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Brañes MC, Gillet R, Valenzuela R. Nuclear receptors behind the therapeutic effects of plant sterols on metabolism: A review. Lipids 2024. [PMID: 39077818 DOI: 10.1002/lipd.12409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 07/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/31/2024]
Abstract
Plant sterols are known for their hypocholesterolemic action, and the molecular mechanisms behind this within the gut have been extensively discussed and demonstrated to the point that there is a degree of consensus. However, recent studies show that these molecules exert an additional umbrella of therapeutic effects in other tissues, which are related to immune function, lipid metabolism, and glucose metabolism. A strong hypothesis to explain these effects is the structural relationship between plant sterols and the ligands of a group of nuclear receptors. This review delves into the molecular aspects of therapeutic effects related with lipid and energy metabolism that have been observed and demonstrated for plant sterols, and turns the perspective to explore the involvement of nuclear receptors as part of these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Rodrigo Valenzuela
- Department of Nutrition, Faculty of Medicine, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
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2
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Abstract
Purpose of Review Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Elevated blood cholesterol levels are not only the major but also the best modifiable cardiovascular risk factor. Lifestyle modifications which include a healthy diet are the cornerstone of lipid-lowering therapy. So-called functional foods supplemented with plant sterols lower blood cholesterol levels by about 10–15%. Recent Findings In the recent revision of the ESC/EAS dyslipidemia guideline 2019, plant sterols are recommended for the first time as an adjunct to lifestyle modification to lower blood cholesterol levels. However, the German Cardiac Society (DGK) is more critical of food supplementation with plant sterols and calls for randomized controlled trials investigating hard cardiovascular outcomes. An increasing body of evidence suggests that plant sterols per se are atherogenic. Summary This review discusses this controversy based on findings from in vitro and in vivo studies, clinical trials, and genetic evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umidakhon Makhmudova
- Klinik Für Innere Medizin I, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - P. Christian Schulze
- Klinik Für Innere Medizin I, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany
| | - Dieter Lütjohann
- Institut für klinische Chemie und klinische Pharmakologie, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Oliver Weingärtner
- Klinik Für Innere Medizin I, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Am Klinikum 1, 07747 Jena, Germany
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3
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Takayasu BS, Martins IR, Garnique AM, Miyamoto S, Machado-Santelli GM, Uemi M, Onuki J. Biological effects of an oxyphytosterol generated by β-Sitosterol ozonization. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 696:108654. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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4
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Martins IR, Onuki J, Miyamoto S, Uemi M. Characterization of oxyphytosterols generated by β-sitosterol ozonization. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 689:108472. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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5
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Turck D, Castenmiller J, De Henauw S, Hirsch-Ernst KI, Kearney J, Maciuk A, Mangelsdorf I, McArdle HJ, Naska A, Pelaez C, Pentieva K, Siani A, Thies F, Tsabouri S, Vinceti M, Cubadda F, Frenzel T, Heinonen M, Marchelli R, Neuhäuser-Berthold M, Poulsen M, Schlatter JR, van Loveren H, Gelbmann W, Knutsen HK. Safety of the extension of use of plant sterol esters as a novel food pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. EFSA J 2020; 18:e06135. [PMID: 32874320 PMCID: PMC7448038 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.6135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Following a request from the European Commission, the EFSA Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the safety of an extension of use of the novel food 'plant sterol esters' when added to vegetable fat spreads and to liquid vegetable fat-based emulsions for cooking and baking purposes pursuant to Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. Member States expressed concerns in relation to plant sterol oxidation products (POP) and consumption by non-target population groups. The median (0.5%) and P90 (2.28%) value of the oxidation rates of plant sterols determined by a wide range of cooking experiments were used together with exposure estimates for plant sterol when added and cooked with vegetable fat spreads and liquids. The no-observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of a subchronic rat study and an applied default uncertainty factor of 200 served to derive levels (i.e. 0.64 mg POP/kg body weight (bw) per day) considered safe for humans. This safe level of exposure would be exceeded at the P95 by all age groups when considering the P90 oxidation rate and using EFSA's comprehensive food consumption database for assessing the potential exposure. When considering the median oxidation rate, the safe level of 0.64 mg POP/kg bw per day would be exceeded at the highest P95 intake estimates in children below 9 years of age. When considering an intake of the maximum authorised use level of 3 g plant sterols/person per day and oxidation rates of 0.5% and 2.28%, the resulting daily POP intakes per kg bw by an adult weighing 70 kg would be 0.21 and 0.98 mg/kg bw per day, respectively, the latter value exceeding 0.64 mg/kg bw per day. The Panel concludes that the safety of the intended extension of use of plant sterol esters under the proposed conditions of use has not been established.
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Blanco-Vaca F, Cedó L, Julve J. Phytosterols in Cancer: From Molecular Mechanisms to Preventive and Therapeutic Potentials. Curr Med Chem 2020; 26:6735-6749. [PMID: 29874991 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666180607093111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 02/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Compelling evidence supports the hypothesis that the manipulation of dietary components, including plant compounds termed as phytochemicals, demonstrates certain important health benefits in humans, including those in cancer. In fact, beyond their well-known cardiovascular applications, phytosterols may also possess anticancer properties, as has been demonstrated by several studies. Although the mechanism of action by which phytosterols (and derivatives) may prevent cancer development is still under investigation, data from multiple experimental studies support the hypothesis that they may modulate proliferation and apoptosis of tumor cells. Phytosterols are generally considered safe for human consumption and may also be added to a broad spectrum of food matrices; further, they could be used in primary and secondary prevention. However, few interventional studies have evaluated the relationship between the efficacy of different types and forms of phytosterols in cancer prevention. In this context, the purpose of this review was to revisit and update the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms involved in the anticancer action of phytosterols and their potential in cancer prevention or treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Blanco-Vaca
- Institut de Recerca de l'Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau [IRHSCSP] i Institut d'Investigacio Biomedica Sant Pau [IIB-Sant Pau], Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas, Madrid, Spain.,Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lídia Cedó
- Institut de Recerca de l'Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau [IRHSCSP] i Institut d'Investigacio Biomedica Sant Pau [IIB-Sant Pau], Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas, Madrid, Spain
| | - Josep Julve
- Institut de Recerca de l'Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau [IRHSCSP] i Institut d'Investigacio Biomedica Sant Pau [IIB-Sant Pau], Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Diabetes y Enfermedades Metabólicas Asociadas, Madrid, Spain
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7
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Cedó L, Farràs M, Lee-Rueckert M, Escolà-Gil JC. Molecular Insights into the Mechanisms Underlying the Cholesterol- Lowering Effects of Phytosterols. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:6704-6723. [DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190822154701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Dietary phytosterols, which comprise plant sterols and stanols, reduce plasma Low-Density Lipoprotein-Cholesterol (LDL-C) levels when given 2 g/day. Since this dose has not been reported to cause health-related side effects in long-term human studies, food products containing these plant compounds are used as potential therapeutic dietary options to reduce LDL-C and cardiovascular disease risk. Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the cholesterol-lowering action of phytosterols. They may compete with dietary and biliary cholesterol for micellar solubilization in the intestinal lumen, impairing intestinal cholesterol absorption. Recent evidence indicates that phytosterols may also regulate other pathways. Impaired intestinal cholesterol absorption is usually associated with reduced cholesterol transport to the liver, which may reduce the incorporation of cholesterol into Very-Low- Density Lipoprotein (VLDL) particles, thereby lowering the rate of VLDL assembly and secretion. Impaired liver VLDL production may reduce the rate of LDL production. On the other hand, significant evidence supports a role for plant sterols in the Transintestinal Cholesterol Excretion (TICE) pathway, although the exact mechanisms by which they promote the flow of cholesterol from the blood to enterocytes and the intestinal lumen remains unknown. Dietary phytosterols may also alter the conversion of bile acids into secondary bile acids, and may lower the bile acid hydrophobic/hydrophilic ratio, thereby reducing intestinal cholesterol absorption. This article reviews the progress to date in research on the molecular mechanisms underlying the cholesterol-lowering effects of phytosterols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lídia Cedó
- Institut d'Investigacions Biomediques (IIB) Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Farràs
- Integrative Systems Medicine and Digestive Disease Division, Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
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8
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Kilvington A, Maldonado‐Pereira L, Torres‐Palacios C, Medina‐Meza I. Phytosterols and their oxidative products in infant formula. J FOOD PROCESS ENG 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.13151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alice Kilvington
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials ScienceMichigan State University East Lansing Michigan
| | - Lisaura Maldonado‐Pereira
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials ScienceMichigan State University East Lansing Michigan
| | - Cristobal Torres‐Palacios
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural EngineeringMichigan State University East Lansing Michigan
| | - Ilce Medina‐Meza
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials ScienceMichigan State University East Lansing Michigan
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural EngineeringMichigan State University East Lansing Michigan
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10
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Oligschlaeger Y, Houben T, Jeurissen MLJ, Bitorina AV, Konings M, Baumgartner S, Plat J, Shiri-Sverdlov R. Exogenously Added Oxyphytosterols Do Not Affect Macrophage-Mediated Inflammatory Responses. Lipids 2018; 53:457-462. [DOI: 10.1002/lipd.12044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Oligschlaeger
- Department of Molecular Genetics, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Tom Houben
- Department of Molecular Genetics, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Mike L. J. Jeurissen
- Department of Molecular Genetics, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Albert V. Bitorina
- Department of Molecular Genetics, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Maurice Konings
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Sabine Baumgartner
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Jogchum Plat
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
| | - Ronit Shiri-Sverdlov
- Department of Molecular Genetics, School of Nutrition & Translational Research Maastricht (NUTRIM); Maastricht University; PO Box 616, 6200 MD, Maastricht The Netherlands
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11
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Lin Y, Knol D, Menéndez-Carreño M, Baris R, Janssen HG, Trautwein EA. Oxidation of sitosterol and campesterol in foods upon cooking with liquid margarines without and with added plant sterol esters. Food Chem 2018; 241:387-396. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.08.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2017] [Revised: 08/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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12
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Baumgartner S, Mensink RP, Smet ED, Konings M, Fuentes S, de Vos WM, Plat J. Effects of plant stanol ester consumption on fasting plasma oxy(phyto)sterol concentrations as related to fecal microbiota characteristics. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 169:46-53. [PMID: 26940357 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.02.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 02/18/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Information regarding dietary effects on plasma oxyphytosterol concentrations as well as on the origin of oxyphytosterols is scarce. We hypothesized that plant sterols are oxidized in the intestinal lumen, mediated by microbial activity, followed by uptake into the circulation. To address this hypothesis, we carried out, a randomized, double blind, crossover study in 13 healthy subjects, who consumed for 3 weeks control and plant stanol ester enriched margarines (3.0g/d plant stanols) separated by a 4-week wash-out period. Plasma oxy(phyto)sterols were determined via GC-MS/MS, while microbiota analyses were performed on fecal DNA using a phylogenetic microarray to assess microbial composition and diversity. Plasma plant sterol concentrations did not correlate with plasma oxyphytosterols concentrations at baseline. Plant stanol consumption reduced serum sitosterol and campesterol concentrations (-37% and -38%), respectively (p<0.001), as well as plasma concentrations of 7β-OH-campesterol (-24%; p<0.05), 7β-OH-sitosterol (-17%; p<0.05) and 7-keto-sitosterol (-13%; p<0.05). Although the intestinal microbiota composition and diversity of the faecal contents were not different between the two periods, we observed significant correlations between several specific bacterial groups and plasma plant sterol, but not with plasma oxyphytosterol concentrations. In conclusion, plant stanol ester consumption reduced serum plant sterol and plasma oxyphytosterol concentrations, while intestinal microbiota composition and diversity were not changed. To definitely answer the effects of microbiota on oxyphytosterol formation, future studies could examine oxyphytosterol concentrations after changing intestinal microbial composition or by measuring intestinal oxyphytosterol formation after providing labelled non-oxidized plant sterols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Baumgartner
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Center+, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands.
| | - Ronald P Mensink
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Center+, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Els De Smet
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Center+, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Maurice Konings
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Center+, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Susana Fuentes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, 6703HB Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Willem M de Vos
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, 6703HB Wageningen, the Netherlands; RPU Immunobiology, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jogchum Plat
- Department of Human Biology and Movement Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Center+, 6229 ER Maastricht, the Netherlands
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Brzeska M, Szymczyk K, Szterk A. Current Knowledge about Oxysterols: A Review. J Food Sci 2016; 81:R2299-R2308. [PMID: 27561087 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.13423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
For years food consumers have been warned that a cholesterol-rich diet may result in atherosclerosis. It is also well known that consumption of large amounts of phytosterols decreases concentration of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in blood (LDLs are regarded a key risk factor in development of cardiovascular diseases). However, no scientific evidence has unambiguously proved any direct connection between amount of consumed cholesterol and LDL level in blood. On the other hand, concentration of cholesterol oxidation products, oxysterols, seems to be indeed relevant; for example, they significantly impact appearance of atherosclerotic lesions (plaques). Phytosterols (like sitosterol or campasterol) decrease LDL level in blood, but on the other hand products of their oxidation are toxic. Therefore, it is worth to know influence of phytosterols on living organisms, processes which lead to their formation, and their levels in popular foodstuffs. This paper is an attempt to review literature data on the above aspects, as well as on impact on living organisms of oxidation products of popular sterols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Brzeska
- Dept. of Food Analysis, The Wacław Dąbrowski Inst. of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Krystyna Szymczyk
- Dept. of Food Analysis, The Wacław Dąbrowski Inst. of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology, Rakowiecka 36, 02-532, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Arkadiusz Szterk
- National Medicines Inst, Dept. of Spectrometric Methods, 30/40 Chełmska, 00-725, Warsaw, Poland
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Scholz B, Guth S, Engel KH, Steinberg P. Phytosterol oxidation products in enriched foods: Occurrence, exposure, and biological effects. Mol Nutr Food Res 2015; 59:1339-52. [DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201400922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2014] [Revised: 03/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Scholz
- Technische Universität München, Chair of General Food Technology; Freising-Weihenstephan Germany
| | - Sabine Guth
- Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Foundation Hannover Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Engel
- Technische Universität München, Chair of General Food Technology; Freising-Weihenstephan Germany
| | - Pablo Steinberg
- Institute for Food Toxicology and Analytical Chemistry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover; Foundation Hannover Germany
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15
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Weingärtner O, Husche C, Schött HF, Speer T, Böhm M, Miller CM, McCarthy F, Plat J, Lütjohann D, Laufs U. Vascular effects of oxysterols and oxyphytosterols in apoE −/− mice. Atherosclerosis 2015; 240:73-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2015.02.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2014] [Revised: 01/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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16
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Vanmierlo T, Bogie JF, Mailleux J, Vanmol J, Lütjohann D, Mulder M, Hendriks JJ. Plant sterols: Friend or foe in CNS disorders? Prog Lipid Res 2015; 58:26-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2015.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Gao J, Chen S, Zhang L, Cheng B, Xu A, Wu L, Zhang X. Evaluation of cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of individual and mixed 7-ketophytosterol oxides on human intestinal carcinoma cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:1035-1041. [PMID: 25542134 DOI: 10.1021/jf505079v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Phytosterol oxidation products (POPs) are constituents of the human diet. Definitive information on the toxic or biological effects of POPs is limited and in some cases contradictory. This study evaluates the cytotoxicity of four individual 7-ketophytosterol oxides, including 7-ketositosterol (7K-SI), 7-ketocampesterol (7K-CA), 7-ketobrassicasterol (7K-BR), 7-ketostigmasterol (7K-ST), and a mixture of 7-ketophytosterols (7K-MIX) toward a human intestinal carcinoma (HIC) cell line. Results showed that all tested compounds reduced cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner; especially 7K-SI and 7K-CA exhibited higher activities. Both compounds increased early apoptotic cells and caused cell cycle arrest in the G1 phase with cell accumulation in the S phase. No evidence of cell death was observed induced by 7K-ST and 7K-MIX. Furthermore, 7K-SI, 7K-CA, and 7K-BR induced apoptosis by enhancing caspase-3 activity and the modulatory effects of Bcl-2, while 7K-ST and 7K-MIX did not involve caspase-3 activation and Bcl-2 down-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junlan Gao
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University , 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, People's Republic of China
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18
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Oxidation of β-sitosterol and campesterol in sunflower oil upon deep- and pan-frying of French fries. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2015; 52:6301-11. [PMID: 26396375 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-015-1738-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Fried foods, both deep-fried and pan-fried, are enjoyed by people worldwide. Frying is one of the main factors leading to formation of phytosterols (PS) oxidation products (POP) in vegetable oils. The aim of this study was to measure the oxidation of β-sitosterol (24α-ethyl-5-cholesten-3β-ol) and campesterol (24α-methyl-5-cholesten-3β-ol) in commercial sunflower oil (SFO) during deep- and pan-frying of French fries for different periods (30, 60, 120 and 240 min). The total amount of PS in SFO was 4732 μg/g, wherein the major PS were β-sitosterol and campesterol. The results of POP were confirmed by the GC-MS analysis that monitored the formation of oxides during frying. Upon frying, total PS content decreased whereas the highest decrease was measured after 240 min of frying. The oxidative stability (OS) of different sitosterol and campesterol during both frying methods was evaluated. In general, pan frying resulted in more PS oxidation than deep frying. β-Sitosterol oxides predominated while campesterol oxides were formed to a lesser extent. 7-Ketositosterol, followed by 7β-hydroxysitosterol, 5,6-epoxy derivatives and 7α-hydroxysitosterol were the main POP induced during frying. The proportion of 7-keto derivatives decreased during frying while the proportion of 7β-hydroxy derivatives increased. The formation of POP might be a limiting factor for frying in SFO for long periods.
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Alemany L, Barbera R, Alegría A, Laparra JM. Plant sterols from foods in inflammation and risk of cardiovascular disease: a real threat? Food Chem Toxicol 2014; 69:140-9. [PMID: 24747512 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2014.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
High dietary intakes of cholesterol together with sedentary habits have been identified as major contributors to atherosclerosis. The latter has long been considered a cholesterol storage disease; however, today atherosclerosis is considered a more complex disease in which both innate and adaptive immune-inflammatory mechanisms as well as bacteria play a major role, in addition to interactions between the arterial wall and blood components. This scenario has promoted nutritional recommendations to enrich different type of foods with plant sterols (PS) because of their cholesterol-lowering effects. In addition to cholesterol, PS can also be oxidized during food processing or storage, and the oxidized derivatives, known as phytosterol oxidation products (POPs), can make an important contribution to the negative effects of both cholesterol and cholesterol oxidation oxides (COPs) in relation to inflammatory disease onset and the development of atherosclerosis. Most current research efforts have focused on COPs, and evaluations of the particular role and physiopathological implications of specific POPs have been only inferential. Appreciation of the inflammatory role described for both COPs and POPs derived from foods also provides additional reasons for safety studies after long-term consumption of PS. The balance and relevance for health of all these effects deserves further studies in humans. This review summarizes current knowledge about the presence of sterol oxidation products (SOPs) in foods and their potential role in inflammatory process and cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Alemany
- Nutrition and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicente Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - R Barbera
- Nutrition and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicente Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - A Alegría
- Nutrition and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avda. Vicente Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | - J M Laparra
- Microbial Ecology and Nutrition Research Group, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology, National Research Council (IATA-CSIC), Avda. Agustín Escardino 7, 46980 Paterna, Valencia, Spain.
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Schött HF, Luister A, Husche C, Schäfers HJ, Böhm M, Plat J, Lütjohann D, Laufs U, Weingärtner O. The relationships of phytosterols and oxyphytosterols in plasma and aortic valve cusps in patients with severe aortic stenosis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 446:805-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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21
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Baumgartner S, Mensink RP, Hartog GD, Bast A, Bekers O, Husche C, Lütjohann D, Plat J. Oxyphytosterol formation in humans: Identification of high vs. low oxidizers. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:19-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Revised: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Oxidised plant sterols as well as oxycholesterol increase the proportion of severe atherosclerotic lesions in female LDL receptor+/ − mice. Br J Nutr 2013; 111:64-70. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114513002018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oxysterols (oxidised cholesterol) may play a role in the pathogenesis of CVD. Similar to cholesterol, plant sterols are susceptible to oxidation. However, less is known about the potential atherogenicity of oxidised plant sterols (oxyphytosterols). In the present study, the atherogenicity of a mixture of oxyphytosterols was examined by feeding female LDL receptor-deficient (LDLR+/ −) mice for 35 weeks a control diet (atherogenic high-fat diet; n 9), an oxysterol diet (control diet+0·025 % (w/w) oxysterols; n 12) or an oxyphytosterol diet (control diet+0·025 % (w/w) oxyphytosterols; n 12). In the LDLR+/ − mice, serum levels of cholesterol, lipoprotein profiles, cholesterol exposure and inflammatory markers at the end of the experiment were comparable between the three diet groups. Nevertheless, the proportion of severe atherosclerotic lesions was significantly higher after oxysterol (41 %; P= 0·004) and oxyphytosterol (34 %; P= 0·011) diet consumption than after control diet consumption (26 %). Oxyphytosterol levels in the lesions were the highest in the oxyphytosterol group. Here, we show that not only dietary oxysterols but also dietary oxyphytosterols increase the proportion of severe atherosclerotic lesions. This suggests that plant sterols when oxidised may increase atherosclerotic lesion severity instead of lowering the size and severity of lesions when fed in their non-oxidised form. Therefore, this finding might give an indication as to where to find the answer in the current hot debate about the potential atherogenicity of plant sterols. However, to what extent these results can be extrapolated to the human situation warrants further investigation.
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Baumgartner S, Mensink RP, Husche C, Lütjohann D, Plat J. Effects of plant sterol- or stanol-enriched margarine on fasting plasma oxyphytosterol concentrations in healthy subjects. Atherosclerosis 2013; 227:414-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2012] [Revised: 12/23/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Synthesis and assessment of the relative toxicity of the oxidised derivatives of campesterol and dihydrobrassicasterol in U937 and HepG2 cells. Biochimie 2013; 95:496-503. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Yang C, Chen ZY, Wong SL, Liu J, Liang YT, Lau CW, Lee HK, Huang Y, Tsang SY. β-Sitosterol oxidation products attenuate vasorelaxation by increasing reactive oxygen species and cyclooxygenase-2. Cardiovasc Res 2012; 97:520-32. [DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvs370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Vanmierlo T, Husche C, Schött HF, Pettersson H, Lütjohann D. Plant sterol oxidation products--analogs to cholesterol oxidation products from plant origin? Biochimie 2012; 95:464-72. [PMID: 23009926 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2012.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 09/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol and plant sterols are lipids which are abundantly present in a western type diet of animal and plant origin, respectively. The daily intake averages 300 mg/day each. Over the past decades, a steadily increasing consumption of plant sterol enriched dairy products (2-3 g/day) took place to lower circulating LDL cholesterol concentrations. Like all unsaturated components, plant sterols can be attacked by reactive oxygen species resulting in plant sterol oxidation products (POPs). The most widespread methods for POP determination are high-performance liquid chromatography and gas-liquid chromatography. Yet, based on the low plasma POP concentrations in normophytosterolemic subjects (POPs: ∼0.3-4.5 ng/mL), a reliable quantification yielding an appropriate limit of detection remains a challenge. While the more abundantly present cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) have elaborately been studied, research on the metabolism and biological effects of POPs is only emerging. In relation to atherogenity, biological effects including modulation of cholesterol homeostasis, membrane functioning, and inflammation are attributed to POPs. Although mostly supra-physiological concentrations are applied in in vitro assays, anti-tumor activity, cytotoxicity and estrogen-competition have been attributed to specific POPs. However, it is not obvious, if and how POPs may exert in vivo adverse or beneficial health effects similar to those attributed to COPs. In the field of nutritional science, standardized methods for the determination of POPs are required to perform relevant biological studies and to assess their presence in complex foods or biological tissues and fluids. The aim of this review is to provide an overview and evaluation of the published methods and an update on the biological effects attributed to POPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Vanmierlo
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Clinics Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Strasse 25, Bonn, Germany
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Vejux A, Montange T, Martine L, Zarrouk A, Riedinger JM, Lizard G. Absence of oxysterol-like side effects in human monocytic cells treated with phytosterols and oxyphytosterols. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:4060-4066. [PMID: 22490085 DOI: 10.1021/jf300487r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Oxysterols, found in some commonly consumed foods, can induce a wide range of cytotoxic effects, which have been extensively studied. On the other hand, the side effects of phytosterols and oxyphytosterols are less well-known. Over the past few years, different types of foods have been enriched with phytosterols on the basis of the properties of these compounds that reduce circulating cholesterol levels in certain experimental conditions. It is therefore important to gain better knowledge of the risks and benefits of this type of diet. In this study, conducted in human monocytic U937 cells, the ability of phytosterols (sitosterol, campesterol) and oxyphytosterols (7β-hydroxysitosterol, 7-ketositosterol) to induce cell death, polar lipid accumulation, and pro-inflammatory cytokine (MCP-1; IL-8) secretion was determined and compared to that of oxysterols (7-ketocholesterol, 7β-hydroxycholesterol). Phytosterols and oxyphytosterols had no significant effects on the parameters studied; only 7β-hydroxysitosterol slightly increased cell death, whereas at the concentration used (20 μg/mL), strong cytotoxic effects were observed with the oxysterols. With sitosterol, campesterol, and 7-ketositosterol, IL-8 secretion was decreased, and with campesterol the intracellular polar lipid level was reduced. The data show that phytosterols and oxyphytosterols have no oxysterol-like side effects, and they rather argue in favor of phytosterols' beneficial effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Vejux
- Equipe Biochimie du peroxysome, inflammation et métabolisme lipidique (EA7270), Université de Bourgogne-INSERM, Dijon, France.
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Menéndez-Carreño M, Steenbergen H, Janssen HG. Development and validation of a comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the analysis of phytosterol oxidation products in human plasma. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:2023-32. [PMID: 21972006 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5432-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 08/16/2011] [Accepted: 09/20/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Phytosterol oxidation products (POPs) have been suggested to exert adverse biological effects similar to, although less severe than, their cholesterol counterparts. For that reason, their analysis in human plasma is highly relevant. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC×GC) coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (TOF-MS) has been proven to be an extremely powerful separation technique for the analysis of very low levels of target compounds in complex mixtures including human plasma. Thus, a GC×GC/TOF-MS method was developed and successfully validated for the simultaneous quantification of ten POPs in human plasma. The calibration curves for each compound showed correlation coefficients (R(2)) better than 0.99. The detection limits were below 0.1 ng mL(-1). The recovery data were between 71.0% and 98.6% (RSDs <10% for all compounds validated). Good results were obtained for within- and between-day repeatability, with most values being below 10%. In addition, non-targeted sterol metabolites were also identified with the method. The concentrations of POPs found in human plasma in the current study are between 0.3 and 4.5 ng mL(-1), i.e., 10-100 times lower than the typical values found for cholesterol oxidation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Menéndez-Carreño
- Unilever Research and Development, Advanced Measurement and Data Modelling, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands.
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Husche C, Weingärtner O, Pettersson H, Vanmierlo T, Böhm M, Laufs U, Lütjohann D. Validation of an isotope dilution gas chromatography–mass spectrometry method for analysis of 7-oxygenated campesterol and sitosterol in human serum. Chem Phys Lipids 2011; 164:425-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2011.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 04/19/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Effect of phytosterols and their oxidation products on lipoprotein profiles and vascular function in hamster fed a high cholesterol diet. Atherosclerosis 2011; 219:124-33. [PMID: 21719014 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2011.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2011] [Revised: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Human diets contain phytosterols and their oxidation products. We investigated effect of β-sitosterol (Si), stigmasterol (St), β-sitosterol oxidation products (SiOP) and stigmasterol oxidation products (StOP) on plasma total cholesterol and their interaction with the gene expression of enzymes, proteins and transporters involved in cholesterol absorption and metabolism. Sixty male hamsters were fed the control diet or one of four experimental diets containing 0.1% Si, 0.1% SiOP, 0.1% St and 0.1% StOP, respectively, for six weeks. SiOP and StOP groups had the relative liver weights greater than their corresponding non-oxidized forms, indicating they were possibly toxic. Results showed both Si and St groups reduced while SiOP and StOP hamsters lost the capacity of lowering plasma total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) and triacylglycerols (TG) compared with the control group. Si and St but not SiOP and StOP were anti-atherosclerotic. RT-PCR analysis demonstrated Si and St but not SiOP and StOP down-regulated mRNA levels of intestinal acyl CoA: cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT2) and microsomal triglyceride protein (MTP). Aortas from Si and St hamsters relaxed better than those from the control and their corresponding SiOP and StOP-treated hamsters. It was concluded that Si and St not SiOP and StOP were beneficial in improving lipoprotein profile and aortic function.
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Current and new insights on phytosterol oxides in plant sterol-enriched food. Chem Phys Lipids 2011; 164:607-24. [PMID: 21699886 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2011.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2011] [Revised: 06/05/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 15 years, plant sterol-enriched foods have faced a great increase in the market, due to the asserted cholesterol-lowering effect of plant sterols. However, owing to their chemical structures, plant sterols can oxidize and produce a wide variety of oxidation products with controversial biological effects. Although oxyphytosterols can derive from dietary sources and endogenous formation, their single contribution should be better defined. The following review provides an overall and critical picture on the current knowledge and future perspectives of plant sterols-enriched food, particularly focused on occurrence of plant sterol oxidation products and their biological effects. The final objective of this overview is to evince the different aspects of plant sterols-enriched food that require further research, for a better understanding of the influence of plant sterols and their oxides on consumers' health.
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O'Callaghan YC, Foley DA, O'Connell NM, McCarthy FO, Maguire AR, O'Brien NM. Cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of the oxidized derivatives of stigmasterol in the U937 human monocytic cell line. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2010; 58:10793-10798. [PMID: 20828195 DOI: 10.1021/jf1023017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Dietary exposure to phytosterols has increased in recent years due to the incorporation of these compounds into cholesterol-lowering products. Previous studies have investigated the cytotoxic effects of the oxidized derivatives of β-sitosterol and determined that phytosterol oxidation products (POP) have a similar but less potent toxicity compared to their cholesterol equivalents. In the present study, the cytotoxicity of the oxidized derivatives of stigmasterol were investigated in the U937 cell line. The stigmasta-5,22-diene-3β,7β-diol (7β-OH), 5,6-epoxystigmasta-22,23-diol (epoxydiol), 5,6,22,23-diepoxystigmastane (diepoxide), and (22R,23R)-stigmast-5-ene-3β,22,23-triol (22R,23R-triol) derivatives were identified as the most cytotoxic, and the mode of cell death was identified as apoptosis in cells incubated with 7β-OH, epoxydiol, and diepoxide stigmasterol. The antioxidants α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol, and β-carotene did not protect against apoptosis induced by 7β-OH and diepoxide stigmasterol; however, α-tocopherol was found to protect against epoxydiol-induced apoptosis. The cellular antioxidant, glutathione, was depleted and the apoptotic protein, Bcl-2, was down-regulated by the stigmasterol oxides identified as apoptotic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne C O'Callaghan
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, Analytical andBiological Chemistry Research Facility , University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
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Otaegui-Arrazola A, Menéndez-Carreño M, Ansorena D, Astiasarán I. Oxysterols: A world to explore. Food Chem Toxicol 2010; 48:3289-303. [PMID: 20870006 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2010] [Revised: 09/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Oxysterols (oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and phytosterols) can be generated in the human organism through different oxidation processes, some requiring enzymes. Furthermore, oxysterols are also present in food due to lipid oxidation reactions caused by heating treatments, contact with oxygen, exposure to sunlight, etc., and they could be absorbed from the diet, at different rates depending on their side chain length. In the organism, oxysterols can follow different routes: secreted into the intestinal lumen, esterified and distributed by lipoproteins to different tissues or degraded, mainly in the liver. Cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) have shown cytotoxicity, apoptotic and pro-inflammatory effects and they have also been linked with chronic diseases including atherosclerotic and neurodegenerative processess. In the case of phytosterol oxidation products (POPs), more research is needed on toxic effects. Nevertheless, current knowledge suggests they may also cause cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic effects, although at higher concentrations than COPs. Recently, new beneficial biological activities of oxysterols are being investigated. Whereas COPs are associated with cholesterol homeostasis mediated by different mechanisms, the implication of POPs is not clear yet. Available literature on sources of oxysterols in the organism, metabolism, toxicity and potential beneficial effects of these compounds are reviewed in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Otaegui-Arrazola
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
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Abstract
Phytosterols are biofactors found enriched in plant foods such as seeds, grains, and legumes. Their dietary consumption is associated with numerous health benefits. Epidemiologic and experimental animal studies indicate that phytosterols are cancer chemopreventive agents particularly against cancers of the colon, breast, and prostate. Phytosterols impede oncogenesis and prevent cancer cell proliferation and survival. The molecular mechanisms underlying these beneficial actions involve effects on signal transduction processes which regulate cell growth and apoptosis. Phytosterols increase sphingomyelin turnover, ceramide formation, and liver X receptor activation. In concert, these actions slow cell cycle progression, inhibit cell proliferation, and activate caspase cascades and apoptosis in cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Bradford
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, State University of New York at Buffalo, 14214-3000, USA.
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Koschutnig K, Kemmo S, Lampi AM, Piironen V, Fritz-Ton C, Wagner KH. Separation and isolation of β-sitosterol oxides and their non-mutagenic potential in the Salmonella microsome assay. Food Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.04.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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36
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Sterols and Oxidized Sterols in Feed Ingredients Obtained from Chemical and Physical Refining Processes of Fats and Oils. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-009-1388-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Menéndez-Carreño M, Ansorena D, Astiasarán I. Stability of sterols in phytosterol-enriched milk under different heating conditions. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2008; 56:9997-10002. [PMID: 18928298 DOI: 10.1021/jf802000m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Commercially available phytosterol-enriched milk was subjected to usual and drastic heating conditions to evaluate the stability of the sterols at different treatments. Products showed 422.2 mg of phytosterols/100 g of milk and 132 microg of sterol oxidation products (SOPs)/g of fat (277 microg of SOPs/100 g of milk). Schaal oven conditions (24 h/65 degrees C, equivalent to 1 month of storage at room temperature) reduced the phytosterol content by only 4%. Drastic heating treatments (2 min of microwave heating at 900 W or 15 min of electrical heating at 90 degrees C) led to a 60% decrease of total phytosterol content, with a significant increase of TBARs. The oxysterol amount under those conditions (which was higher in microwave-treated samples) was lower than expected, probably because of the degradation of the oxidation products. Usual heating conditions (1.5 min of microwaves) maintained phytosterol content on physiologically active values (301 mg/100 g of milk) with oxidation percentages around 0.12-0.40% for phytosterols and 1.13% for cholesterol.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Menéndez-Carreño
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Navarra, Irunlarrea sn, 31008 Pamplona, Spain
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39
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Analytical Methods for Quantification of Modified Fatty Acids and Sterols Formed as a Result of Processing. FOOD ANAL METHOD 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s12161-008-9055-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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40
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García-Llatas G, Cercaci L, Rodriguez-Estrada MT, Lagarda MJ, Farré R, Lercker G. Sterol oxidation in ready-to-eat infant foods during storage. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2008; 56:469-475. [PMID: 18167071 DOI: 10.1021/jf072475g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The effect of storage on sterol oxidation of ready-to-eat infant foods was evaluated. Two different liquid infant foods (honey or fruits flavors), prepared with milk and cereals, were stored for 0, 2, 4, 7 and 9 months at 25 degrees C. Sterol oxidation products (SOP) were isolated by cold saponification, purified by silica solid-phase extraction, and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC-mass spectrometry. beta-Sitosterol was the most representative sterol, followed by cholesterol and campesterol. No significant differences in the total and single SOP content (0.8-1 mg/kg of product) were observed with respect to storage time and type of sample; the main SOP found was 7-ketositosterol (<0.2 mg/kg of product). The extent of stigmasterol oxidation (2.9%) was higher than that of cholesterol (1.9%) and beta-sitosterol (1.4%). The type and quality of raw materials, as well as the processing conditions, seem to greatly influence SOP formation and accumulation in infant foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guadalupe García-Llatas
- Area de Nutrición y Bromatología, Universitat de València, Avda. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot-Valencia, Spain
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41
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Hovenkamp E, Demonty I, Plat J, Lütjohann D, Mensink RP, Trautwein EA. Biological effects of oxidized phytosterols: A review of the current knowledge. Prog Lipid Res 2008; 47:37-49. [DOI: 10.1016/j.plipres.2007.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2007] [Revised: 10/16/2007] [Accepted: 10/22/2007] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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42
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Abramsson-Zetterberg L, Svensson M, Johnsson L. No evidence of genotoxic effect in vivo of the phytosterol oxidation products triols and epoxides. Toxicol Lett 2007; 173:132-9. [PMID: 17765410 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2007] [Revised: 07/06/2007] [Accepted: 07/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Phytosterols (PS) are naturally occurring compounds present in food products of plant origin. Due to reported positive health effects, some food products are also enriched with PS. In the same way as cholesterol is oxidised, PS also oxidise to a variety of oxidation products (POPs). The biological effects and safety aspects of POPs are still unclear. This study investigated whether POPs are genotoxic in vivo, using a flow cytometer-based micronucleus assay in mice. The highest dose of oxidation products administered was 67mg/kg b.w. for epoxides and 9.4mg/kg b.w. for triols. Synthesised and separated triols and epoxides from a mixture of sitosterol and campesterol were investigated. The frequency of micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (fMNPCE) in POP-exposed mice did not significantly differ from the control values in either of two experiments performed. The flow cytometer-based method also allows for restriction of the analysis to micronuclei with a high DNA content, indicating an aneugenic potency. Even with this approach, there was no significant increase in the frequency of micronucleated erythrocytes among POP-treated mice compared with control mice. Furthermore, no significant deviation in cell proliferation rate (%PCE) was observed.
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Newill H, Loske R, Wagner J, Johannes C, Lorenz RL, Lehmann L. Oxidation products of stigmasterol interfere with the action of the female sex hormone 17β-estradiol in cultured human breast and endometrium cell lines. Mol Nutr Food Res 2007; 51:888-98. [PMID: 17579897 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200700025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Phytosterols are constituents of plant membranes and are thus contained in low concentrations in vegetable products as well as at high concentrations in functional food designed to reduce serum cholesterol levels. Similar to ChOL, phytosterols are oxidized chemically in food and by biotransformation in vivo. Although oxyphytosterols have been detected in the serum of healthy human subjects, little is known of their biological activity. Therefore, the estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities of a mixture of six oxidation products of stigmasterol (oxy-StOL) were determined at the following endpoints: (i) the affinity to isolated human estrogen receptors (ER), (ii) the basal and 17beta-estradiol (E2)-induced expression of the alkaline phosphatase (AlP) in human endometrial adenocarcinoma (Ishikawa) cells, and (iii) the basal and E2-induced proliferation of human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7) cells. Oxy-StOL was able to replace E2 from human ERalpha and ERbeta and induced a weak estrogenic response in MCF-7 cells. Moreover, the E2-induced activity of the AlP in Ishikawa cells as well as the E2-induced proliferation of MCF-7 cells were decreased at noncytotoxic concentrations (up to 10 microM), indicating that at least one component of oxy-StOL represents an estrogen-active compound which might interfere with endogenous estrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Newill
- Institute of Applied Biosciences, Section of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Karlsruhe, Kaiserstrasse, Karlsruhe, Germany
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44
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Kemmo S, Ollilainen V, Lampi AM, Piironen V. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for plant sterol oxide determination in complex mixtures. Eur Food Res Technol 2007. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-007-0661-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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45
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Affiliation(s)
- Dieter Lütjohann
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Bonn, Sigmund-Freud-Str. 25, D-53105 Bonn, Germany.
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Ryan E, Chopra J, McCarthy F, Maguire AR, O'Brien NM. Qualitative and quantitative comparison of the cytotoxic and apoptotic potential of phytosterol oxidation products with their corresponding cholesterol oxidation products. Br J Nutr 2007; 94:443-51. [PMID: 16176617 DOI: 10.1079/bjn20051500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Phytosterols contain an unsaturated ring structure and therefore are susceptible to oxidation under certain conditions. Whilst the cytotoxicity of the analogous cholesterol oxidation products (COP) has been well documented, the biological effects of phytosterol oxidation products (POP)have not yet been fully ascertained. The objective of the present study was to examine the cytotoxicity of β-sitosterol oxides and their corresponding COP in a human monocytic cell line (U937), a colonic adenocarcinoma cell line (CaCo-2) and a hepatoma liver cell line (HepG2). 7β-Hydroxysitosterol, 7-ketositosterol, sitosterol-3β,5α,6β-triol and a sitosterol-5α,6α-epoxide–sitosterol-5β,6β-epoxide (6:1) mixture were found to be cytotoxic to all three cell lines employed; the mode of cell death was by apoptosis in the U937 cell line and necrosis in the CaCo-2 and HepG2 cells. 7β-Hydroxysitosterol was the only β-sitosterol oxide to cause depletion in glutathione, indicating that POP-induced apoptosis may not be dependent on the generation of an oxidative stress. A further objective of this study was to assess the ability of the antioxidants α-tocopherol, γ-tocopherol and β-carotene to modulate POP-induced cytotoxicity in U937 cells. Whilst α/γ-tocopherol protected against 7β-hydroxycholesterol-induced apoptosis, they did not confer protection against 7β-hydroxysitosterol-or 7-ketositosterol-induced toxicity, indicating that perhaps COP provoke different apoptotic pathways than POP. β-Carotene did not protect against COP- or POP-induced toxicity. In general, results indicate that POP have qualitatively similar toxic effects to COP. However, higher concentrations of POP are required to elicit comparable levels of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Ryan
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College, Cork, Ireland
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Determination of phytosterol oxides in some food products by using an optimized transesterification method. Food Chem 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Plat J, Nichols JA, Mensink RP. Plant sterols and stanols: effects on mixed micellar composition and LXR (target gene) activation. J Lipid Res 2005; 46:2468-76. [PMID: 16150823 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m500272-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant stanols and sterols of the 4-desmethyl family (e.g., sitostanol and sitosterol) effectively decrease LDL cholesterol concentrations, whereas 4,4-dimethylsterols (alpha-amyrin and lupeol) do not. Serum carotenoid concentrations, however, are decreased by both plant sterol families. The exact mechanisms underlying these effects are not known, although effects on micellar composition have been suggested. With a liver X receptor (LXR) coactivator peptide recruitment assay, we showed that plant sterols and stanols from the 4-desmethylsterol family activated both LXRalpha and LXRbeta, whereas 4,4-dimethyl plant sterols did not. In fully differentiated Caco-2 cells, the functionality of this effect was shown by the increased expression of ABCA1, one of the known LXR target genes expressed by Caco-2 cells in measurable amounts. The LXR-activating potential of the various plant sterols/stanols correlated positively with ABCA1 mRNA expression. Reductions in serum hydrocarbon carotenoids could be explained by the effects of the 4-desmethyl family and 4,4-dimethylsterols on micellar carotenoid incorporation. Our findings indicate that the decreased intestinal absorption of cholesterol and carotenoids by plant sterols and stanols is caused by two distinct mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jogchum Plat
- Department of Human Biology, Maastricht University, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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Plat J, Mensink RP. Plant stanol and sterol esters in the control of blood cholesterol levels: mechanism and safety aspects. Am J Cardiol 2005; 96:15D-22D. [PMID: 15992511 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2005.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Incorporation of plant stanol esters into margarine is among the first examples of a functional food with proven low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol-lowering effectiveness. Recently, there have been many studies on the effects of plant stanols/sterols on cholesterol metabolism. It has been found that the serum LDL cholesterol-lowering effect of plant stanols/sterols originates from reduced intestinal cholesterol absorption, a process in which changes in micellar composition are thought to play a major role. However, recent findings suggest that there is an additional process in which plant stanols/sterols actively influence cellular cholesterol metabolism within intestinal enterocytes. Furthermore, in response to the reduced supply of exogenous cholesterol, receptor-mediated lipoprotein cholesterol uptake is probably enhanced, as shown by increased LDL receptor expression. At recommended intakes of about 2 to 2.5 g/day, products enriched with plant stanol/sterol esters lower plasma LDL cholesterol levels by 10% to 14% without any reported side effects. Thus, plant stanols/sterols can be considered to be effective and safe cholesterol-lowering functional food ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jogchum Plat
- Department of Human Biology, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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