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Angrand RC, Collins G, Landrigan PJ, Thomas VM. Relation of blood lead levels and lead in gasoline: an updated systematic review. Environ Health 2022; 21:138. [PMID: 36572887 PMCID: PMC9793664 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-022-00936-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Millions of tons of lead were added to gasoline worldwide beginning in 1922, and leaded gasoline has been a major source of population lead exposure. In 1960s, lead began to be removed from automotive gasoline. Removal was completed in 2021. OBJECTIVES To determine whether removal of lead from automotive gasoline is associated with declines in population mean blood lead levels (BPb). METHODS We examined published studies that reported population blood leaded levels for two or more years, and we calculated average concentrations of lead in gasoline corresponding to the years and locations of the blood lead level measurements. RESULTS Removal of lead from gasoline is associated with declines in BPb in all countries examined. In some countries, BPb continues to fall after lead has been eliminated from gasoline. Following elimination of lead from gasoline, BPb less than 1 μg/dL have been observed in several European and North American countries, and BPb less than 3 μg/dL have been documented in several studies from South America. DISCUSSION There remain many countries for which no multi-year studies of populations BPb have been identified, including all of Central America, high population countries including Pakistan and Indonesia, and major lead producers including Australia and Russia. CONCLUSION Removal of lead from gasoline has been a public health success. Elimination of lead from gasoline has enabled many countries to achieve population mean BPb levels of 1 μg/dL or lower. These actions have saved lives, increased children's intelligence and created great economic benefit in countries worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth C Angrand
- Department of Internal Medicine, Stony Brook University Hospital, Stony Brook, NY, USA
| | - Geoffrey Collins
- Department of Population Health Science and Policy, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Philip J Landrigan
- Biology Department and Global Observatory on Planetary Health, Boston College, Boston, MA, USA
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Monaco, MC, Monaco
| | - Valerie M Thomas
- H. Milton Stewart School of Industrial and Systems Engineering, and School of Public Policy, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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Low-level Eexposure to lead dust in unusual work schedules and hematologic, renal, and hepatic parameters. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2021; 415:115448. [PMID: 33577916 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2021.115448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many workers are exposed to lead dust in lead-‑zinc mines. Exposure to this heavy toxic metal and its compounds can cause irreversible adverse health effects. OBJECTIVE To assess possible hematotoxic, nephrotoxic, and hepatotoxic potentials of low levels of lead in a group of mine workers exposed to this heavy metal in an unusual work schedule. METHODS A total of 73 exposed and 70 non-exposed employees were interviewed. Demographic data, and occupational and medical history of the employees were obtained by questionnaires. Air monitoring was performed to determine the workers' time-weighted average (TWA) exposure to lead dust. The threshold limit value (TLV) for lead was adjusted for unusual work schedules according to the model developed by the University of Montreal and the Institute de Recherche en Sante et en Securite du Travail (IRSST). Blood samples were collected for complete blood count, liver and kidney function tests. Data were analyzed using version 21.0 of the SPSS software. RESULTS The TWA exposure of workers was 24 μg/m3. On average, the worker's exposure to lead dust did not exceed the 8-h OSHA and ACGIH TLV-TWA of 50 μg/m3. Significant associations were found only between exposure to lead and platelet count, red cell distribution width, total protein, and albumin. CONCLUSIONS Exposure to low levels of lead dust in unusual work schedules was not associated with overt hematotoxicity, hepatotoxicity or nephrotoxicity. However, mild, sub-clinical, pre-pathologic significant changes were noted in some blood parameters of the exposed employees as compared with their referent counterparts.
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Sakellari A, Karavoltsos S, Kalogeropoulos N, Theodorou D, Dedoussis G, Chrysohoou C, Dassenakis M, Scoullos M. Predictors of cadmium and lead concentrations in the blood of residents from the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 568:263-270. [PMID: 27295597 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The Cd and Pb blood contents of healthy adult subjects who are non-occupationally exposed and living in the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece) have not been assessed thus far. Additionally, Greeks rank first among EU27 in terms of smoking habits. To fill the existing gap, we aimed to evaluate the predictors and propose reference values (RVs) of the Cd (CdB) and Pb (PbB) blood concentrations in residents of the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece). Age, sex, smoking, alcohol drinking, educational status and nutritional habits were used as variables, with an emphasis on smoking. CdB and PbB determinations were performed directly by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) following the appropriate dilution of the samples with Triton-X-100. The RVs of CdB and PbB proposed for the general adult population of the Metropolitan area of Athens, Greece (upper limit of the 95% CI of the 95th percentile of the distribution of values), were 2.3 and 88μgL(-1) (P95: 1.8 and 77μgL(-1); 95% CI (P95): 1.5-2.3 and 70-88μgL(-1)), respectively. Males had a higher median CdB (0.69μgL(-1)) than females (0.55μgL(-1)). Subjects aged <40years had a lower median CdB (0.51μgL(-1)) than the elderly (≥60years; 0.60μgL(-1)). The CdB in smokers (1.2μgL(-1)) was almost threefold higher than in non-smokers (0.46μgL(-1)). The PbB levels were higher in males (31μgL(-1)) than females (20μgL(-1)). Subjects aged <40years had a lower median PbB (17μgL(-1)) than the elderly (≥60years; 32μgL(-1)). A multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that the predictor variables for the CdB levels were the standardized beta weight, smoking, age, alcohol consumption, and intake of leafy vegetables, whereas for the PbB levels they were sex and age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aikaterini Sakellari
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Division III, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Zografou, Panepistimiopolis, 157 84 Athens, Greece.
| | - Sotirios Karavoltsos
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Division III, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Zografou, Panepistimiopolis, 157 84 Athens, Greece
| | - Nick Kalogeropoulos
- Harokopio University, Department of Nutrition Science and Dietetics, Laboratory of Chemistry-Biochemistry-Physical Chemistry of Foods, 176 71 Athens, Greece
| | - Dimitrios Theodorou
- School of Chemical Engineering, Laboratory of Fuels and Lubricants Technology, National Technical University of Athens, Iroon Polytechneiou 9, Athens 15780, Greece
| | - George Dedoussis
- Harokopio University, Department of Nutrition Science and Dietetics, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, 176 71 Athens, Greece
| | - Christina Chrysohoou
- First Cardiology Clinic, Hippokration Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Manos Dassenakis
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Division III, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Zografou, Panepistimiopolis, 157 84 Athens, Greece
| | - Michael Scoullos
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Division III, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry, Zografou, Panepistimiopolis, 157 84 Athens, Greece
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Kasperczyk A, Dziwisz M, Ostałowska A, Świętochowska E, Birkner E. Function of the liver and bile ducts in humans exposed to lead. Hum Exp Toxicol 2013; 32:787-96. [DOI: 10.1177/0960327112468177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Lead is very common in the environment, and it is therefore important to characterize its possible adverse health effects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of lead exposure on selected functions of the liver and bile ducts in people who are chronically exposed to the metal because of their occupations. To provide this information, the activity of specific enzymes and the bilirubin concentration were determined in blood serum, and morphological parameters of the liver and bile ducts were evaluated using the ultrasonic imaging method. Healthy male employees of a lead–zinc processing facility ( n = 145) who were occupationally exposed to lead were divided into two subgroups as a function of the lead concentrations in blood (PbB): low lead exposure (PbB = 20–35 μg/dl; n = 57) and high lead exposure (PbB = 35–60 μg/dl; n = 88). Human exposure to lead compounds was found to cause liver enlargement and to activate inflammatory reactions with the characteristics of moderate cholestasis within the bile ducts, while no characteristics of necrotic damage of hepatic cells were noted. It seems that lipid peroxidation can be one of the toxic mechanisms of lead which induce moderate cholestasis. The effects depend on the extent of the lead exposure and were greater in subjects with higher exposure levels, particularly subjects with PbB values greater than 35 μg/dl.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Kasperczyk
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical University of Silesia, Jordana, Zabrze, Poland
| | - M Dziwisz
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical University of Silesia, Jordana, Zabrze, Poland
| | - A Ostałowska
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical University of Silesia, Jordana, Zabrze, Poland
| | - E Świętochowska
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical University of Silesia, Jordana, Zabrze, Poland
| | - E Birkner
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical University of Silesia, Jordana, Zabrze, Poland
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Lippmann SJ, Richardson DB, Chen JC. Elevated serum liver enzymes and fatty liver changes associated with long driving among taxi drivers. Am J Ind Med 2011; 54:618-27. [PMID: 21630298 DOI: 10.1002/ajim.20969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies suggested increased morbidities and mortalities of liver diseases in drivers. METHODS To examine whether driving (monthly driving distance; tenure) is associated with elevated alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), or chronic fatty liver (FL) changes, we performed a cross-sectional, secondary analysis of the Taxi Drivers' Health Study (n = 1,355), adjusting for clinical, demographic, and lifestyle factors. RESULTS Prevalence of elevated ALT, elevated AST, and fatty liver changes were 22.0%, 5.1%, and 9.3%, respectively. Driving distance had a positive association with elevated ALT with a prevalence ratio of 1.35 (95% CI: 0.98, 1.89) comparing the highest versus lowest driving quartile. This association differed by alcohol use, with a corresponding prevalence ratio of 2.08 (95% CI: 1.30, 3.33) among "past/current" drinkers but no association among "never" drinkers. Similar patterns were found for AST, but estimates were less stable. We found a curvilinear response pattern for fatty liver changes; prevalence first increased with years as a taxi driver and then receded in the highest ranges of driving tenure, regardless of the alcohol history. CONCLUSIONS Our results provide evidence that long driving is associated with both short-term and chronic liver insults, although alcohol use appears to modify this putative effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J Lippmann
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA.
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Lam LT. Environmental factors associated with crash-related mortality and injury among taxi drivers in New South Wales, Australia. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2004; 36:905-908. [PMID: 15203368 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2003.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 09/15/2003] [Accepted: 10/25/2003] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This exploratory study aims to investigate the associations between some environmental factors and the increased risk of motor vehicle crash-related injuries among taxi drivers. Information utilised in the study are obtained from police reports of all road traffic accidents that occurred on the roads between 1996 and 2000 in New South Wales (NSW), Australia. Of the 7923 taxi drivers who involved in crashes, nearly 10% (n = 750) were killed or injured. Results indicate sex, and two environmental factors are significantly associated with an increased risk of crash-related mortality and injury among taxi drivers. The adjusted relative risk of crash-related mortality and injury is increased by 60% for those who work the night shift (OR = 1.59, 95%CI = 1.35-1.88), and by 20% for those who do not carry any passenger on board (OR = 1.20, 95%CI = 1.02-1.41) should these drivers involve in a crash. The increased relative risk of crash-related mortality and injury is nearly 2.5 times for female taxi drivers (OR = 2.30, 95%CI = 1.45-3.65) when compared with their male counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence T Lam
- Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children, Locked Bag 4001, Westmead, NSW 2145, Australia.
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Mortada WI, Sobh MA, el-Defrawy MM, Farahat SE. Reference intervals of cadmium, lead, and mercury in blood, urine, hair, and nails among residents in Mansoura city, Nile delta, Egypt. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2002; 90:104-110. [PMID: 12483800 DOI: 10.1006/enrs.2002.4396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
A random sample of 68 males and 25 females who reside in Mansoura city, Egypt, was examined for concentrations of cadmium, lead, and mercury in blood, urine, hair, and nails. The effect of gender and smoking on such levels was studied. The influence of dental amalgam on the levels of mercury in these biological samples was also examined. The results obtained show that only blood lead, which increased among males, was affected by gender. Blood levels of cadmium and lead as well as hair lead appeared to increase with smoking habit. Mercury levels in blood and urine were related to the presence of dental amalgam fillings. International comparisons between our results and the corresponding levels in other localities in the world showed that there were environmentally related variations in terms of cadmium levels in hair, lead levels in blood, urine, hair, and nails, and mercury levels in blood, hair, and nails. In conclusion, reference intervals of cadmium, lead, and mercury in the biological samples are environmentally related parameters. Some factors, such as gender, smoking habit, and the presence of dental amalgam fillings, may affect such levels and therefore should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wael I Mortada
- Urology and Nephrology Center, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
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Pala K, Akiş N, Izgi B, Gücer S, Aydin N, Aytekin H. Blood lead levels of traffic policemen in Bursa, Turkey. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2002; 205:361-5. [PMID: 12173534 DOI: 10.1078/1438-4639-00169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
This study was conducted in January 2001, in Bursa, Turkey. Of the 99 traffic policemen who were included in the study, 21 were office workers. Blood lead levels were determined by using an electro-thermal atomic absorption spectrometer (ET-AAS). Average blood lead levels were 9.4 +/- 1.6 micrograms/l and 8.7 +/- 1.7 micrograms/l for policemen working outdoors and indoors, respectively. The difference between the two groups was statistically insignificant (P > 0.05). When policemen less than 15 years on duty were taken into account (n = 48) the difference between the outdoors and indoors working groups was significant (9.3 +/- 1.3 and 8.2 +/- 1.8 micrograms/l, P < 0.05). In order to prevent the negative effects of tetraethyl lead on humans and the environment the use of lead in petrol must be prohibited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayihan Pala
- Uludağ University Medical School, Department of Public Health, Turkey.
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Tomao E, Baccolo TP, Sacchi L, DE Sio S, Tomei F. Harm to the liver among employees of the Municipal Police Force. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2002; 12:145-151. [PMID: 12396531 DOI: 10.1080/09603120220129300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the study is to assess whether employees of the Municipal Police Force of a big city exposed to urban pollution are at risk of hepatotoxicity. The usual clinical practice tests like AST, ALT, gamma-GT, AP, conjugated and total bilirubin were carried out, accompanied by a questionnaire designed to identify the possible risk factors and the principal non-professional confounding factors for hepatotoxicity. The study covered 118 male Municipal Police employees performing traffic duties and 118 male blood donors engaged in office work. There were significant differences between exposed and controls with regard to the average AST and ALT values and values above the normal laboratory range; this was also the case for the distribution. The results suggest that there may be the possibility of liver damage among asymptomatic members of the Municipal Police Force and that periodic hepatic screening, with the above-mentioned tests, could be useful. It is presumed that chemical agents present in urban air in big cities may cause damage to the liver, even at exposure levels that fluctuate around the admissible environmental concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Tomao
- Center For Aeromedical Evaluation and Occupational Medicine, IML, ITAF, Rome, Italy
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Varelas PN, Syrigou AI, Kotoulas G, Kapaki EN, Athanasopoulou C, Spanaki MV, Papageorgiou CT. Cortical atrophy detected by computed tomography in gasoline station attendants. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 1999; 239:143-9. [PMID: 10570840 DOI: 10.1016/s0048-9697(99)00289-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To evaluate the contribution of leaded gasoline in the presence of abnormal calcifications or cortical atrophy seen in computed tomographies (CT) of the head of occupationally exposed professionals working in the centre of Athens. METHODS One hundred and twenty-two head CTs from gas station employees and traffic-exposed professionals (taxi and bus drivers) were analyzed for evidence of cortical atrophy or abnormal calcifications. Blood lead level (BLL) of these lead occupationally exposed groups was compared with 37 non-exposed subjects. RESULTS All three occupationally exposed-to-lead groups had similar blood lead levels compared to the non-exposed group and within the currently accepted norms for lead. No abnormal calcifications were found. Cortical atrophy was more frequently seen in the gas station employees group using univariate and multivariate analysis. In the logistic regression model gas station employment had a stronger impact in developing cortical atrophy [odds ratio of 6.43 (1.46-28.3, 95% CI)] than BLL [odds ratio of 1.4 (1.01-2.05, 95% CI)]. CONCLUSIONS These results show that employment in gasoline stations may be associated with detectable cortical atrophy in imaging studies and suggest the contribution of a leaded gasoline to its development.
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Affiliation(s)
- P N Varelas
- Department of Neurology, Athens University School of Medicine, Aeginition Hospital, Greece.
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