroxylation, while a CYP3A48 SNV showed enhanced NIF oxidation. Individuals homozygous for rs384467435 SNV showed a reduced TST 6β-hydroxylation. Molecular modelling showed that most of SNVs were distal to CYP3A active site, suggesting indirect effects on the catalytic activity. Collectively, these findings demonstrate the importance of pharmacogenetics studies in veterinary species and suggest bCYP3A genotype variation might affect the fate of xenobiotics in food-producing species such as cattle.
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Fischer A, Smieško M. Spontaneous Ligand Access Events to Membrane-Bound Cytochrome P450 2D6 Sampled at Atomic Resolution. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16411. [PMID: 31712722 PMCID: PMC6848145 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52681-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The membrane-anchored enzyme Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is involved in the metabolism of around 25% of marketed drugs and its metabolic performance shows a high interindividual variation. While it was suggested that ligands access the buried active site of the enzyme from the membrane, no proof from unbiased simulations has been provided to support this hypothesis. Laboratory experiments fail to capture the access process which is suspected to influence binding kinetics. Here, we applied unbiased molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate the access of ligands to wild-type CYP2D6, as well as the allelic variant CYP2D6*53. In multiple simulations, substrates accessed the active site of the enzyme from the protein-membrane interface to ultimately adopt a conformation that would allow a metabolic reaction. We propose the necessary steps for ligand access and the results suggest that the increased metabolic activity of CYP2D6*53 might be caused by a facilitated ligand uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Fischer
- University of Basel, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Basel, 4056, Switzerland
| | - Martin Smieško
- University of Basel, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Basel, 4056, Switzerland.
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Mustafa G, Nandekar PP, Bruce NJ, Wade RC. Differing Membrane Interactions of Two Highly Similar Drug-Metabolizing Cytochrome P450 Isoforms: CYP 2C9 and CYP 2C19. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20184328. [PMID: 31487853 PMCID: PMC6770661 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20184328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The human cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 and 2C19 enzymes are two highly similar isoforms with key roles in drug metabolism. They are anchored to the endoplasmic reticulum membrane by their N-terminal transmembrane helix and interactions of their cytoplasmic globular domain with the membrane. However, their crystal structures were determined after N-terminal truncation and mutating residues in the globular domain that contact the membrane. Therefore, the CYP-membrane interactions are not structurally well-characterized and their dynamics and the influence of membrane interactions on CYP function are not well understood. We describe herein the modeling and simulation of CYP 2C9 and CYP 2C19 in a phospholipid bilayer. The simulations revealed that, despite high sequence conservation, the small sequence and structural differences between the two isoforms altered the interactions and orientations of the CYPs in the membrane bilayer. We identified residues (including K72, P73, and I99 in CYP 2C9 and E72, R73, and H99 in CYP 2C19) at the protein-membrane interface that contribute not only to the differing orientations adopted by the two isoforms in the membrane, but also to their differing substrate specificities by affecting the substrate access tunnels. Our findings provide a mechanistic interpretation of experimentally observed effects of mutagenesis on substrate selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghulam Mustafa
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), 69118 Heidelberg, Germany
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Prajwal P Nandekar
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), 69118 Heidelberg, Germany
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Neil J Bruce
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), 69118 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rebecca C Wade
- Molecular and Cellular Modeling Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), 69118 Heidelberg, Germany.
- Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
- Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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Ducharme J, Polic V, Auclair K. A Covalently Attached Progesterone Molecule Outcompetes the Binding of Free Progesterone at an Allosteric Site of Cytochrome P450 3A4. Bioconjug Chem 2019; 30:1629-1635. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Ducharme
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B8
| | - Vanja Polic
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B8
| | - Karine Auclair
- Department of Chemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 0B8
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29
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Enkavi G, Javanainen M, Kulig W, Róg T, Vattulainen I. Multiscale Simulations of Biological Membranes: The Challenge To Understand Biological Phenomena in a Living Substance. Chem Rev 2019; 119:5607-5774. [PMID: 30859819 PMCID: PMC6727218 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
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Biological
membranes are tricky to investigate. They are complex
in terms of molecular composition and structure, functional
over a wide range of time scales, and characterized
by nonequilibrium conditions. Because of all of these
features, simulations are a great technique to study biomembrane
behavior. A significant part of the functional processes
in biological membranes takes place at the molecular
level; thus computer simulations are the method of
choice to explore how their properties emerge from specific
molecular features and how the interplay among the numerous
molecules gives rise to function over spatial and
time scales larger than the molecular ones. In this
review, we focus on this broad theme. We discuss the current
state-of-the-art of biomembrane simulations that, until
now, have largely focused on a rather narrow picture
of the complexity of the membranes. Given this, we
also discuss the challenges that we should unravel in the
foreseeable future. Numerous features such as the actin-cytoskeleton
network, the glycocalyx network, and nonequilibrium
transport under ATP-driven conditions have so far
received very little attention; however, the potential
of simulations to solve them would be exceptionally high. A
major milestone for this research would be that one day
we could say that computer simulations genuinely research
biological membranes, not just lipid bilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giray Enkavi
- Department of Physics , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland
| | - Matti Javanainen
- Department of Physics , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland.,Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences , Flemingovo naḿesti 542/2 , 16610 Prague , Czech Republic.,Computational Physics Laboratory , Tampere University , P.O. Box 692, FI-33014 Tampere , Finland
| | - Waldemar Kulig
- Department of Physics , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland
| | - Tomasz Róg
- Department of Physics , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland.,Computational Physics Laboratory , Tampere University , P.O. Box 692, FI-33014 Tampere , Finland
| | - Ilpo Vattulainen
- Department of Physics , University of Helsinki , P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki , Finland.,Computational Physics Laboratory , Tampere University , P.O. Box 692, FI-33014 Tampere , Finland.,MEMPHYS-Center for Biomembrane Physics
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Lu YW, Zhu YC, Zhang L, Li P, Yang J, Wen XD. Ilexgenin A enhances the effects of simvastatin on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease without changes in simvastatin pharmacokinetics. Chin J Nat Med 2018; 16:436-445. [PMID: 30047465 DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(18)30077-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the most common cause of death in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). New therapeutic strategies which have the potential for slowing down the evolution of NAFLD and reducing CVD-related mortality are urgently needed. Statins are well recognized in the treatment of dyslipidemia, but their use in the treatment of NAFLD is limited due to the safety concerns. Ilexgenin A (IA) is one of the main bioactive compounds in 'Shan-lv-cha', an herbal tea commonly used in China. In the present study, we investigated the possible synergistic therapeutic effects of IA and simvastatin (SV) on NAFLD. IA or SV showed beneficial effects on the rats with NAFLD by lowering the liver weight, liver index and plasma levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase, regulating abnormal metabolism of lipids and ameliorating steatosis in liver. IA significantly enhanced the hypolipidemic and anti-inflammation effects of SV. Furthermore, a sensitive, accurate, convenient and reproducible LC-MS method was developed to investigate the effects of IA on the pharmacokinetics of SV. No significant changes were observed in pharmacokinetic parameters of SV and simvastatin hydroxy acid in the IA plus SV co-treated group in comparison with those in the group treated with SV alone. The mRNA levels and activity of CYP3A1 were not altered by IA. In conclusion, the results obtained from the present study should be helpful for further clinical application of SV and IA alone or in combination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Wen Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Ying-Chao Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Li Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Ping Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China
| | - Jie Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China.
| | - Xiao-Dong Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China.
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Šrejber M, Navrátilová V, Paloncýová M, Bazgier V, Berka K, Anzenbacher P, Otyepka M. Membrane-attached mammalian cytochromes P450: An overview of the membrane's effects on structure, drug binding, and interactions with redox partners. J Inorg Biochem 2018; 183:117-136. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2018.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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