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Xu Y, Xia Y, Liu Q, Jing X, Tang Q, Zhang J, Jia Q, Zhang Z, Li J, Chen J, Xiong Y, Li Y, He J. Glutaredoxin-1 alleviates acetaminophen-induced liver injury by decreasing its toxic metabolites. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1548-1561. [PMID: 38223455 PMCID: PMC10785153 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Excessive N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine (NAPQI) formation is a starting event that triggers oxidative stress and subsequent hepatocyte necrosis in acetaminophen (APAP) overdose caused acute liver failure (ALF). S-glutathionylation is a reversible redox post-translational modification and a prospective mechanism of APAP hepatotoxicity. Glutaredoxin-1 (Glrx1), a glutathione-specific thioltransferase, is a primary enzyme to catalyze deglutathionylation. The objective of this study was to explored whether and how Glrx1 is associated with the development of ALF induced by APAP. The Glrx1 knockout mice (Glrx1-/-) and liver-specific overexpression of Glrx1 (AAV8-Glrx1) mice were produced and underwent APAP-induced ALF. Pirfenidone (PFD), a potential inducer of Glrx1, was administrated preceding APAP to assess its protective effects. Our results revealed that the hepatic total protein S-glutathionylation (PSSG) increased and the Glrx1 level reduced in mice after APAP toxicity. Glrx1-/- mice were more sensitive to APAP overdose, with higher oxidative stress and more toxic metabolites of APAP. This was attributed to Glrx1 deficiency increasing the total hepatic PSSG and the S-glutathionylation of cytochrome p450 3a11 (Cyp3a11), which likely increased the activity of Cyp3a11. Conversely, AAV8-Glrx1 mice were defended against liver damage caused by APAP overdose by inhibiting the S-glutathionylation and activity of Cyp3a11, which reduced the toxic metabolites of APAP and oxidative stress. PFD precede administration upregulated Glrx1 expression and alleviated APAP-induced ALF by decreasing oxidative stress. We have identified the function of Glrx1 mediated PSSG in liver injury caused by APAP overdose. Increasing Glrx1 expression may be investigated for the medical treatment of APAP-caused hepatic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Qinhui Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Xiandan Jing
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qin Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jinhang Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Qingyi Jia
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Zijing Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jiahui Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jiahao Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yimin Xiong
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Yanping Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Jinhan He
- Department of Pharmacy, Institute of Metabolic Diseases and Pharmacotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, 610041, China
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Koshak MF, El-Readi MZ, Elzubier ME, Refaat B, Almaimani RA, Idris S, Althubiti M, Al-Amodi HS, Eid SY. Antioxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Protective Effects of Fucoxanthin against Paracetamol-Induced Hepatotoxicity in Rats. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:592. [PMID: 37999416 PMCID: PMC10672227 DOI: 10.3390/md21110592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2023] [Revised: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Paracetamol or acetaminophen (PAC) is a commonly used analgesic and antipyretic drug. It has been shown that overdoses beyond the therapeutic range can cause hepatotoxicity and acute liver injury. The most common cause of drug-induced liver injury (DILI) in Saudi Arabia and worldwide is paracetamol overdose. Fucoxanthin (FUC) is an allenic carotenoid that is found in edible brown seaweeds, and it has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. Several studies have shown the potential therapeutic effects of FUC in diabetes, cancers, and inflammatory disorders. This study aims to investigate the protective effect of FUC against PAC-induced acute liver injury in rats. FUC was administered (100, 200, and 500 mg/kg, p.o.) for 7 days, and then the liver injury was induced by the administration of PAC (2000 mg/kg, oral). Blood and liver tissue samples were collected from PAC-positive untreated, treated, and negative control rats. Biochemical and inflammatory parameters in the blood were measured. In addition, RT-PCR, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry were performed for liver tissue. The serum levels of liver biomarkers (ALT, AST, and ALP) increased after PAC-induced liver toxicity; FUC-treated rats showed lower levels compared to the positive control. There was an increase in the expression of TNF-α, IL-1, IL-6, NF-kB, INF-γ, and iNOS and a decrease in IL-10, IL-22, and IL-10R expression after the FUC treatment of injured liver rats. For the hepatic inflammation and PAC-toxicity-induced oxidative stress genes and proteins, FUC-treated rats (100, 200, and 500 mg/kg) showed a reduction in the expression of oxidative stress genes. These results showed that FUC protected the liver against PAC-induced injury through antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions. However, further clinical studies are required to confirm the findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maimonah Fuad Koshak
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
- Laboratory of Clinical Chemistry, King Salman Armed Forces Hospital, Tabuk 47512, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahmoud Zaki El-Readi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Elzubier Elzubier
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bassem Refaat
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, P.O. Box 7607, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Riyad Adnan Almaimani
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shakir Idris
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, P.O. Box 7607, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Althubiti
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hiba Saeed Al-Amodi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
| | - Safaa Yehia Eid
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah 24381, Saudi Arabia
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Enríquez-Flores S, De la Mora-De la Mora I, García-Torres I, Flores-López LA, Martínez-Pérez Y, López-Velázquez G. Human Triosephosphate Isomerase Is a Potential Target in Cancer Due to Commonly Occurring Post-Translational Modifications. Molecules 2023; 28:6163. [PMID: 37630415 PMCID: PMC10459230 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28166163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 08/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer involves a series of diseases where cellular growth is not controlled. Cancer is a leading cause of death worldwide, and the burden of cancer incidence and mortality is rapidly growing, mainly in developing countries. Many drugs are currently used, from chemotherapeutic agents to immunotherapy, among others, along with organ transplantation. Treatments can cause severe side effects, including remission and progression of the disease with serious consequences. Increased glycolytic activity is characteristic of cancer cells. Triosephosphate isomerase is essential for net ATP production in the glycolytic pathway. Notably, some post-translational events have been described that occur in human triosephosphate isomerase in which functional and structural alterations are provoked. This is considered a window of opportunity, given the differences that may exist between cancer cells and their counterpart in normal cells concerning the glycolytic enzymes. Here, we provide elements that bring out the potential of triosephosphate isomerase, under post-translational modifications, to be considered an efficacious target for treating cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio Enríquez-Flores
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City 04530, Mexico; (I.D.l.M.-D.l.M.); (I.G.-T.)
| | - Ignacio De la Mora-De la Mora
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City 04530, Mexico; (I.D.l.M.-D.l.M.); (I.G.-T.)
| | - Itzhel García-Torres
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City 04530, Mexico; (I.D.l.M.-D.l.M.); (I.G.-T.)
| | - Luis A. Flores-López
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, CONAHCYT-Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Mexico City 04530, Mexico;
| | - Yoalli Martínez-Pérez
- Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Mexico City 14380, Mexico;
| | - Gabriel López-Velázquez
- Laboratorio de Biomoléculas y Salud Infantil, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, Mexico City 04530, Mexico; (I.D.l.M.-D.l.M.); (I.G.-T.)
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Li X, Gluth A, Zhang T, Qian WJ. Thiol redox proteomics: Characterization of thiol-based post-translational modifications. Proteomics 2023; 23:e2200194. [PMID: 37248656 PMCID: PMC10764013 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.202200194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Redox post-translational modifications on cysteine thiols (redox PTMs) have profound effects on protein structure and function, thus enabling regulation of various biological processes. Redox proteomics approaches aim to characterize the landscape of redox PTMs at the systems level. These approaches facilitate studies of condition-specific, dynamic processes implicating redox PTMs and have furthered our understanding of redox signaling and regulation. Mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful tool for such analyses which has been demonstrated by significant advances in redox proteomics during the last decade. A group of well-established approaches involves the initial blocking of free thiols followed by selective reduction of oxidized PTMs and subsequent enrichment for downstream detection. Alternatively, novel chemoselective probe-based approaches have been developed for various redox PTMs. Direct detection of redox PTMs without any enrichment has also been demonstrated given the sensitivity of contemporary MS instruments. This review discusses the general principles behind different analytical strategies and covers recent advances in redox proteomics. Several applications of redox proteomics are also highlighted to illustrate how large-scale redox proteomics data can lead to novel biological insights.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolu Li
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354
| | - Austin Gluth
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University, Richland, WA 99354
| | - Tong Zhang
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354
| | - Wei-Jun Qian
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354
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Modulations in human neutrophil metabolome and S-glutathionylation of glycolytic pathway enzymes during the course of extracellular trap formation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2023; 1869:166581. [PMID: 36265832 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2022.166581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis) has been irrefutably referred to as a distinct and unique form of active cell death with the purpose to counteract invading pathogens or augmenting the inflammatory cascade. Since the discovery, consistent efforts have been made to understand the various aspects of the initiation and sustenance of NETosis. In this study, using a global metabolomics approach during the phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) induced NETosis in human neutrophils, various metabolic pathways were found to be altered which includes intermediates related to, carbohydrate metabolism, and redox related metabolites, nucleic acid metabolism, and amino acids metabolism. Enrichment analysis of the metabolite sets highlighted the importance of the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and glutathione metabolism PMA-induced NETotic neutrophils. Further, analysis of the glutathyniolation status of neutrophil proteins by Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) indicated six different glutathionylated proteins: among them, two metabolically important proteins were α-enolase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) with MALDI score 166 and 70 respectively. Other proteins were lactoferrin, β-actin, c-myc promoter-binding protein, and uracil DNA glycosylase with MALDI scores of 96, 167, 104, and 68 respectively. Besides, activation of signalling proteins involved in metabolic regulation is also correlated with NETosis. Altogether, a balance between reactive oxygen species-glutathione metabolism seems to regulate the activity of glycolytic enzymes such as GAPDH and α-enolase during PMA-induced NETosis in a time-dependent manner.
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The E3 ubiquitin ligase NEDD4-1 protects against acetaminophen-induced liver injury by targeting VDAC1 for degradation. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023; 13:1616-1630. [PMID: 37139424 PMCID: PMC10150139 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 08/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is a major cause of liver injury. Neural precursor cell expressed developmentally downregulated 4-1 (NEDD4-1) is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous liver diseases; however, its role in APAP-induced liver injury (AILI) is unclear. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the role of NEDD4-1 in the pathogenesis of AILI. We found that NEDD4-1 was dramatically downregulated in response to APAP treatment in mouse livers and isolated mouse hepatocytes. Hepatocyte-specific NEDD4-1 knockout exacerbated APAP-induced mitochondrial damage and the resultant hepatocyte necrosis and liver injury, while hepatocyte-specific NEDD4-1 overexpression mitigated these pathological events both in vivo and in vitro. Additionally, hepatocyte NEDD4-1 deficiency led to marked accumulation of voltage-dependent anion channel 1 (VDAC1) and increased VDAC1 oligomerization. Furthermore, VDAC1 knockdown alleviated AILI and weakened the exacerbation of AILI caused by hepatocyte NEDD4-1 deficiency. Mechanistically, NEDD4-1 was found to interact with the PPTY motif of VDAC1 through its WW domain and regulate K48-linked ubiquitination and degradation of VDAC1. Our present study indicates that NEDD4-1 is a suppressor of AILI and functions by regulating the degradation of VDAC1.
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Chilvery S, Yelne A, Khurana A, Saifi MA, Bansod S, Anchi P, Godugu C. Acetaminophen induced hepatotoxicity: An overview of the promising protective effects of natural products and herbal formulations. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 108:154510. [PMID: 36332383 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The liver plays an important role in regulating the metabolic processes and is the most frequently targeted organ by toxic chemicals. Acetaminophen (APAP) is a well-known anti-allergic, anti-pyretic, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), which upon overdose leads to hepatotoxicity, the major adverse event of this over-the-counter drug. PURPOSE APAP overdose induced acute liver injury is the second most common cause that often requires liver transplantation worldwide, for which N-acetyl cysteine is the only synthetic drug clinically approved as an antidote. So, it was felt that there is a need for the novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of liver diseases with less adverse effects. This review provides detailed analysis of the different plant extracts; phytochemicals and herbal formulations for the amelioration of APAP-induced liver injury. METHOD The data was collected using different online resources including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, Springer, and Web of Science using keywords given below. RESULTS Over the past decades various reports have revealed that plant-based approaches may be a better treatment choice for the APAP-induced hepatotoxicity in pre-clinical experimental conditions. Moreover, herbal compounds provide several advantages over the synthetic drugs with fewer side effects, easy availability and less cost for the treatment of life-threatening diseases. CONCLUSION The current review summarizes the hepatoprotective effects and therapeutic mechanisms of various plant extracts, active phytoconstituents and herbal formulations with potential application against APAP induced hepatotoxicity as the numbers of hepatoprotective natural products are more without clinical relativity. Further, pre-clinical pharmacological research will contribute to the designing of natural products as medicines with encouraging prospects for clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shrilekha Chilvery
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Amit Yelne
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Amit Khurana
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Mohd Aslam Saifi
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Sapana Bansod
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Pratibha Anchi
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
| | - Chandraiah Godugu
- Department of Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Balanagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
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Li X, Zhang T, Day NJ, Feng S, Gaffrey MJ, Qian WJ. Defining the S-Glutathionylation Proteome by Biochemical and Mass Spectrometric Approaches. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:2272. [PMID: 36421458 PMCID: PMC9687251 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11112272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation (SSG) is a reversible post-translational modification (PTM) featuring the conjugation of glutathione to a protein cysteine thiol. SSG can alter protein structure, activity, subcellular localization, and interaction with small molecules and other proteins. Thus, it plays a critical role in redox signaling and regulation in various physiological activities and pathological events. In this review, we summarize current biochemical and analytical approaches for characterizing SSG at both the proteome level and at individual protein levels. To illustrate the mechanism underlying SSG-mediated redox regulation, we highlight recent examples of functional and structural consequences of SSG modifications. Finally, we discuss the analytical challenges in characterizing SSG and the thiol PTM landscape, future directions for understanding of the role of SSG in redox signaling and regulation and its interplay with other PTMs, and the potential role of computational approaches to accelerate functional discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Wei-Jun Qian
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA
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Juarez Olg H, Calderon G D, Osnaya Bri N, Ortiz Herr M, Chá JL, Veloz Coro Q, Trujillo J F. Some NSAIDs Offer Antioxidant Effect in the Brain Only in Combination with Other Antioxidant Products. INT J PHARMACOL 2021. [DOI: 10.3923/ijp.2021.350.357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Nevirapine Biotransformation Insights: An Integrated In Vitro Approach Unveils the Biocompetence and Glutathiolomic Profile of a Human Hepatocyte-Like Cell 3D Model. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21113998. [PMID: 32503263 PMCID: PMC7312429 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21113998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The need for competent in vitro liver models for toxicological assessment persists. The differentiation of stem cells into hepatocyte-like cells (HLC) has been adopted due to its human origin and availability. Our aim was to study the usefulness of an in vitro 3D model of mesenchymal stem cell-derived HLCs. 3D spheroids (3D-HLC) or monolayer (2D-HLC) cultures of HLCs were treated with the hepatotoxic drug nevirapine (NVP) for 3 and 10 days followed by analyses of Phase I and II metabolites, biotransformation enzymes and drug transporters involved in NVP disposition. To ascertain the toxic effects of NVP and its major metabolites, the changes in the glutathione net flux were also investigated. Phase I enzymes were induced in both systems yielding all known correspondent NVP metabolites. However, 3D-HLCs showed higher biocompetence in producing Phase II NVP metabolites and upregulating Phase II enzymes and MRP7. Accordingly, NVP-exposure led to decreased glutathione availability and alterations in the intracellular dynamics disfavoring free reduced glutathione and glutathionylated protein pools. Overall, these results demonstrate the adequacy of the 3D-HLC model for studying the bioactivation/metabolism of NVP representing a further step to unveil toxicity mechanisms associated with glutathione net flux changes.
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Zhou L, Chan JCY, Chupin S, Gueguen N, Desquiret-Dumas V, Koh SK, Li J, Gao Y, Deng L, Verma C, Beuerman RW, Chan ECY, Milea D, Reynier P. Increased Protein S-Glutathionylation in Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy (LHON). Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21083027. [PMID: 32344771 PMCID: PMC7215361 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21083027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON, MIM#535000) is the most common form of inherited optic neuropathies and mitochondrial DNA-related diseases. The pathogenicity of mutations in genes encoding components of mitochondrial Complex I is well established, but the underlying pathomechanisms of the disease are still unclear. Hypothesizing that oxidative stress related to Complex I deficiency may increase protein S-glutathionylation, we investigated the proteome-wide S-glutathionylation profiles in LHON (n = 11) and control (n = 7) fibroblasts, using the GluICAT platform that we recently developed. Glutathionylation was also studied in healthy fibroblasts (n = 6) after experimental Complex I inhibition. The significantly increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the LHON group by Complex I was shown experimentally. Among the 540 proteins which were globally identified as glutathionylated, 79 showed a significantly increased glutathionylation (p < 0.05) in LHON and 94 in Complex I-inhibited fibroblasts. Approximately 42% (33/79) of the altered proteins were shared by the two groups, suggesting that Complex I deficiency was the main cause of increased glutathionylation. Among the 79 affected proteins in LHON fibroblasts, 23% (18/79) were involved in energetic metabolism, 31% (24/79) exhibited catalytic activity, 73% (58/79) showed various non-mitochondrial localizations, and 38% (30/79) affected the cell protein quality control. Integrated proteo-metabolomic analysis using our previous metabolomic study of LHON fibroblasts also revealed similar alterations of protein metabolism and, in particular, of aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases. S-glutathionylation is mainly known to be responsible for protein loss of function, and molecular dynamics simulations and 3D structure predictions confirmed such deleterious impacts on adenine nucleotide translocator 2 (ANT2), by weakening its affinity to ATP/ADP. Our study reveals a broad impact throughout the cell of Complex I-related LHON pathogenesis, involving a generalized protein stress response, and provides a therapeutic rationale for targeting S-glutathionylation by antioxidative strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhou
- Ocular Proteomics, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 169856, Singapore; (S.K.K.); (J.L.); (Y.G.); (R.W.B.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
- Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences Academic Clinical Research Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, National University of Singapore, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (D.M.); (P.R.)
| | - James Chun Yip Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore; (J.C.Y.C.); (E.C.Y.C.)
| | - Stephanie Chupin
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France; (S.C.); (N.G.); (V.D.-D.)
| | - Naïg Gueguen
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France; (S.C.); (N.G.); (V.D.-D.)
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Valérie Desquiret-Dumas
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France; (S.C.); (N.G.); (V.D.-D.)
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France
| | - Siew Kwan Koh
- Ocular Proteomics, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 169856, Singapore; (S.K.K.); (J.L.); (Y.G.); (R.W.B.)
| | - Jianguo Li
- Ocular Proteomics, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 169856, Singapore; (S.K.K.); (J.L.); (Y.G.); (R.W.B.)
- Atomistic Simulations and Design in Biology, Bioinformatics Institute, 30 Biopolis Street, #07–01 Matrix, Singapore 138671, Singapore;
| | - Yan Gao
- Ocular Proteomics, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 169856, Singapore; (S.K.K.); (J.L.); (Y.G.); (R.W.B.)
| | - Lu Deng
- Department of Statistics and Applied Probability, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117546, Singapore;
| | - Chandra Verma
- Atomistic Simulations and Design in Biology, Bioinformatics Institute, 30 Biopolis Street, #07–01 Matrix, Singapore 138671, Singapore;
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 16 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117558, Singpaore
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore 637551, Singapore
| | - Roger W Beuerman
- Ocular Proteomics, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 169856, Singapore; (S.K.K.); (J.L.); (Y.G.); (R.W.B.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
- Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences Academic Clinical Research Program, Duke-NUS Medical School, National University of Singapore, Singapore 169857, Singapore
| | - Eric Chun Yong Chan
- Department of Pharmacy, National University of Singapore, 18 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore; (J.C.Y.C.); (E.C.Y.C.)
- Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Brenner Centre for Molecular Medicine, 30 Medical Drive, Singapore 117609, Singapore
| | - Dan Milea
- Ocular Proteomics, Singapore Eye Research Institute, Singapore 169856, Singapore; (S.K.K.); (J.L.); (Y.G.); (R.W.B.)
- Department of Ophthalmology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore 119228, Singapore
- Département d’Ophtalmologie, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France
- Neuro-Ophthalmology Department, Singapore National Eye Centre, Singapore 168751, Singpaore
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (D.M.); (P.R.)
| | - Pascal Reynier
- Département de Biochimie et Génétique, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, 49933 Angers, France; (S.C.); (N.G.); (V.D.-D.)
- Unité Mixte de Recherche (UMR) MITOVASC, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) 6015, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) U1083, Université d’Angers, 49933 Angers, France
- Correspondence: (L.Z.); (D.M.); (P.R.)
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13
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Mailloux RJ. Protein S-glutathionylation reactions as a global inhibitor of cell metabolism for the desensitization of hydrogen peroxide signals. Redox Biol 2020; 32:101472. [PMID: 32171726 PMCID: PMC7076094 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of many human diseases has been attributed to the over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), particularly superoxide (O2●-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), by-products of metabolism that are generated by the premature reaction of electrons with molecular oxygen (O2) before they reach complex IV of the respiratory chain. To date, there are 32 known ROS generators in mammalian cells, 16 of which reside inside mitochondria. Importantly, although these ROS are deleterious at high levels, controlled and temporary bursts in H2O2 production is beneficial to mammalian cells. Mammalian cells use sophisticated systems to take advantage of the second messaging properties of H2O2. This includes controlling its availability using antioxidant systems and negative feedback loops that inhibit the genesis of ROS at sites of production. At its core, ROS production depends on fuel metabolism. Therefore, desensitizing H2O2 signals would also require the temporary inhibition of fuel combustion and fluxes through metabolic pathways that promote ROS production. Additionally, this would also demand the diversion of fuels and nutrients into pathways that generate NADPH and other molecules required to maintain cellular redox buffering capacity. Therefore, fuel selection and metabolic flux plays an integral role in dictating the strength and duration of cellular redox signals. In the present review I provide an updated view on the function of protein S-glutathionylation, a ubiquitous redox sensitive modification involving the formation of a disulfide between the small molecular antioxidant glutathione and a cysteine residue, in the regulation of cellular metabolism on a global scale. To date, these concepts have mostly been reviewed at the level of mitochondrial bioenergetics in the contexts of health and disease. Careful examination of the literature revealed that glutathionylation is a temporary inhibitor of most metabolic pathways including glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, oxidative phosphorylation, amino acid metabolism, and fatty acid combustion, resulting in the diversion of fuels towards NADPH-producing pathways and the inhibition of ROS production. Armed with this information, I propose that protein S-glutathionylation reactions desensitize H2O2 signals emanating from catabolic pathways using a three-pronged regulatory mechanism; 1) inhibition of metabolic flux through pathways that promote ROS production, 2) diversion of metabolites towards pathways that support antioxidant defenses, and 3) direct inhibition of ROS-generating enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J Mailloux
- School of Human Nutrition, McGill University, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada.
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14
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Pfaff AR, Beltz J, King E, Ercal N. Medicinal Thiols: Current Status and New Perspectives. Mini Rev Med Chem 2020; 20:513-529. [PMID: 31746294 PMCID: PMC7286615 DOI: 10.2174/1389557519666191119144100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The thiol (-SH) functional group is found in a number of drug compounds and confers a unique combination of useful properties. Thiol-containing drugs can reduce radicals and other toxic electrophiles, restore cellular thiol pools, and form stable complexes with heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, and copper. Thus, thiols can treat a variety of conditions by serving as radical scavengers, GSH prodrugs, or metal chelators. Many of the compounds discussed here have been in use for decades, yet continued exploration of their properties has yielded new understanding in recent years, which can be used to optimize their clinical application and provide insights into the development of new treatments. The purpose of this narrative review is to highlight the biochemistry of currently used thiol drugs within the context of developments reported in the last five years. More specifically, this review focuses on thiol drugs that represent the standard of care for their associated conditions, including N-acetylcysteine, 2,3-meso-dimercaptosuccinic acid, British anti-Lewisite, D-penicillamine, amifostine, and others. Reports of novel dosing regimens, delivery strategies, and clinical applications for these compounds were examined with an eye toward emerging approaches to address a wide range of medical conditions in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalise R. Pfaff
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A
| | - Justin Beltz
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A
| | - Emily King
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A
| | - Nuran Ercal
- Department of Chemistry, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A
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15
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El-Boshy M, BaSalamah MA, Ahmad J, Idris S, Mahbub A, Abdelghany AH, Almaimani RA, Almasmoum H, Ghaith MM, Elzubier M, Refaat B. Vitamin D protects against oxidative stress, inflammation and hepatorenal damage induced by acute paracetamol toxicity in rat. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 141:310-321. [PMID: 31255668 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2019.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Acute paracetamol (APAP) toxicity is a leading cause of liver, and less commonly renal, injuries through oxidative stress and inflammation. Albeit vitamin D (VD) is a well-known anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory hormone, there is no report on its potential protective/therapeutic actions against APAP acute toxicity. This study, therefore, measured the interplay between APAP toxicity and the hepatorenal expressions of the VD-metabolising enzymes (Cyp2R1, Cyp27b1 & cyp24a1), receptor (VDR) and binding protein (VDBP) alongside the effects of VD treatment on APAP-induced hepatorenal injuries. Thirty-two male rats were distributed equally into negative (NC) and positive (PC) controls besides VD prophylactic (P-VD) and therapeutic (T-VD) groups. All groups, except the NC, received a single oral dose of APAP (1200 mg/kg). The P-VD also received by intraperitoneal injection two cycles of VD3 (1000 IU/Kg/day; 5 days/week) prior to, and a third round after, APAP administration. Similarly, the T-VD group received VD3 (3000 IU/Kg/day) for five successive days post-APAP intoxication. Euthanasia was on the sixth day post-APAP toxicity. The PC group had marked alterations in the hepatorenal biochemical parameters, upregulation in cellular cleaved caspase-3 as well as pronounced increase in the numbers of apoptotic/necrotic cells by TUNEL technique. The PC group plasma levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OH VD) also declined markedly and coincided with significant inhibitions in the expression of Cyp2R1 and Cyp27b1 enzymes and VDR, whereas the VDBP and Cyp24a1 increased substantially, in the hepatorenal tissues at the gene and protein levels compared with the NC group. Coherently, the lipid peroxidation marker (MDA) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL1β, IL6, IL17A, IFN-γ & TNF-α) augmented significantly, while the anti-oxidative markers (GSH, GPx & CAT) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL10 & IL22) diminished substantially, in the PC hepatorenal tissues. Both VD regimens alleviated the APAP-induced hepatorenal damages and restored the 25-OH VD levels together with the hepatorenal expression of Cyp2R1, Cyp27b1, Cyp24a1, VDR and VDBP. Additionally, MDA and all the targeted pro-inflammatory cytokines declined, whereas all the anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory markers increased, in both VD groups hepatorenal tissues and the results were significantly different than the PC group. Although the P-VD anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative stress actions were more pronounced than the T-VD group, the results remained markedly abnormal than the NC group. In conclusion, this report is the first to reveal that the circulatory VD levels alongside the hepatorenal VD-metabolising enzymes and VDR are pathologically altered following acute APAP toxicity. Moreover, the prophylactic protocol showed better anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory effects than the therapeutic regimen against APAP-induced hepatorenal injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed El-Boshy
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Mohammad A BaSalamah
- Pathology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jawwad Ahmad
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shakir Idris
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amani Mahbub
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdelghany H Abdelghany
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia; Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Riyad A Almaimani
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hussain Almasmoum
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mazen M Ghaith
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Elzubier
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bassem Refaat
- Laboratory Medicine Department, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Al Abdeyah, PO Box 7607, Makkah, Saudi Arabia.
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Gloor Y, Schvartz D, F Samer C. Old problem, new solutions: biomarker discovery for acetaminophen liver toxicity. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2019; 15:659-669. [PMID: 31293190 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2019.1642323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Although the hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen is a well-known problem, the search for reliable biomarker of toxicity is still a current issue as clinical tools are missing to assess patients intoxicated following chronic use, sequential ingestion, use of modified release formulations or in case of delayed arrival to hospital. The need for new specific and robust biomarkers for acetaminophen toxicity has prompted many studies exploring the use of blood levels of acetaminophen derivatives, mitochondrial damage markers, liver cell apoptosis and/or necrosis markers and circulating microRNAs. Areas covered: In this review, we present a concise overview of the most promising biomarkers currently under evaluation including descriptions of their properties with respect to exposure type, APAP specificity, and potential clinical application. In addition, we illustrate the power of new technologies for biomarker research and describe their current application to the field of acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity. Expert opinion: Recently the use of extracellular vesicles isolation in combination with omics techniques has opened a new perspective to the field of biomarker research. However, the potential of those new technologies for the prediction and monitoring of hepatic diseases and acetaminophen toxicity has not yet been fully taken into consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Gloor
- a Division of clinical pharmacology and toxicology, Geneva University Hospital , Geneva , Switzerland.,b Laboratory of clinical pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - Domitille Schvartz
- c Department of internal medicine specialties, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - Caroline F Samer
- a Division of clinical pharmacology and toxicology, Geneva University Hospital , Geneva , Switzerland.,b Laboratory of clinical pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Geneva , Geneva , Switzerland
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Liu R, Zhou F, He H, Wei J, Tian X, Ding L. Metabolism and Bioactivation of Corynoline With Characterization of the Glutathione/Cysteine Conjugate and Evaluation of Its Hepatotoxicity in Mice. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:1264. [PMID: 30459618 PMCID: PMC6232370 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.01264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Corynoline (CRL), an isoquinoline alkaloid, is the major constituent derived from Corydalis bungeana Herba, which is a well-known Chinese herbal medicine widely used in many prescriptions. The purpose of this study was to comprehensively investigate the metabolism and bioactivation of CRL, and identify the CYP450 isoforms involved in reactive ortho-benzoquinone metabolites formation and evaluate its hepatotoxicity in mice. Here, high resolution and triple quadrupole mass spectrometry were used for studying the metabolism of CRL. Three metabolites (M1-M3) and four glutathione conjugates (M4-M7) of CRL ortho-benzoquinone reactive metabolite were found in vitro using rat and human liver microsomes supplemented with NADPH and glutathione. Four cysteine conjugates (M8-M11) were trapped in mice besides M1-M7. Using human recombinant CYP450 enzymes and chemical inhibitor method, we found that CYP3A4, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, and CYP2D6 were mainly involved in the bioactivation of CRL. Furthermore, CRL had no obvious hepatotoxicity and did not induce acute liver injuries in the experimental dosage (125-500 mg/kg) used in this study. However, phenomena of abnormal behaviors and low body temperature appeared in mice after drug administration, and three of them were dead. Tissue distribution study of CRL in mice showed that the main target organ of CRL was liver, then kidney, heart, and brain. CRL could traverse the blood-brain barrier, and have relative high concentration in brain. So, we surmise that toxicity effect of CRL on other organs may have occurred, and more attention should be paid on the traditional Chinese medicine contained CRL in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruijuan Liu
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Fang Zhou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, China
| | - He He
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jingyao Wei
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xin Tian
- Department of Pharmacy, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Li Ding
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
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