Interorganizational Knowledge Transfer in Mass Gatherings: Exploring the Health and Safety Stakeholders' Perceptions Participating in the Athens Marathon

INTRODUCTION

Mass gatherings (MGs) usually represent significant challenges for the public health and safety sector of the host cities. Organizing a safe and successful mass event highly depends on the effective collaboration among different public and private organizations. It is necessary to establish successful coordination to ensure that all the key stakeholders understand their respective roles and responsibilities. The inconsistency between the variety of participating agencies because of their different culture can result in delays in decision making. Interorganizational knowledge transfer can improve the success of the event; however, knowledge transfer among professionals and agencies in MGs is not well-documented.

OBJECTIVE

This study used the 2018 Athens Marathon as the empirical setting to examine how interorganizational knowledge transfer was perceived among the multiple public health and safety professionals during the planning stage of the event.

METHODS

Data comprised 18 semi-structured, in-depth interviews with key informants, direct observations of meetings, and documentary analysis. Open coding and thematic analysis were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that sharing the acquired knowledge was a necessary and challenging step to create an enabling collaborative environment among interacting organizations. Experiential learning was identified as a significant factor, which helped promote joint understanding and partnership work. Informal interpersonal exchanges and formal knowledge transfer activities facilitated knowledge sharing across organizational boundaries, helping to break down silos.

CONCLUSION

Interorganizational knowledge transfer is a necessary step to achieve joint understanding and create an environment where interaction among agencies can be more effective. The study findings can be beneficial for organizers of marathons and other mass sporting events to support valuable interorganizational collaboration and conduct a safe event.

Source apportionment of fine and ultrafine particle number concentrations in a major city of the Eastern Mediterranean

Ultrafine particles (UFP) are recognized as an emerging pollutant able to induce serious health effects. However, quantitative information regarding the contributions of UFP sources is generally limited. This study evaluates statistical (k-means clustering) and receptor models (Positive Matrix Factorization - PMF) using particle number size distributions (PNSD), along with chemical speciation data, measured at an urban background supersite in Athens, Greece, aiming to characterize their sources. PNSD measurements (10-487 nm) were performed during three distinct periods (warm, cold, and lockdown cold). Traffic and residential biomass burning (BB) produced high UFP number concentrations (NUFP) in the cold period (+107 % compared to summer), while the lockdown restrictions reduced NUFP (-42 %). The five groups produced by cluster analysis that were common among periods were linked to high- and low-traffic, new particle formation (NPF), urban background and regional aerosols. PMF source apportionment identified 5 and 6 factors during warm and cold periods, respectively, indicating that traffic particles dominated NUFP (64-78 % in all periods), while accumulation-mode particles and volume concentrations were controlled by processed aerosol, and especially in the cold periods by BB emissions. A nucleation factor linked to NPF contributed 7-11 % to NUFP. Comparing the two cold periods (business-as-usual, lockdown), important lockdown reductions (-46 %) were seen for fresh traffic contributions to total number concentration (Ntotal). The impact of the source attributed to NPF also eroded (-41 % for Ntotal). Due to the large reduction (-47 % for Ntotal) observed also for the BB source during the lockdown (reduced wood usage due to a milder winter), the relative contributions of all sources did not change considerably (fractional reductions <7 % for Ntotal). The quantitative results, bolstered by source apportionment combining PNSD and online chemical composition measurements, indicate the potential to constrain UFP levels by regulating traffic and residential emissions, with a large upside for population exposure control.

The extreme heat wave of July-August 2021 in the Athens urban area (Greece): Atmospheric and human-biometeorological analysis exploiting ultra-high resolution numerical modeling and the local climate zone framework

Greece was affected by a prolonged and extreme heat wave (HW) event (July 28-August 05) during the abnormally hot summer of 2021, with the maximum temperature in Athens, the capital of the country, reaching up to 43.9 °C in the city center. This observation corresponds to the second highest maximum temperature recorded since 1900, based on the historical temperature time series of the National Observatory of Athens weather station at Thissio. In the present study, a multi-scale numerical modeling system is used to analyze the urban climate and thermal bioclimate in the Athens urban area (AUA) in the course of the HW event, as well as during 3 days prior to the heat wave and 3 days after the episode. The system consists of the Weather Research and Forecasting model, the advanced urban scheme BEP/BEM (Building Energy Parameterization/Building Energy Model) and the human-biometeorological model RayMan Pro, and incorporates the local climate zone (LCZ) classification scheme. The system's validation results demonstrated a robust modeling set-up, characterized by high capability in capturing the observed magnitude and diurnal variation of the urban meteorological and heat stress conditions. The analysis of two- and three-dimensional fields of near-surface air temperature, humidity and wind unraveled the interplay of geographical factors (surface relief and proximity to the sea), background atmospheric circulations (Etesians and sea breeze) and HW-related synoptic forcing with the AUA's urban form. These interactions had a significant impact on the LCZs heat stress responsiveness, expressed using the modified physiologically equivalent temperature (mPET), between different regions of the study area, as well as at inter- and intra-LCZ level (statistically significant differences at 95 % confidence interval), providing thus, urban design and health-related implications that can be exploited in human thermal discomfort mitigation strategies in AUA.

Enlarging the divide? Per-Capita Income as a measure of social inequalities in a southern European City

Earlier studies relating form and functions of cities address an intriguing and complex research issue, especially for specific urban typologies. Although with inherent differences on a local scale, Mediterranean cities represent diversified settlement morphologies and multifaceted socioeconomic contexts. The present study investigates the socioeconomic structure at the base of rapid development of a large Mediterranean agglomeration (Athens, Greece). Results of a multivariate analysis of the spatial distribution of average (per-capita) declared income and non-parametric correlations of contextual indicators suggest that the characteristic socio-spatial structure of the 1970s and the 1980s in Athens had slightly changed in recent times. A remarkable segregation in wealthy and disadvantaged communities - well beyond the urban-rural divide usually observed in Mediterranean regions - consolidated in recent decades. Despite economic transformations shaping urban design and infrastructural networks, persistent disparities between affluent and economically depressed neighborhoods still characterize the socio-spatial structure of contemporary Athens.

A Network Approach to Determine Optimization of PrEP Uptake in Athens, Greece

Although the HIV epidemic in Athens, Greece has reemerged and spread in men who have sex with men (MSM), state-supported PrEP programs have not been instituted. A PrEP intervention was implemented building upon an existing network cohort of MSM (308 participants; 1212 network members). A PrEP intervention cohort of 106 participants was selected based upon sex behaviors. Individual, partner, and network characteristics were compared between the cohorts. The PrEP cohort members were more highly connected and in more influential positions in the network than their peers. Further, their sexual network connections' behaviors increased their vulnerability to HIV infection relative to the rest of the network's sex partners. This included greater stimulant use (24.2% vs 7.0%; χ² = 28.2; p < 0.001), greater rates of at least weekly condomless sex (OR = 2.7; 95% CI 2.1-3.5; χ² = 59.2; p < 0.001) and at least weekly use of drugs or alcohol during sex (OR = 3.4; 95% CI 2.6-4.3; χ² = 89.7; p < 0.001). Finally the PrEP cohort's social networks showed similarly increased vulnerability to seroconversion, including greater rates of injection drug use (4.1% vs 0.5%; χ² = 3.9; p = 0.04), greater stimulant use (33.6% vs 14.6%; χ² = 16.9, p < 0.001), and higher rates of recent STIs (21.6% vs 13.1%; χ² = 4.4; p = 0.04). Thus, this PrEP intervention engaged individuals in vulnerable positions with vulnerable connections within an MSM community.

Variability and sources of non-methane hydrocarbons at a Mediterranean urban atmosphere: The role of biomass burning and traffic emissions

Levels and sources of non-Methane Hydrocarbons (NMHCs) were investigated at the urban background Thissio station, close to the historical center of Athens (Greece) from March 2016 to February 2017 (12 months), by means of an automated GC-FID. Alkanes dominated over aromatics and alkenes, with hourly mean levels ranging from detection limit up to 60 μg m^-3 for i-pentane and 90 μg m^-3 for toluene. Higher levels were recorded in the cold period relative to the warmer one. In addition, NMHCs seasonal diurnal cycles were characterized by a bimodal pattern, following the trend of tracers of anthropogenic sources. The Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) was used for the allocation of NMHC to their sources. Five factors were identified and quantified, with traffic-related sources being the main one contributing up to 60% to total NMHCs, while biomass burning contributes up to 19%. A supplementary PMF assimilation was applied on a seasonal basis further including α-pinene, C6-C16 alkanes and aromatics. This PMF resulted to a seven-factor solution that allowed the examination of two additional sources, in addition to five already identified, highlighting the main contribution of anthropogenic sources (70%) to α-pinene.

Public views and attitudes about municipal waste management: Empirical evidence from Athens, Greece

One of the major problems of modern cities is waste management. Cooperation and active public participation are key elements in the effective implementation of waste management programs. The purpose of this work is to investigate the views and attitudes of Athens residents towards recycling, composting and the operation of green centers, which are the key elements of solid waste management as it follows from the recently updated National Waste Management Plan. A structured questionnaire was designed and addressed to the residents of Athens. According to the main findings, half of the respondents are involved in recycling, and the majority of the respondents are willing to participate in future composting programs and have a positive opinion about the operation of green centers. The main obstacle for their further participation is their hesitation regarding the proper operation of the programs (recycling, composting, green centers). There is a need to build up the trust between citizens and the state. Active public involvement is required to successfully implement municipal solid waste strategies during all the phases (planning, siting and operation) in order to ensure public acceptance. In addition, targeted information and awareness campaigns can also contribute to this aim.

Long-term brown carbon spectral characteristics in a Mediterranean city (Athens)

This study analyses 4-years of continuous 7-λ Aethalometer (AE-33) measurements in an urban-background environment of Athens, to resolve the spectral absorption coefficients (b_abs) for black carbon (BC) and brown carbon (BrC). An important BrC contribution (23.7 ± 11.6%) to the total b_abs at 370 nm is estimated for the period May 2015-April 2019, characterized by a remarkable seasonality with winter maximum (33.5 ± 13.6%) and summer minimum (18.5 ± 8.1%), while at longer wavelengths the BrC contribution is significantly reduced (6.8 ± 3.6% at 660 nm). The wavelength dependence of the total b_abs gives an annual-mean AAE_370-880 of 1.31, with higher values in winter night-time. The BrC absorption and its contribution to b_abs presents a large increase reaching up to 39.1 ± 13.6% during winter nights (370 nm), suggesting residential wood burning (RWB) emissions as a dominant source for BrC. This is supported by strong correlations of the BrC absorption with OC, EC, the fragment ion m/z 60 derived from ACSM and PMF-analyzed organic fractions related to biomass burning (e.g. BBOA). In contrast, BrC absorption decreases significantly during daytime as well as in the warm period, reaching to a minimum during the early-afternoon hours in all seasons due to photo-chemical degradation. Estimated secondary BrC absorption is practically evident only during winter night-time, implying the fast oxidation of BrC species from RWB emissions. Changes in mixing-layer height do not significantly affect the BrC absorption in winter, while they play a major role in summer.

[The wars, epidemics and destiny of Empires of Ancient World]

The article considers the features of the impact of epidemics on the course of hostilities and the fate of the states of Antiquity. Three cases are presented as examples. The first one is related to the invasion of the Assyrian King Sennacherib in Judea and the attempt of his troops to take Jerusalem. The second case is related to the epidemic in Athens in the early years of the Peloponnesian war. The third one - with the epidemic in the Roman Empire in the 2nd half of the 2nd century AD. The analysis, based on information from extant sources, permitted to conclude that the intensity and destructive effect of epidemics in the Ancient World increased gradually. To this fact is attributed the effect of "closing" the Oikumena into a single whole. However, the degree of influence of epidemics on the fate of ancient states is greatly exaggerated by the historical tradition, which developed under the influence of emotional descriptions of the tragedies and mass deaths of people.

Source apportionment of the oxidative potential of fine ambient particulate matter (PM2.5) in Athens, Greece

The main objective of this study was chemical characterization and source apportionment of the oxidative potential of ambient PM_2.5 samples collected in an urban background area in Athens, Greece. Ambient PM_2.5 samples were collected during the summer (June-September) of 2017 and winter (February-March) of 2018 at a residential, urban background site in the outlying neighborhood of the Demokritos National Laboratory in Athens, Greece. The collected PM samples were analyzed for their chemical constituents including metals and trace elements, water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC), elemental and organic carbon (EC/OC), and marker of biomass burning (i.e., levoglucosan). In addition, the DCFH in vitro assay was performed to determine the oxidative potential of the PM_2.5 samples. We performed a series of statistical analyses, including Spearman rank-order correlation analysis, principal component analysis (PCA), and multi linear regression (MLR) to determine the most significant species (as source tracers) contributing to the oxidative potential of PM_2.5. Our findings revealed that the intrinsic (per PM mass) and extrinsic (per m³ of air volume) oxidative potentials of the collected ambient PM_2.5 samples were significantly higher than those measured in many urban areas around the world. The results of the MLR analyses indicated that the major pollution sources contributing to the oxidative potential of ambient PM_2.5 were vehicular emissions (characterized by EC) (44%), followed by secondary organic aerosol (SOA) formation (characterized by WSOC) (16%), and biomass burning (characterized by levoglucosan) (9%). The oxidative potential of the collected ambient PM_2.5 samples was also higher in summer compared to the winter, mainly due to higher concentrations of EC and WSOC during this season. Results from this study corroborate the impact of traffic and SOA on the oxidative potential of ambient PM_2.5 in greater Athens area, and can be helpful in adopting appropriate public health policies regarding detrimental outcomes of exposure to PM_2.5.

Assessing personal exposure to PM using data from an integrated indoor-outdoor experiment in Athens-Greece

An integrated indoor-outdoor 15-day PM sampling campaign in a general area close to the centre of Athens, targeted to examine personal exposure. All microenvironments (MEs) (second and fourth floor flats, cafes, cars, restaurants, underground metro, outdoor etc.) frequented by the residents were included in the study. The instrumentation used was both stationary (low volume samplers) and portable/wearable to be able to measure continuously PM₁₀, PM_2.5, PM₁ and analyze chemically PM_2.5 and PM₁ samples. The study showed that the residences' air quality was determined by the type and intensity of outdoor sources and their vertical distance from the street. Indoor activities such as cooking, cleaning further increased PM levels and formulated the air quality, while particulate accumulation was evident. In general, PM_2.5 concentrations were higher outdoors, 11-43 μg/m³, than in the second floor flat as well as on days within different MEs, 13-33 μg/m³ and 8-35 μg/m³, respectively and finally in the fourth floor 10-18 μg/m³. PM_2.5 chemical composition was typical of a Mediterranean urban area predominantly composed on average of OC/EC (33%), sulfate (13%), ammonium (9%), nitrate (5%) and crustal material (Cl-, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺ and Ca²⁺) (5%). On days when other MEs were visited crustal material increased on average to 16%. The PM levels measured with the portable instrumentation at all mEs showed that the persons were exposed to higher PM₁₀ concentrations in the subway (avg. 218 μg/m³) due to the resuspension of crustal material, while maximum PM_2.5 and PM₁ were experienced in cafes where smoking was allowed (avg. 126 and 108 μg/m³, respectively). Using the car resulted to the lowest PM₁₀, PM_2.5 and PM₁ exposure (58, 10 and 6 μg/m³, respectively). Total exposure to particulates depended both on the time spent in each ME and on the mixture of MEs visited in 24 h.

Early psychosis intervention outpatient service of the 1st Psychiatric University Clinic in Athens: 3 Years of experience

To present the 3-year experience of the early intervention in psychosis (EIP) service implementation of the 1st Psychiatric University Clinic in Athens. An overview of: (1) the purpose of our service, (2) the referral network, (3) the selection criteria, (4) the diagnostic procedures, (5) the therapeutic interventions and (6) the research activities. The service was established in 2012 and developed gradually aiming to provide information, early detection, treatment and support to people aged 15 to 40 years with psychotic manifestations, who are either at increased risk of developing psychosis (at-risk mental state [ARMS]) or with first episode psychosis (FEP). In order to assess individuals with ARMS, we used the comprehensive assessment of at-risk mental states interview and the Social and Occupational Functioning Assessment Scale The duration of untreated psychosis was estimated by using the Nottingham Onset Schedule. So far we have had 65 referrals, of which 26 were ARMS and 17 FEP. Based on the individual needs, they were offered psychotherapeutic and/or pharmacological treatment. After 3 years, the rate of transition to psychosis was 19.2% and the rate of psychosis relapse was 11.7%. The implementation of our service has had positive results, enabling young people with early psychosis to receive prompt and effective care. The rates of transition to psychosis are the first to be published from a Greek EIP service. Further development of our referral network and inter-hospital collaboration will allow us to address the needs of a wider part of the population.

The combined effect of reduced fossil fuel consumption and increasing biomass combustion on Athens' air quality, as inferred from long term CO measurements

To evaluate the role of biomass burning emissions, and in particular of residential wood heating, as a result of the economic recession in Greece, carbon monoxide (CO) atmospheric concentrations from five (5) stations of the National Air Pollution Monitoring Network in Athens, spanning the period 2000-2015, in conjunction with black carbon (BC) concentrations from the NOA (National Observatory of Athens) station at Thissio were analysed. The contribution of the different sources to the diurnal cycle of these two pollutants is clear, resulting to a morning peak, mainly due to traffic, and a late evening peak attributed both to fossil fuel (traffic plus central heating) and biomass combustion. Calculated morning and evening integrals of CO peaks, for the investigated period, show consistent seasonal modulations, characterised by low summer and high winter values. The summer and winter morning CO peak integrals demonstrate an almost constant decreasing trend of CO concentrations over time (by almost 50% since 2000), attributed to the renewal of passenger car fleet and to reduced anthropogenic activities during the last years. On the other hand, an increase of 23%-78% (depending on the monitoring site) in the winter evening integrals since 2012, provides evidence of the significant contribution of biomass combustion, which has prevailed over fossil fuel for domestic heating. CO emitted by wood burning was found to contribute almost 50% to the total CO emissions during night time (16:00-5:00), suggesting that emissions from biomass combustion have gained an increasing role in atmospheric pollution levels in Athens.

Ozone exposure assessment for children in Greece - Results from the RESPOZE study

Ozone exposure of 179 children in Athens and Thessaloniki, Greece was assessed during 2013-2014, by repeated weekly personal measurements, using passive samplers. O₃ was also monitored at school locations of participants to characterize community-level ambient exposure. Average personal concentrations in the two cities (5.0 and 2.8ppb in Athens and Thessaloniki, respectively) were considerably lower than ambient concentrations (with mean personal/ambient ratios of 0.13-0.15). The temporal variation of personal concentrations followed the -typical for low-latitude areas- pattern of cold-warm seasons. However, differences were detected between temporal distributions of personal and ambient concentrations, since personal exposures were affected by additional factors which present seasonal variability, such as outdoor activity and house ventilation. Significant spatial contrasts were observed between urban and suburban areas, for personal concentrations in Athens, with higher exposure for children residing in the N-NE part of the area. In Thessaloniki, spatial variations in personal concentrations were less pronounced, echoing the spatial pattern of ambient concentrations, a result of complex local meteorology and the smaller geographical expansion of the study area. Ambient concentration was identified as the most important factor influencing personal exposures (correlation coefficients between 0.36 and 0.67). Associations appeared to be stronger with ambient concentrations measured at school locations of children, than to those reported by the nearest site of the air quality monitoring network, indicating the importance of community-representative outdoor monitoring for characterization of personal-ambient relationships. Time spent outdoors by children was limited (>90% of the time they remained indoors), but -due to the lack of indoor sources- it was found to exert significant influence on personal concentrations, affecting inter-subject and spatiotemporal variability. Additional parameters that were identified as relevant for the determination of personal concentrations were indoor ventilation conditions (specifically indoor times with windows open) and the use of wood-burning in open fireplaces for heating as an ozone sink.

From hygroscopic aerosols to cloud droplets: The HygrA-CD campaign in the Athens basin - An overview

The international experimental campaign Hygroscopic Aerosols to Cloud Droplets (HygrA-CD), organized in the Greater Athens Area (GAA), Greece from 15 May to 22 June 2014, aimed to study the physico-chemical properties of aerosols and their impact on the formation of clouds in the convective Planetary Boundary Layer (PBL). We found that under continental (W-NW-N) and Etesian (NE) synoptic wind flow and with a deep moist PBL (~2-2.5km height), mixed hygroscopic (anthropogenic, biomass burning and marine) particles arrive over the GAA, and contribute to the formation of convective non-precipitating PBL clouds (of ~16-20μm mean diameter) with vertical extent up to 500m. Under these conditions, high updraft velocities (1-2ms^-1) and cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) concentrations (~2000cm^-3 at 1% supersaturation), generated clouds with an estimated cloud droplet number of ~600cm^-3. Under Saharan wind flow conditions (S-SW) a shallow PBL (<1-1.2km height) develops, leading to much higher CCN concentrations (~3500-5000cm^-3 at 1% supersaturation) near the ground; updraft velocities, however, were significantly lower, with an estimated maximum cloud droplet number of ~200cm^-3 and without observed significant PBL cloud formation. The largest contribution to cloud droplet number variance is attributed to the updraft velocity variability, followed by variances in aerosol number concentration.

Predictors of cadmium and lead concentrations in the blood of residents from the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece)

The Cd and Pb blood contents of healthy adult subjects who are non-occupationally exposed and living in the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece) have not been assessed thus far. Additionally, Greeks rank first among EU27 in terms of smoking habits. To fill the existing gap, we aimed to evaluate the predictors and propose reference values (RVs) of the Cd (CdB) and Pb (PbB) blood concentrations in residents of the metropolitan area of Athens (Greece). Age, sex, smoking, alcohol drinking, educational status and nutritional habits were used as variables, with an emphasis on smoking. CdB and PbB determinations were performed directly by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) following the appropriate dilution of the samples with Triton-X-100. The RVs of CdB and PbB proposed for the general adult population of the Metropolitan area of Athens, Greece (upper limit of the 95% CI of the 95th percentile of the distribution of values), were 2.3 and 88μgL(-1) (P95: 1.8 and 77μgL(-1); 95% CI (P95): 1.5-2.3 and 70-88μgL(-1)), respectively. Males had a higher median CdB (0.69μgL(-1)) than females (0.55μgL(-1)). Subjects aged <40years had a lower median CdB (0.51μgL(-1)) than the elderly (≥60years; 0.60μgL(-1)). The CdB in smokers (1.2μgL(-1)) was almost threefold higher than in non-smokers (0.46μgL(-1)). The PbB levels were higher in males (31μgL(-1)) than females (20μgL(-1)). Subjects aged <40years had a lower median PbB (17μgL(-1)) than the elderly (≥60years; 32μgL(-1)). A multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated that the predictor variables for the CdB levels were the standardized beta weight, smoking, age, alcohol consumption, and intake of leafy vegetables, whereas for the PbB levels they were sex and age.

Modeling and in situ measurements of biometeorological conditions in microenvironments within the Athens University Campus, Greece

The objective of this research is to assess and analyze the biometeorological perception in complex microenvironments in the Athens University Campus (AUC) using urban micromodels, such as RayMan. The human thermal sensation in such a place was considered of great significance due to the great gathering of student body and staff of the University. The quantification of the biometeorological conditions was succeeded by the estimation of the physiologically equivalent temperature (PET), which is a biometeorological index based on the human energy balance. We carried out, on one hand, field measurements of air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, and global solar irradiance for different sites (building atrium, open area, and green atrium) of the examined microurban environment in order to calculate PET during January-July 2013. Additionally, on the other hand, PET modeling was performed using different sky-view factors and was compared to a reference site (meteorological station of Laboratory of Climatology and Atmospheric Environment, University of Athens). The global radiation was transferred to the examined sites with the RayMan model, which considers the sky-view factors for the adaptation of the radiation fluxes to simple and complex environments. The results of this study reveal the crucial importance of the existence of trees and green cover in a complex environment, as a factor that could be the solution to the efforts of stake holders in order to mitigate strong heat stress and improve people's living quality in urban areas.

Disaggregating the contribution of local dispersion and long-range transport to the high PM10 values measured in a Mediterranean urban environment

The EU daily PM10 limit-value of 50 μg m(-3) is frequently breached in the center of Athens, Greece. A total of 852 daily exceedances were recorded in the city-center during the 6-year period 2001-2006. These exceedances were more frequent in winter, followed by spring and autumn. For the needs of the study, the PM10 episodes (i.e., concentrations 30% above the median value) were grouped in two categories: (a) the City-Center episodes and (b) the Wider Metropolitan Area episodes. It was assumed that City-Center episodes occurred when elevated PM10 values were measured in the city-center exclusively, whereas Wider Metropolitan Area episodes occurred when high PM10 concentrations were also measured in the suburbs. Then back-trajectory cluster analysis was performed in an attempt to associate high PM10 levels with local dispersion or long-range transport. The City-Center episodes were associated according to the origin of air parcels with six types of air-masses (slow and fast moving from northern, northeasterly and southern directions, or stagnated around Athens) and were mainly due to traffic or other local sources, whereas the Wider Metropolitan Area episodes were mainly associated with air-masses coming from southern directions and were linked to long-range transport. On the whole, the analysis provided evidence of Sahara-dust events and sea-spray transportation.

Ebola in Antiquity?

This article addresses whether Ebola may have been present in an urban setting in Athens in 430 bce and explores the historical importance of the ancient outbreak. New knowledge from today's West African epidemic allows a more accurate assessment of whether Ebola may have caused the Athenian outbreak than was once possible. The Athenian disease, whose etiology remains unknown, developed abruptly with fevers, abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, dehydration, and hemorrhage. It originated in sub-Saharan Africa and was especially contagious to doctors and caregivers. No remedies were effective. But the few survivors who were reexposed to diseased patients were not attacked a second time, suggesting protective immunity. What lessons can we learn from the ancient outbreak that bears a clinical and epidemiologic resemblance to Ebola? The historian Thucydides, an eyewitness and disease sufferer, described how the unsuspecting city panicked as it struggled to handle the rapidly spreading, devastating disease. Moreover, he stressed a theme that has relevance today—namely, that fear and panic intensified the disruption of society and damage to the individual that was directly caused by the disease. Moreover, fear amplified the spread of disease. The destructive nature of fear has remained a signature feature of pestilences that have subsequently caught ill-prepared societies off-guard—Bubonic plague in medieval times, AIDS in the 1980s, and Ebola today. The ancient Athenian epidemic is relevant for today's West African Ebola outbreak because it shows how fear and panic can endanger the individual, our society, and our efforts to handle the disease.

Development of a road transport emission inventory for Greece and the Greater Athens Area: effects of important parameters

Traffic is considered one of the major polluting sectors and as a consequence a significant cause for the measured exceedances of ambient air quality limit values mainly in urban areas. The Greater Athens Area (located in Attica), the most populated area in Greece, faces severe air pollution problems due to the combination of high road traffic emissions, complex topography and local meteorological conditions. Even though several efforts were made to construct traffic emission inventories for Greece and Attica, still there is not a spatially and temporally resolved one, based on data from relevant authorities and organisations. The present work aims to estimate road emissions in Greece and Attica based on the top down approach. The programme COPERT 4 was used to calculate the annual total emissions from the road transport sector for the period 2006-2010 and an emission inventory for Greece and Attica was developed with high spatial (6 × 6 km(2) for Greece and 2 × 2 km(2) for Attica) and temporal (1-hour) resolutions. The results revealed that about 40% of national CO₂, CO, VOC and NMVOC values and 30% of NOx and particles are emitted in Attica. The fuel consumption and the subsequent reduction of annual mileage driven in combination with the import of new engine anti-pollution technologies affected CO₂, CO, VOC and NMVOC emissions. The major part of CO (56.53%) and CO₂ (66.15%) emissions was due to passenger cars (2010), while heavy duty vehicles (HDVs) were connected with NOx, PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀ emissions with 51.27%, 43.97% and 38.13% respectively (2010). The fleet composition, the penetration of diesel fuelled cars, the increase of urban average speed and the fleet renewal are among the most effective parameters towards the emission reduction strategies.

Three year study of tropospheric ozone with back trajectories at a metropolitan and a medium scale urban area in Greece

Three years of hourly O3 concentration measurements from a metropolitan and a medium scale urban area in Greece: Athens and Ioannina respectively, were analyzed in conjunction with hourly wind speed/direction data and air mass trajectories, aiming to reveal local and regional contributions respectively. Conditional Probability Function was used to indicate associations among distinct wind directions and extreme O3 episodes. Backward trajectory clusters were elaborated by Potential Source Contribution Function on a grid of a 0.5°×0.5° resolution, in order to localize potential exogenous sources of O3 and its precursors. In Athens, an increased likelihood of extreme O3 events at the Northern suburbs was associated with the influence of SSW-SW sea breeze from Saronikos Gulf, due to O3 transportation from the city center. In Ioannina, the impacts of O3 conveyance from the city center to the suburban monitoring site were weaker. Potential O3 transboundary sources for Athens were mainly localized over Balkan Peninsula, Greece and the Aegean Sea. Potential Source Contribution Function hotspots were isolated over the industrialized area of Ptolemaida basin and above the region of Thessaloniki. Potential regional O3 sources for Ioannina were indicated across northern Greece and Balkan Peninsula, whereas peak Potential Source Contribution Function values were particularly observed over the urban area of Sofia in Bulgaria. The implemented methods, revealed local and potential transboundary source areas of O3, influencing Athens and Ioannina. Differences among the two cities were highlighted and the role of topography was emerged. These findings can be used in order to reduce the emission of O3 precursors.

Homeless mentally ill in Athens area: a cross-sectional study on unmet needs and help-seeking

BACKGROUND

Homelessness, a worldwide psychosocial phenomenon, is now also prevalent in Greece, mainly in Athens area.

METHODS

The possible psychiatric morbidity related to help-seeking and the underlying factors were explored in a sample of 254 homeless people from Greater Athens area, using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.).

RESULTS

The sample was predominantly male (74%) with mean age of 51 years, being in their majority homeless for over 25 months, 34.3% of them living in rough sleeping places. Overall, 56.7% of the sample met the criteria for a current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) psychiatric disorder with 20.8% comorbidity. Only 36.2% of the identified psychiatric cases had any recent psychiatric care, while 44.4% were taking non-prescribed medication and 20.2% have been hospitalized in the last year. On the contrary, 70% of alcohol- and drug-dependent persons have been treated in a psychiatric agency, while 60.0% of them participated in rehabilitation program the last year. Logistic regression analysis revealed that being older, more educated with longer duration of homelessness, recognizing the suffering from a psychiatric problem as well as being diagnosed as 'psychotic' increased the likelihood to seek help.

CONCLUSIONS

The vast majority of the homeless mentally ill persons were lacking any current psychiatric care. The planning of a mental health-care delivery parallel to the existing social welfare system is needed to serve the unmet mental health needs of this population.

2004 olympic tae kwon do athlete profile

The purpose of this study is to identify the characteristics of Tae kwon do champions (gold, silver, and bronze medalists) who competed in the Athens 2004 Olympic Games (N = 124) and compare these characteristics to those who competed but did not earn medals. All the data for the study was obtained from the official website of the 2004 Olympic Games www.athens2004.com and the following information was collected: weight category, weight, height, age, country representation, total points from kicks per weight category, total points from punches per weight category, total penalties per weight category, and type of win. The following descriptive statistics were calculated for each athlete according to gender: age, height, weight, and body mass index (BMI). No statistically significant differences exist between winners and non-winners with respect to age, height, weight and gender. Overall, male winners versus non-winners were similar in age and female winners were younger than the average age in their respective weight category. Male and female winners had a taller average height compared to male and female non-winners. The average BMI of male and female winners was less than non-winners. Females were eight times more likely to win by superiority than males. Overall, 100% of techniques used to score were by kicks. Specifically, males and females used one-point offensive and defensive kicks more than two-point offensive kicks to score. Males had more average kyong-go (half point warning) and gam-jeom (full point deduction) warning deductions per match versus females, thus demonstrating a more aggressive style of combat. In addition, males had a total of four knock downs during the entire competition, one in each weight category, whereas there were no knock downs among females, again suggesting a more aggressive fighting style among males.

Greek theories on eugenics

With the recent developments in the Human Genome Mapping Project and the new technologies that are developing from it there is a renewal of concern about eugenic applications. Francis Galton (b1822, d1911), who developed the subject of eugenics, suggested that the ancient Greeks had contributed very little to social theories of eugenics. In fact the Greeks had a profound interest in methods of supplying their city states with the finest possible progeny. This paper therefore reviews the works of Plato (The Republic and Politics) and Aristotle (The Politics and The Athenian Constitution) which have a direct bearing on eugenic techniques and relates them to methods used in the present century.