Trypanosoma cruzi infection disrupts vinculin costameres in cardiomyocytes

Copaifera spp. oleoresins control Trypanosoma cruzi infection in human trophoblast cells (BeWo) and placental explants

Congenital Chagas disease (CCD) is a worldwide neglected problem with significant treatment limitations. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of Copaifera spp. oleoresins (ORs) against Trypanosoma cruzi infection in trophoblast cells (BeWo lineage) and human chorionic villous explants (HCVE). The cytotoxicity of ORs was investigated using LDH and MTT assays. T. cruzi (Y strain) proliferation, invasion and reversibility were assessed in OR-treated BeWo cells, and proliferation was evaluated in OR-treated HCVE. The ultrastructure of T. cruzi trypomastigotes and amastigotes treated with ORs were analyzed by scanning and transmission electronic microscopy. ROS production in infected and treated BeWo cells and cytokines in BeWo and HCVE were measured. The ORs irreversibly decreased T. cruzi invasion, proliferation and release in BeWo cells by up to 70 %, 82 % and 80 %, respectively, and reduced parasite load in HCVE by up to 80 %. Significant structural changes in treated parasites were observed. ORs showed antioxidant capacity in BeWo cells, reducing ROS production induced by T. cruzi infection. Also, T. cruzi infection modulated the cytokine profile in both BeWo cells and HCVE; however, treatment with ORs upregulated cytokines decreased by T. cruzi infection in BeWo cells, while downregulated cytokines increased by the T. cruzi infection in HCVE. In conclusion, non-cytotoxic concentrations of Copaifera ORs demonstrated promising potential for controlling T. cruzi infection in models of the human maternal-fetal interface.

Trypanosoma cruzi infection changes the chromatin proteome profile of infected human cells

Chagas disease is endemic in 22 Latin American countries, with approximately 8 million individuals infected worldwide and 10,000 deaths yearly. Trypanosoma cruzi presents an intracellular life cycle in mammalian hosts to sustain infection. Parasite infection activates host cell responses, promoting an unbalance in reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the intracellular environment inducing genomic DNA lesions in the host cell during infection. To further understand changes in host cell chromatin induced by parasite infection, we investigated alterations in chromatin caused by infection by performing quantitative proteomic analysis. DNA Damage Repair proteins, such as Poly-ADP-ribose Polymerase 1 (PARP-1) and X-Ray Repair Cross Complementing 6 (XRRC6), were recruited to the chromatin during infection. Also, changes in chromatin remodeling enzymes suggest that parasite infection may shape the epigenome of the host cells. Interestingly, the abundance of oxidative phosphorylation mitochondrial and vesicle-mediated transport proteins increased in the host chromatin at the final stages of infection. In addition, Apoptosis-inducing Factor (AIF) is translocated to the host cell nucleus upon infection, suggesting that cells enter parthanatos type of death. Altogether, this study reveals how parasites interfere with the host cells' responses at the chromatin level leading to significant crosstalk that support and disseminate infection. SIGNIFICANCE: The present study provides novel insights into the effects of Trypanosoma cruzi on the chromatin from the host cell. This manuscript investigated proteomic alterations in chromatin caused by parasite infection at early and late infection phases by performing a quantitative proteomic analysis. In this study, we revealed that parasites interfere with DNA metabolism in the early and late stages of infection. We identified that proteins related to DNA damage repair, oxidative phosphorylation, and vesicle-mediated transport have increased abundance at the host chromatin. Additionally, we have observed that Apoptosis-inducing Factor is translocated to the host cell nucleus upon infection, suggesting that the parasites could lead the cells to enter Parthanatos as a form of programmed cell death. The findings improve our understanding on how the parasites modulate the host cell chromatin to disseminate infection. In this study, we suggest a mechanistic parasite action towards host nucleus that could be used to indicate targets for future treatments.

Genetic Instability among Hitnü People Living in Colombian Crude-Oil Exploitation Areas

Oil exploitation, drilling, transportation, and processing in refineries produces a complex mixture of chemical compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which may affect the health of populations living in the zone of influence of mining activities (PZOI). Thus, to better understand the effects of oil exploitation activities on cytogenetic endpoint frequency, we conducted a biomonitoring study in the Hitnü indigenous populations from eastern Colombia by using the cytokinesis micronucleus cytome assay (CBMN-cyt). PAH exposure was also measured by determine urine 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) using HPLC. We also evaluated the relationship between DNA damage and 1-OHP levels in the oil exploitation area, as well as the modulating effects of community health factors, such as Chagas infection; nutritional status; and consumption of traditional hallucinogens, tobacco, and wine from traditional palms. The frequencies of the CBMN-cyt assay parameters were comparable between PZOI and Hitnü populations outside the zone of influence of mining activities (POZOI); however, a non-significant incremental trend among individuals from the PZOI for most of the DNA damage parameters was also observed. In agreement with these observations, levels of 1-OHP were also identified as a risk factor for increased MN frequency (PR = 1.20) compared to POZOI (PR = 0.7). Proximity to oil exploitation areas also constituted a risk factor for elevated frequencies of nucleoplasmic bridges (NPBs) and APOP-type cell death. Our results suggest that genetic instability and its potential effects among Hitnü individuals from PZOI and POZOI could be modulated by the combination of multiple factors, including the levels of 1-OHP in urine, malnutrition, and some traditional consumption practices.

Benznidazole and amiodarone combined treatment attenuates cytoskeletal damage in Trypanosoma cruzi-infected cardiac cells

Chagas disease (CD), a neglected tropical disease caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is an important public health problem mainly in Latin America, leading to approximately 12,000 annual deaths. Current etiological treatment for CD is limited to two nitro compounds, benznidazole (Bz) and nifurtimox (Nif), both presenting relevant limitations. Different approaches have been employed to establish more effective and safer schemes to treat T. cruzi infection, mostly based on drug repurposing and combination therapies. Amiodarone (AMD), an antiarrhythmic medicament of choice for patients with the chronic cardiac form of CD, is also recognized as a trypanocidal agent. Therefore, our aim is to investigate the combined treatment Bz + AMD on trypomastigote viability, control of T. cruzi intracellular form proliferation, and recovery of the infection-induced cytoskeleton alterations in cardiac cells. The combination of Bz + AMD did not improve the direct trypanocidal effect of AMD on the infective blood trypomastigote and replicative intracellular forms of the parasite. Otherwise, the treatment of T. cruzi-infected cardiac cells with Bz plus AMD attenuated the infection-triggered cytoskeleton damage of host cells and the cytotoxic effects of AMD. Thus, the combined treatment Bz + AMD may favor parasite control and hamper tissue damage.

A novel mechanosensitive channel controls osmoregulation, differentiation, and infectivity in Trypanosoma cruzi

The causative agent of Chagas disease undergoes drastic morphological and biochemical modifications as it passes between hosts and transitions from extracellular to intracellular stages. The osmotic and mechanical aspects of these cellular transformations are not understood. Here we identify and characterize a novel mechanosensitive channel in Trypanosoma cruzi (TcMscS) belonging to the superfamily of small-conductance mechanosensitive channels (MscS). TcMscS is activated by membrane tension and forms a large pore permeable to anions, cations, and small osmolytes. The channel changes its location from the contractile vacuole complex in epimastigotes to the plasma membrane as the parasites develop into intracellular amastigotes. TcMscS knockout parasites show significant fitness defects, including increased cell volume, calcium dysregulation, impaired differentiation, and a dramatic decrease in infectivity. Our work provides mechanistic insights into components supporting pathogen adaptation inside the host, thus opening the exploration of mechanosensation as a prerequisite for protozoan infectivity.

DNA damage and oxidative stress in human cells infected by Trypanosoma cruzi

Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent of Chagas' disease. Infected cells with T. cruzi activate several responses that promote unbalance of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that may cause DNA damage that activate cellular responses including DNA repair processes. In this work, HeLa cells and AC16 human cardiomyocyte cell line were infected with T. cruzi to investigate host cell responses at genome level during parasites intracellular life cycle. In fact, alkaline sensitive sites and oxidized DNA bases were detected in the host cell genetic material particularly in early stages of infection. These DNA lesions were accompanied by phosphorylation of the histone H2Ax, inducing γH2Ax, a marker of genotoxic stress. Moreover, Poly [ADP-ribose] polymerase-1 (PARP1) and 8-oxoguanine glycosylase (OGG1) are recruited to host cell nuclei, indicating activation of the DNA repair process. In infected cells, chromatin-associated proteins are carbonylated, as a possible consequence of oxidative stress and the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is induced early after infection, suggesting that the host cell antioxidant defenses are activated. However, at late stages of infection, NRF2 is downregulated. Interestingly, host cells treated with glutathione precursor, N-acetyl cysteine, NRF2 activator (Sulforaphane), and also Benznidonazol (BNZ) reduce parasite burst significantly, and DNA damage. These data indicate that the balance of oxidative stress and DNA damage induction in host cells may play a role during the process of infection itself, and interference in these processes may hamper T. cruzi infection, revealing potential target pathways for the therapy support.

Role of FAK signaling in chagasic cardiac hypertrophy

Cardiac hypertrophy and dysfunction are a significant complication of chronic Chagas disease, with heart failure, stroke, and sudden death related to disease progression. Thus, understanding the signaling pathways involved in the chagasic cardiac hypertrophy may provide potential targets for pharmacological therapy. Herein, we investigated the implication of focal adhesion kinase (FAK) signaling pathway in triggering hypertrophic phenotype during acute and chronic T. cruzi infection. C57BL/6 mice infected with T. cruzi (Brazil strain) were evaluated for electrocardiographic (ECG) changes, plasma levels of endothelin-1 (ET-1) and activation of signaling pathways involved in cardiac hypertrophy, including FAK and ERK1/2, as well as expression of hypertrophy marker and components of the extracellular matrix in the different stages of T. cruzi infection (60-210 dpi). Heart dysfunction, evidenced by prolonged PR interval and decrease in heart rates in ECG tracing, was associated with high plasma ET-1 level, extracellular matrix remodeling and FAK signaling activation. Upregulation of both FAK tyrosine 397 (FAK-Y397) and serine 910 (FAK-S910) residues phosphorylation as well as ERK1/2 activation, lead to an enhancement of atrial natriuretic peptide gene expression in chronic infection. Our findings highlight FAK-ERK1/2 signaling as a regulator of cardiac hypertrophy in Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Both mechanical stress, induced by cardiac extracellular matrix (ECM) augment and cardiac overload, and ET-1 stimuli orchestrated FAK signaling activation with subsequent activation of the fetal cardiac gene program in the chronic phase of infection, highlighting FAK as an attractive target for Chagas disease therapy.

Trypanosoma cruzi down-regulates mechanosensitive proteins in cardiomyocytes

BACKGROUND

Cardiac physiology depends on coupling and electrical and mechanical coordination through the intercalated disc. Focal adhesions offer mechanical support and signal transduction events during heart contraction-relaxation processes. Talin links integrins to the actin cytoskeleton and serves as a scaffold for the recruitment of other proteins, such as paxillin in focal adhesion formation and regulation. Chagasic cardiomyopathy is caused by infection by Trypanosoma cruzi and is a debilitating condition comprising extensive fibrosis, inflammation, cardiac hypertrophy and electrical alterations that culminate in heart failure.

OBJECTIVES

Since mechanotransduction coordinates heart function, we evaluated the underlying mechanism implicated in the mechanical changes, focusing especially in mechanosensitive proteins and related signalling pathways during infection of cardiac cells by T. cruzi.

METHODS

We investigated the effect of T. cruzi infection on the expression and distribution of talin/paxillin and associated proteins in mouse cardiomyocytes in vitro by western blotting, immunofluorescence and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR).

FINDINGS

Talin and paxillin spatial distribution in T. cruzi-infected cardiomyocytes in vitro were altered associated with a downregulation of these proteins and mRNAs levels at 72 h post-infection (hpi). Additionally, we observed an increase in the activation of the focal adhesion kinase (FAK) concomitant with increase in β-1-integrin at 24 hpi. Finally, we detected a decrease in the activation of FAK at 72 hpi in T. cruzi-infected cultures.

MAIN CONCLUSION

The results suggest that these changes may contribute to the mechanotransduction disturbance evidenced in chagasic cardiomyopathy.

TGF-β receptor type II costameric localization in cardiomyocytes and host cell TGF-β response is disrupted by Trypanosoma cruzi infection

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) cytokine is involved in Chagas disease establishment and progression. Since Trypanosoma cruzi can modulate host cell receptors, we analysed the TGF-β receptor type II (TβRII) expression and distribution during T. cruzi – cardiomyocyte interaction. TβRII immunofluorescent staining revealed a striated organization in cardiomyocytes, which was co-localized with vinculin costameres and enhanced (38%) after TGF-β treatment. Cytochalasin D induced a decrease of 45·3% in the ratio of cardiomyocytes presenting TβRII striations, demonstrating an association of TβRII with the cytoskeleton. Western blot analysis showed that cytochalasin D significantly inhibited Smad 2 phosphorylation and fibronectin stimulation after TGF-β treatment in cardiomyocytes. Trypanosoma cruzi infection elicited a decrease of 79·8% in the frequency of cardiomyocytes presenting TβRII striations, but did not interfere significantly in its expression. In addition, T. cruzi-infected cardiomyocytes present a lower response to exogenous TGF-β, showing no enhancement of TβRII striations and a reduction of phosphorylated Smad 2, with no significant difference in TβRII expression when compared to uninfected cells. Together, these results suggest that the co-localization of TβRII with costameres is important in activating the TGF-β signalling cascade, and that T. cruzi-derived cytoskeleton disorganization could result in altered or low TGF-β response in infected cardiomyocytes.

Vinculin directly binds zonula occludens-1 and is essential for stabilizing connexin-43-containing gap junctions in cardiac myocytes

Vinculin (Vcl) links actin filaments to integrin- and cadherin-based cellular junctions. Zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1, also known as TJP1) binds connexin-43 (Cx43, also known as GJA1), cadherin and actin. Vcl and ZO-1 anchor the actin cytoskeleton to the sarcolemma. Given that loss of Vcl from cardiomyocytes causes maldistribution of Cx43 and predisposes cardiomyocyte-specific Vcl-knockout mice with preserved heart function to arrhythmia and sudden death, we hypothesized that Vcl and ZO-1 interact and that loss of this interaction destabilizes gap junctions. We found that Vcl, Cx43 and ZO-1 colocalized at the intercalated disc. Loss of cardiomyocyte Vcl caused parallel loss of ZO-1 from intercalated dics. Vcl co-immunoprecipitated Cx43 and ZO-1, and directly bound ZO-1 in yeast two-hybrid studies. Excision of the Vcl gene in neonatal mouse cardiomyocytes caused a reduction in the amount of Vcl mRNA transcript and protein expression leading to (1) decreased protein expression of Cx43, ZO-1, talin, and β1D-integrin, (2) reduced PI3K activation, (3) increased activation of Akt, Erk1 and Erk2, and (4) cardiomyocyte necrosis. In summary, this is the first study showing a direct interaction between Vcl and ZO-1 and illustrates how Vcl plays a crucial role in stabilizing gap junctions and myocyte integrity.

Current understanding of the Trypanosoma cruzi-cardiomyocyte interaction

Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, exhibits multiple strategies to ensure its establishment and persistence in the host. Although this parasite has the ability to infect different organs, heart impairment is the most frequent clinical manifestation of the disease. Advances in knowledge of T. cruzi-cardiomyocyte interactions have contributed to a better understanding of the biological events involved in the pathogenesis of Chagas disease. This brief review focuses on the current understanding of molecules involved in T. cruzi-cardiomyocyte recognition, the mechanism of invasion, and on the effect of intracellular development of T. cruzi on the structural organization and molecular response of the target cell.

Vinculin and talin: focus on the myocardium

Cardiomyopathy is a heart muscle disease caused by decreased contractility of the ventricles leading to heart failure and premature death. Multiple conditions like ischemic heart disease (atherosclerosis), hypertension, diabetes, viral infection, alcohol abuse, obesity and genetic mutations can lead to cardiomyopathy. Single gene mutations in sarcomeric proteins, Z-disk-associated proteins, membrane/associated proteins, intermediate filaments, calcium cycle proteins as well as in modifier genes have been linked to cardiomyopathy. Clinical practice guidelines have been formulated by the American Heart Association and the Heart Failure Association of America on how to genetically evaluate patients with cardiomyopathy. To illustrate the concept that alterations in genes cause cardiovascular disease, this review will focus on two membrane-associated proteins, vinculin and talin. We will discuss the general function of vinculin/metavinulin as well as talin1 and talin2, with emphasis on what is understood about their role in the cardiac myocyte and in whole heart.

Trypanosoma cruzi infection induces a global host cell response in cardiomyocytes

Chagas' disease, caused by the hemoflagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, affects millions of people in South and Central America. Chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy, the most devastating manifestation of this disease, occurs in approximately one-third of infected individuals. Events associated with the parasite's tropism for and invasion of cardiomyocytes have been the focus of intense investigation in recent years. In the present study, we use murine microarrays to investigate the cellular response caused by invasion of primary murine cardiomyocytes by T. cruzi trypomastigotes. These studies identified 353 murine genes that were differentially expressed during the early stages of invasion and infection of these cells. Genes associated with the immune response, inflammation, cytoskeleton organization, cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions, apoptosis, cell cycle, and oxidative stress are among those affected during the infection. Our data indicate that T. cruzi induces broad modulations of the host cell machinery in ways that provide insight into how the parasite survives, replicates, and persists in the infected host and ultimately defines the clinical outcome of the infection.

Ankyrin-based patterning of membrane microdomains: new insights into a novel class of cardiovascular diseases

The organization of membrane-spanning proteins within discrete microdomains is critical for their physiologic function. This is especially important in the heart, where ion transporter and force-transducing microdomains are responsible for excitation-contraction coupling, anisotropic depolarization, and mechanotransduction. The following review will discuss recent advances in our understanding of the patterning of ion channel and force-transmitting membrane microdomains in cardiomyocytes, focusing on the T-tubule and intercalated disc.

Modulation of host cell mechanics by Trypanosoma cruzi

To investigate the effects of Trypanosoma cruzi on the mechanical properties of infected host cells, cytoskeletal stiffness and remodeling dynamics were measured in parasite-infected fibroblasts. We find that cell stiffness decreases in a time-dependent fashion in T. cruzi-infected human foreskin fibroblasts without a significant change in the dynamics of cytoskeletal remodeling. In contrast, cells exposed to T. cruzi secreted/released components become significantly stiffer within 2 h of exposure and exhibit increased remodeling dynamics. These findings represent the first direct mechanical data to suggest a physical picture in which an intact, stiff, and rapidly remodeling cytoskeleton facilitates early stages of T. cruzi invasion and parasite retention, followed by subsequent softening and disassembly of the cytoskeleton to accommodate intracellular replication of parasites. We further suggest that these changes occur through protein kinase A and inhibition of the Rho/Rho kinase signaling pathway. In the context of tissue infection, changes in host cell mechanics could adversely affect the function of the infected organs, and may play an important role on the pathophysiology of Chagas' disease.

Cardiac-myocyte-specific excision of the vinculin gene disrupts cellular junctions, causing sudden death or dilated cardiomyopathy

Vinculin is a ubiquitously expressed multiliganded protein that links the actin cytoskeleton to the cell membrane. In myocytes, it is localized in protein complexes which anchor the contractile apparatus to the sarcolemma. Its function in the myocardium remains poorly understood. Therefore, we developed a mouse model with cardiac-myocyte-specific inactivation of the vinculin (Vcl) gene by using Cre-loxP technology. Sudden death was found in 49% of the knockout (cVclKO) mice younger than 3 months of age despite preservation of contractile function. Conscious telemetry documented ventricular tachycardia as the cause of sudden death, while defective myocardial conduction was detected by optical mapping. cVclKO mice that survived through the vulnerable period of sudden death developed dilated cardiomyopathy and died before 6 months of age. Prior to the onset of cardiac dysfunction, ultrastructural analysis of cVclKO heart tissue showed abnormal adherens junctions with dissolution of the intercalated disc structure, expression of the junctional proteins cadherin and beta1D integrin were reduced, and the gap junction protein connexin 43 was mislocalized to the lateral myocyte border. This is the first report of tissue-specific inactivation of the Vcl gene and shows that it is required for preservation of normal cell-cell and cell-matrix adhesive structures.

Disarray of sarcomeric alpha-actinin in cardiomyocytes infected by Trypanosoma cruzi

Infection with Trypanosoma cruzi causes acute myocarditis and chronic cardiomyopathy. Remarkable changes have been demonstrated in the structure and physiology of cardiomyocytes during infection by this parasite that may contribute to the cardiac dysfunction observed in Chagas' disease. We have investigated the expression of alpha-actinin, an actin-binding protein that plays a key role in the formation and maintenance of Z-lines, during the T. cruzi-cardiomyocyte interaction in vitro. Immunolocalization of alpha-actinin in control cardiomyocytes demonstrated a typical periodicity in the Z line of cardiac myofibrils, as well as its distribution at focal adhesion sites and along the cell-cell junctions. No significant changes were observed in the localization of alpha-actinin after 24 h of infection. In contrast, depletion of sarcomeric distribution of alpha-actinin occurred after 72 h in T. cruzi-infected cardiomyocytes, while no change occurred at focal adhesion contacts. Biochemical assays demonstrated a reduction of 46% and 32% in the expression of alpha-actinin after 24 h and 72 h of infection, respectively. Intracellular parasites were also stained with an anti-alpha-actinin antibody that recognized a protein of 78 kDa by Western blot. Taken together, our data demonstrate a degeneration of the myofibrils in cardiomyocytes induced by T. cruzi infection, rather than a disassembly of the I bands within sarcomeres.

Trypanosoma cruzi disrupts myofibrillar organization and intracellular calcium levels in mouse neonatal cardiomyocytes

Immunofluorescence studies of normal and Trypanosoma cruzi-infected primary cultures of heart muscle cells were performed to gather information about the arrangement of myofibrillar components during the intracellular life cycle of this parasite. By using a panel of monoclonal antibodies against various myofibrillar proteins, a progressive disruption and loss of contractile proteins (such myosin and actin) of the host cell was detected during infection. The host cell formed a loose network of myofibrillar proteins around the parasites. Breakdown of the myofibrils occurred in regions where the parasites were present, and heavily infected cells showed myofibrillar proteins at their periphery. In parallel, we investigated the effect of T. cruzi infection on intracellular calcium levels by using a Ca2+ fluorescent indicator (confocal microscopy). Infected cardiomyocytes displayed a marked impairment in contractility, and calcium influxes became irregular and less intense when compared with those of non-infected cells. Our results demonstrate that T. cruzi infection dramatically affects calcium fluxes and causes myofibrillar breakdown disturbing cardiomyocyte contractility.