A Review of The Nutrition of Japanese Quail

Green Tea (Camellia sinensis) Products as Alternatives to Antibiotics in Poultry Nutrition: A Review

The overuse and misuse of antibiotics in poultry feeds increase the total cost of production and compromise the quality of poultry products, which poses a serious threat to human health. Globally, health-conscious poultry consumers have long called for the alternate use of natural additives to mitigate the development and spread of multidrug resistant pathogens. Phytogenic plants, such as green tea (Camellia sinensis) products, contain putative nutraceuticals with antibiotic properties that can be used as alternatives to therapeutic, metaphylactic, prophylactic, and growth-promoting antibiotics. However, there are limited studies in the literature that have evaluated the potential of green tea (GT) products when used as replacements to in-feed antibiotics, with most studies focusing on their potential as sources of dietary nutrients in poultry feeds. Thus, this review paper discusses the potential of GT products to replace various antibiotics in poultry diets while presenting GT bioactive substances that can improve the growth performance, carcass and meat quality traits, and health status of the birds. We postulate that the utilisation of GT products in place of antibiotics could deliver sustainable, organic poultry production systems that would contribute significantly to global food and nutrition security.

Long-term exposure to p-Nitrophenol induces hepatotoxicity via accelerating apoptosis and glycogen accumulation in male Japanese quails

p-Nitrophenol (PNP) is the main end product of organophosphorus insecticides and a derivative of diesel exhaust particles. In addition to its unfavorable impact on reproductive functions in both genders, it also has various harmful physiological effects including lung cancer and allergic rhinitis. The identification of the cellular readout that functions in metabolic pathway perpetuation is still far from clear. This research aimed to study the impact of chronic PNP exposure on the health condition of the liver in Japanese quails. Quails were exposed to different concentrations of PNP as follows: 0.0 (control), 0.01mg (PNP/0.01), 0.1mg (PNP/0.1), and 1mg (PNP/1) per kg of body weight for 2.5 months through oral administration. Liver and plasma samples were collected at 1.5, 2, and 2.5 months post-treatment for biochemical, histopathology, and immunohistochemistry assessment. The plasma aspartate aminotransferase (AST) level was assessed enzymatically. The livers were collected for histopathology, glycogen accumulation, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and apoptosis assessment. Our results revealed an irregularity in body weight due to the long-term exposure of PNP with a significant reduction in liver weight. PNP treatment caused histopathological alterations in the hepatic tissues which increased in severity by the long-term exposure. The low dose led to mild degeneration with lymphocytic infiltration, while the moderate dose has a congestion effect with some necrosis; meanwhile severe hepatocyte degeneration and RBCs hemolysis were noticed due to high dose of PNP. Glycogen accumulation increased in hepatocytes by prolonged exposure to p-Nitrophenol with the highest intensity in the group treated by the high dose. Moderate and high doses of PNP resulted in a significant increase in apoptosis and hepatocytes' proliferation at the different time points after treatment. This increase is markedly notable and maximized at 2.5 months post-treatment. The damage occurred in a time-dependent manner. These changes reflected on the plasma hepatic enzyme AST that was clearly increased at 2.5 months of exposure. Therefore, it could be concluded that PNP has profound toxic effects on the liver in cellular level. Taking into consideration the time and dose factors, both have a synergistic effect on the accumulation of glycogen, apoptosis, and cellular proliferation, highlighting the power of cellular investigation which will potentially open the door for earlier medical intervention to counteract this toxicity. Collectively, PNP could have critical hurtful effects on the health of human beings, wild animals as well as livestock.

Sodium levels for Japanese quail at initial phases

The aim of this research was to determine the nutritional requirements of sodium for Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix Japonica) during the periods of 1 to 21 d and 22 to 40 d of age, as well as to evaluate the residual effect on egg production and densitometry bone traits from 41 to 63 d. Two experiments were developed. Experiment 1: 360 Japanese quail were used, from 1 to 21 d of age. Treatments consisted of 5 sodium levels (0.06, 0.12, 0.18, 0.24, and 0.30%). Experiment 2: 240 Japanese quail were used, from 22 to 40 d. Treatments consisted of 5 sodium levels (0.04, 0.12, 0.20, 0.28, and 0.36%). In both experiments, weight gain, final weight, and feed conversion presented a quadratic trend, whereas water intake presented a linear trend. Treatments did not affect the densitometry of bone traits, although they presented a quadratic influence on tibia ash, calcium, and calcium:phosphorus ratio. Therefore, the nutritional requirement of sodium for Japanese quail from 1 to 21 d and from 22 to 40 d is 0.222% and 0.253%, respectively.

Hypocholesterolemic effect of karaya saponin in Japanese laying quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

The effect of karaya saponin supplementation on the serum and egg yolk cholesterol and fatty acid composition in egg yolk were investigated in Japanese quails. A total of 80 Japanese quails aged 5 weeks were equally divided into four groups of 20. Four levels (0, 25, 50 and 75 mg/kg feed) of karaya saponin were included in the basal diet and experiment was lasted for 6 weeks. The cholesterol fractions in the egg yolk and serum were measured by enzymatic assay, and the fatty acid composition in egg yolk was determined by gas chromatography. The results revealed that the supplementation of 75 mg/kg karaya saponin significantly reduced (p < 0.05) cholesterol and triglycerides concentration in serum and egg yolk. High-density lipoprotein-cholesterol was increased, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol and the atherogenic index were decreased (p < 0.05) by the dietary supplementations. Hepatic cholesterol was reduced (p < 0.05) by the 25 mg/kg karaya saponin. A higher degree of yolk colour was improved (p < 0.05) when 75 mg/kg saponin was supplemented in the diet. The concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in egg yolk was increased (p < 0.05) in a dose-dependent manner in quails fed the supplemented diet than the control diet. The ratio of PUFA to saturated fatty acids in egg yolk was improved (p < 0.05) by 75 mg/kg feed karaya saponin-supplemented diet. Therefore, the dietary supplementation of 75 mg/kg karaya saponin may be a feasible means of producing quail eggs with lower cholesterol and higher PUFA content for health conscious consumers.

Effect of dietary level of methionine on growth performance and immune response in Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

BACKGROUND

Methionine (Met) being the first limiting amino acid in maize/soybean-based quail diets, its supplementation provides scope for improvement of protein quality and reduction of dietary protein concentration. The question remains to what extent it can be incorporated in the diet of genetically improved quails. Therefore the effect of dietary Met level was assessed on growth performance and immune response in growing Japanese quails (n = 400) divided equally into 20 groups. Five dietary treatments (approximately 230 g kg(-1) crude protein and 12.14 MJ kg(-1) metabolisable energy) were formulated with 3.5, 4.5, 5.0, 5.5 and 6.0 g kg(-1) Met respectively, and each was offered to four groups of birds from 0 to 35 days of age.

RESULTS

Live weight at day 35 increased (P < 0.0001) up to 5.0 g kg(-1) dietary Met level but did not improve further at higher Met levels (5.5 and 6.0 g kg(-1)). Improved (P < 0.039) feed conversion ratio was achieved at 5.5 g kg(-1) Met level, which was statistically similar to that at 5.0 g kg(-1) Met level during 0-14 days of age. Cellular (phytohaemagglutinin from Phaseolus vulgaris) immune response increased (P < 0.0001) with increasing dietary Met concentration, whereas humoral (sheep red blood cells) immune response did not differ.

CONCLUSION

The optimal requirement of Met was 5.0 g kg(-1) for growth and 5.5 g kg(-1) for maximum cellular immune response.

Effects of decreases in the three most limiting amino acids of low protein diets at two different feeding periods in Japanese quails

1. Diets containing 100 (AA100), 95 (AA95), 90 (AA90) or 85% (AA85) of National Research Council (NRC, 1994) recommendations of methionine, threonine and lysine in a low-protein diet (200 g/kg) were fed to 15-d-old quails. 2. Decreases of up to 15% of NRC recommendations in these three amino acids did not affect feed intake, weight gain and gain:feed intake values in the 15-35- and 15-42-d feeding periods. 3. Compared to control diet, feeding cost per bird was lower in males fed with AA95 and AA85 at 15-35 d and with AA85 diets at 15-42 d. At 15-35 d, feeding cost per 100 g weight gain was lower in both males and females receiving the AA85 diet while at 15-42 d it was lower in males fed with AA85 and females fed with AA90 compared to the control diet. Feeding cost calculated based on 100 g weight gain resulted in more meaningful results than cost calculated for the production of a bird. 4. Dietary amino acid content did not significantly affect carcase, thigh (bone in and skin on) or breast meat (deboned and skin on) yields. Males fed with AA90 diet and females fed with AA90 and AA85 had lower protein contents in their breast meat (without bone and skin) compared to the ones fed with control diet.

Nível de proteína bruta para codornas de corte durante o período de crescimento

Estudou-se a exigência de proteína bruta de codornas de corte na fase de crescimento. Foram utilizadas 288 codornas européias EV2, de ambos os sexos em delineamento experimental inteiramente ao acaso, cujos tratamentos consistiram de dietas com seis níveis de proteína bruta (23, 25, 27, 29, 31 e 33%) e quatro repetições de doze codornas por unidade experimental. Estudaram-se o ganho de peso (g), peso corporal ao final de cada período (g), consumo alimentar (g) e conversão alimentar (g/g) do nascimento ao 21ºe do nascimento ao 42º dia de idade. No 42º dia de idade, foram aleatoriamente amostradas e abatidas quatro aves por unidade experimental (dois machos e duas fêmeas), para registro dos pesos e respectivos rendimentos das carcaças, cortes nobres (coxas e peito), vísceras comestíveis (fígado, moela e coração) e gordura abdominal. Do nascimento ao 21º dia de idade, houve efeito quadrático dos níveis de proteína da dieta sobre peso corporal, ganho de peso e consumo alimentar, com pontos de máximo em 30,64, 30,65 e 29,02%, respectivamente. A conversão alimentar durante este período apresentou resposta linear, ao nível de proteína bruta da dieta. Houve efeito quadrático dos níveis de proteína bruta da dieta sobre o peso no 42º dia de idade, com máximo desempenho em 29,93%. Para o ganho de peso houve resposta linear aos níveis de proteína. Houve efeito quadrático no ganho de peso e no consumo alimentar do nascimento ao 42º dia de idade, com os pontos de máximo estimados em 29,81 e 29,11%, respectivamente. O peso corporal antes do abate, o de carcaça e o de peito foram influenciados linearmente pelos níveis de proteína bruta da dieta. Houve interação significativa nível protéico versus sexo. As fêmeas apresentaram resposta linear de rendimento de peito em relação aos níveis protéicos da dieta, enquanto o rendimento do peito dos machos não foi influenciado pela proteína da dieta. Peso corporal, rendimento de peito e peso e rendimento de fígado das fêmeas foram maiores que os dos machos. As exigências de proteína bruta estimada para o máximo ganho de peso de machos e fêmeas de codornas de corte, do nascimento ao 21º e do nascimento ao 42º dia de idade são 30,65% e 29,81%, respectivamente. A exigência para pesos de carcaça e peito é de 33,0% de proteína bruta da dieta.

Exigências de proteína bruta e energia metabolizável em codornas de corte durante a fase de crescimento

Estudou-se a exigência de proteína bruta e energia metabolizável para codornas européias em crescimento, em cinco períodos experimentais, de sete dias cada. Foram utilizadas 384 codornas de ambos os sexos, com sete dias de idade em delineamento experimental utilizado inteiramente ao acaso, em esquema fatorial de 2×4, dois níveis de energia (2900 e 3100kcal de EM/kg de ração) e quatro níveis de proteína (22, 24, 26 e 28% de PB), com seis repetições de oito animais cada. Foram estudadas as variáveis ganho de peso (g), peso acumulado (g), consumo de ração (g) e conversão alimentar (g de ração/g de peso). Observou-se efeito linear dos níveis de proteína no primeiro período e quadrático nos demais períodos sobre o ganho de peso das aves. Os níveis de proteína foram estimados em 28,0% (2900kcal de EM/kg), 25,7% (3100kcal de EM/kg), 27,9%, 24,8% (3100kcal de EM/kg) e 23,1% (2900kcal de EM/kg) para o segundo, terceiro, quarto e quinto período, respectivamente.

Comparative studies with three-week-old chickens, turkeys, ducks, and quails on the response in phosphorus utilization to a supplementation of monobasic calcium phosphate

We studied whether the availability of P is different among poultry species. A basal diet was mixed mainly based on corn, potato protein, and dried egg white. It was calculated according to the recommendations for young turkeys with the exception of P and Ca concentrations, which were deficient. Monobasic calcium phosphate (MCP) was added in graded levels, and analyzed P concentrations in the 7 diets were (in g/kg of dry matter) 2.9, 3.7, 4.5, 5.3, 6.2, 7.2, and 7.7. Four experiments were conducted with 3-wk-old broiler chickens, turkeys, ducks, and quails. Birds were kept in balance crates, and 8 individuals were allocated to each treatment diet. Birds were fed the treatment diets for 10 d, and excreta were quantitatively collected during the last 5 d. P utilization was calculated as the proportion of P intake that was accreted by the birds. The P accretion response of birds to incremental MCP intake was described with sigmoidal functions, and the marginal efficiency of P utilization ((delta)y/(delta)x) was calculated. Utilization of P from the unsupplemented basal diet was 58% in broilers, 55% in quails, 46% in ducks, and 39% in turkeys. Supplementation of MCP significantly increased P accretion in all species. Ninety-five percent of the estimated ymax in P accretion was achieved with 8.4, 7.3, and 4.8 g P/kg of dietary DM in broilers, ducks, and quails. No plateau in P accretion was achieved in turkeys. These differences correlate well with the differences in the feed/gain ratio, which was 1.3 in turkeys, 1.7 in broilers, 1.9 in ducks, and 3.5 in quails. The maximum in marginal efficiency of supplemented P was 96% in ducks, 81% in turkeys, 74% in broilers, and 77% in quails. These maxima were achieved at different levels of MCP supplementation. We concluded that differences in P availability exist between poultry species for plant and mineral P sources. Quails can be used as model species for broilers in P availability studies, but dietary P levels need special adjustment.

Efeito de diferentes níveis de proteína e energia sobre o rendimento de carcaça de codornas européias

Avaliou-se o rendimento de carcaça de codornas européias de corte (Coturnix coturnix coturnix) no 42º dia de idade, alimentadas com dietas contendo quatro níveis de proteína e dois níveis de energia. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente ao acaso, com seis repetições e oito codornas por unidade experimental. Os tratamentos constituíram de um fatorial 2×4, ou seja, dois níveis de energia (2900 e 3100kcal EM/kg) e quatro níveis de proteína (22, 24, 26 e 28% proteína bruta na dieta). As variáveis estudadas foram: peso vivo, peso de carcaça, rendimento de carcaça, peso de coxa, rendimento de coxa, peso de peito, rendimento de peito, peso de gordura abdominal, rendimento de gordura abdominal, peso de vísceras comestíveis e rendimento de vísceras comestíveis. Não houve efeito significativo dos níveis de energia e nem dos níveis de proteína sobre nenhuma das características de carcaça analisada.

Exigência de proteína bruta para codornas européias no período de crescimento

Estimou-se a exigência de proteína bruta para codornas européias de corte (Coturnix coturnix coturnix) nos períodos de 18-28, 28-42 e 42-56 dias de idade. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente ao acaso, constituído de cinco tratamentos, seis repetições e 15 codornas por unidade experimental. As dietas experimentais foram formuladas com 18, 20, 22, 24 e 26% de proteína bruta e 2900kCal/kg de energia metabolizável. As exigências de proteína bruta estimadas no período de 18-28 dias de idade para ganho de peso, conversão alimentar e peso corporal foram, respectivamente, 25,7; 25,2 e 25,5%. De 28 a 42 dias de idade, a exigência de proteína bruta para peso corporal foi 24,6%. Não houve efeito significativo do nível de proteína bruta sobre o ganho de peso e conversão alimentar nesse período. De 42 a 56 dias de idade, o efeito do nível de proteína bruta sobre o ganho de peso, conversão alimentar e peso corporal não foi significativo. Codornas européias de corte Coturnix coturnix coturnix apresentaram diminuição da exigência de proteína bruta para peso corporal no período 28-42 dias de idade em comparação à exigência no período 18-28 dias de idade. Não foi possível estabelecer o requisito de proteína para peso corporal, ganho de peso e conversão alimentar após o 28º dia de idade.

Exigências de proteína bruta e energia metabolizável para codornas japonesas machos criadas para a produção de carne

O experimento objetivou estimar as exigências de proteína bruta (PB) e energia metabolizável (EM) para máximo desempenho de machos de codornas japonesas criadas para a produção de carne e determinação da idade de abate que resultasse em peso máximo das aves. Quatrocentos e cinqüenta codornas foram utilizadas em delineamento experimental de blocos ao acaso, com cinco repetições de seis codornas por unidade experimental. Os tratamentos, de dietas formuladas a partir da combinação de cinco níveis de PB (18, 20, 22, 24 e 26%) e três níveis de EM (2800, 3000 e 3200kcal/kg de ração), foram alocados nas parcelas e os quatro períodos experimentais nas sub-parcelas. As variáveis estudadas durante os quatro períodos (5 a 16; 16 a 27; 27 a 38 e 38 a 49 dias de idade) foram consumo de ração (CR), ganho de peso (GP), conversão alimentar (CA) e peso vivo (PV). No período total (5 a 49 dias de idade) foram estudados consumo de ração acumulado (CRA), ganho de peso acumulado (GPA) e conversão alimentar acumulada (CAA). As exigências estimadas de PB e EM durante o primeiro (5 a 16) e terceiro (27 a 38) períodos foram 26 e 2800 e 18% e 3200kcal/kg de ração, respectivamente. A exigência de PB no segundo período (16 a 27 dias de idade) foi de 26%, não sendo possível estimar a exigência energética. No quarto (38 a 49 dias de idade) período experimental a exigência estimada de EM foi de 3200kcal/kg de ração, não sendo possível estimar a exigência protéica. No período total as exigências protéica e energética, estimadas para máximos ganhos de peso acumulados, foram de 26% e 3200kcal/kg de ração, respectivamente. As idades estimadas que resultaram em PV máximo dependeram do nível de PB e de EM da dieta, variando de 57 a 85 e 60 a 74 dias, respectivamente.

Responses in growth, food intake and food conversion efficiency to different dietary protein concentrations in meat-type lines of Japanese quail

1. A total of 360 Japanese quail of 4 commercial meat-type lines and two diet treatments (260 and 216 g/kg or 238 and 195 g/kg of crude protein (CP) in the starter and grower diet, respectively) were used. 2. The positive effect of a high CP diet on body weight was significant only for the first 4 weeks after hatching. 3. The mean age at inflection point of the growth curve (t+) across lines and sexes was 1.4 d (0.6 to 2.8 d within line/sex groups) earlier for quail fed on a high CP diet than in quail receiving a low CP diet. The inflection (y+) and asymptotic (A) weights were similar under both dietary protein concentrations. Nevertheless, the shape of the growth curve, characterised by the ratio y+/A and parameter of the maturing rate k, was significantly influenced by diet. 4. A higher food intake and less efficient food conversion were found for quail fed on a high CP diet in the period from 15 to 28 d of age. 5. The fattening traits such as body weight, cumulative food intake and food conversion, were not affected by dietary CP content at the age of 5 weeks. 6. The effects of line on body weight, food intake and food conversion are discussed.

The behavior of the Japanese or domestic quail Coturnix japonica

This paper reviews the literature pertaining to the behavior of the Japanese or domestic quail Coturnix japonica. Details are given of the classification, characteristics, domestication and the economic and research potential of the species. Further sections deal with sensation and perception (including taste and smell, vision and hearing), maintenance behavior (including feeding and drinking, dust bathing and thermoregulation), development and aging (including vocalization, filial imprinting, sexual imprinting, fear and avoidance responses, sexual maturation and aging), adult learning (including habituation, instrumental conditioning, Pavlovian conditioning and observational learning), photoperiodism, reproductive behavior (including courtship and mating, hormonal control and ontogeny of sexual differentiation, and male and female sexual behavior), parental behavior (including nest-site selection and nest building, incubation behavior and its hormonal control, and hen-chick relationships), and aggressive behavior and dominance (including agonistic behavior and the hormonal control of aggressive behavior).

The influence of supplemental corn oil and free fatty acids on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary corn oil (CO) and commercial free fatty acids on the fatty acid composition of blood plasma and egg yolk lipids and on the reproductive performance of Japanese quail. When quail were fed a semi-purified low-fat basal mix, the substitution of 3% of CO for corn starch (CS) improved egg weight (11.2 versus 10.8 g), reduced late embryonic mortality (16.7 versus 28.4%), and improved hatchability (75.7 versus 64.1%). Diets in which palmitic acid or oleic acid were substituted on a weight basis for 3% of CS performed as well as those in which CO was used. When linoleic acid replaced 3% of CS, late embryonic mortality was reduced (13.7 versus 28.4%) and hatchability was improved (80.1 versus 64.1%), but fertility was depressed (85.8 versus 93.6%). The substitution of linolenic acid for 3% of CS depressed feed consumption, body weight, and egg weight relative to the low-fat CS diet and did not improve the low 18-day embryonic livability and low hatchability. The fatty acid compositions of plasma and yolk were influenced by the lipid composition of the diets. Quail fed 3% of CO deposited more linoleic acid in the egg than those fed 3% of linoleic acid (15.2 versus 11.7%). Thus, quail fed a simplified basal breeder diet containing .6% of linoleic acid showed decreased embryonic livability and hatchability and these parameters achieved normal levels in response to the substitution of 3% of either CO, palmitic acid, oleic acid, or linoleic acid for CS.

Diseases of quail

An increasing number and variety of quail are being kept for food production, experimental use, release on hunting preserves, preservation of endangered species, zoological display, and as companion birds. Quail are susceptible to a variety of noninfectious, infectious, and parasitic diseases. Because they are related to chickens and turkeys, many of the diseases in quail are similar to those in poultry. In this article, the diagnostic characteristics of diseases affecting quail are presented along with information on their prevention, control, and treatment.