Confirmatory factor analysis of the Parental Bonding Instrument in a Brazilian female population

Association between childhood trauma, parental bonding and antisocial personality disorder in adulthood: A machine learning approach

Childhood trauma (CT) and parental bonding (PB) have been correlated with later antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Aiming to better understand this complex interaction we analyzed the data from a cross-sectional study that evaluated 346 male inpatient cocaine users, using both traditional statistical analysis and machine learning (ML) approaches. Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), and Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) were applied. We found a markedly higher prevalence of mental illness in the ASPD group. The ML method and the traditional analysis showed that emotional and physical abuse were the factors with the strongest relationship with ASPD. Also, there were discrepancies between the findings of both methods regarding physical neglect and paternal care. Although this study does not allow definitive answers in this matter, we do propose that these two methods can aid in better comprehending how multiple variables interact with each other in the development of psychological disorders.

Anxious Attachment Mediates the Associations Between Early Recollections of Mother's Own Parental Bonding and Mother-Infant Bonding: A 2-Month Path Analysis Model

Parental bonding (recollection of own parents' parenting), adult attachment, and mother-infant bonding are all closely related yet distinct concepts of the parent-child relationship, sometimes used interchangeably in the literature. This study aimed to examine the associations between these concepts in a longitudinal path analysis design. A total of 262 postpartum women who gave birth at the maternity ward of a large tertiary health center in Israel completed a demographic questionnaire, the Experiences in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) at 1-4 days postpartum, and the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire (PBQ) at 2 months postpartum. Parental care factor (PBI) was found to be associated with mother-infant bonding (PBQ), directly and indirectly through insecure anxious attachment (ECR). Denial of autonomy factor (PBI) was found to be associated with mother-infant bonding (PBQ) only through insecure anxious attachment (ECR). Encouragement of behavioral freedom factor (PBI) was found to be associated with mother-infant bonding (PBQ) in a simple correlation but not in the complete model. The results highlight the intergenerational aspects of parenting and suggest that early childhood interventions with parents may have a long-term impact on child-rearing though generations, and by that on children's development.

Association between different types of childhood trauma and parental bonding with antisocial traits in adulthood: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

ASPD describes individuals with a pervasive pattern of disregard for the rights of others that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood. The relationship between parental bonding, trauma, and ASPD is well established, however, it remains unclear what types of trauma or which patterns of bonding are more associated with ASPD.

OBJECTIVES

Review the literature regarding what types of trauma and bonding characteristics were related to antisocial personality traits.

METHOD

Systematic searches of PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Scielo for studies about the relationship between antisocial personality traits and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and/or the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI).

RESULTS

357 abstracts were selected, and 18 studies met the inclusion criteria. Regarding CTQ, the most consistent finding was the association between physical abuse and neglect to antisocial traits. Sexual abuse was the variable least related to antisocial traits. Regarding PBI, the most consistent finding was the inverse relationship between maternal and paternal care and antisocial traits. Concerning overprotection, the data is less consistent. Also, there was a considerable heterogenity between studies.

CONCLUSIONS

The literature little explores how these variables interact with each other. Thus, more studies are important to aidpolitical,educational, and public health programs to create preventive initiatives for ASPD.

Psychometric Validation of the Parental Bonding Instrument in a U.K. Population-Based Sample: Role of Gender and Association With Mental Health in Mid-Late Life

The factorial structure of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) has been frequently studied in diverse samples but no study has examined its psychometric properties from large, population-based samples. In particular, important questions have not been addressed such as the measurement invariance properties across parental and offspring gender. We evaluated the PBI based on responses from a large, representative population-based sample, using an exploratory structural equation modeling method appropriate for categorical data. Analysis revealed a three-factor structure representing "care," "overprotection," and "autonomy" parenting styles. In terms of psychometric measurement validity, our results supported the complete invariance of the PBI ratings across sons and daughters for their mothers and fathers. The PBI ratings were also robust in relation to personality and mental health status. In terms of predictive value, paternal care showed a protective effect on mental health at age 43 in sons. The PBI is a sound instrument for capturing perceived parenting styles, and is predictive of mental health in middle adulthood.

The perception of parental bonding in pregnant adolescents and its association with generalized anxiety disorder

BACKGROUND

The parental bonding is influenced by two dimensions: care and control or protection over the child of both parents. The lack of care during childhood may make the individual more susceptible to the onset of psychiatric disorders when adult. These psychiatric disorders when present during pregnancy may have a negative impact on the health of pregnant women and children. The aim of this study was to assess the association between generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in pregnant adolescents and the perception of parental bonding.

METHODS

This is a cross-sectional study with 871 pregnant women under the age of 19, receiving prenatal care in 47 Basic Health Units in the one city, Brazil. The generalized anxiety disorder was measured using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI) and the perception of parental bonding in childhood using the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI).

RESULTS

The prevalence of GAD was 8.5%. Among all the parental bonding dimensions, only a perceived lack of maternal care under 16 years was associated with GAD.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that only the perception of maternal bonding was associated with later GAD. It suggests that an adequate maternal bond is an essential component of psychological health.

Early intervention program for very low birth weight preterm infants and their parents: a study protocol

BACKGROUND

Preterm infants are high risk for delayed neurodevelopment. The main goal is to develop a program of early intervention for very preterm infants that allows families to apply it continuously at home, and quantify the results of early parental stimulation on improvement of cognition and motor skills.

METHODS

Randomized clinical Trial including inborn preterm infants with gestational age less than 32 weeks or birth weight less than 1500 g at 48 h after birth. Eligible for begin the intervention up to 7 days after birth. Study Protocol approved by the Brazilian national Committee of ethics in Research and by the institutional ethics committee. Intervention group (IG): skin-to skin care by mother (kangaroo care) plus tactile-kinesthetic stimulation by mothers from randomization until hospital discharge when they receive a program of early intervention with 10 parents' orientation and a total of 10 home visits independently of the standard evaluation and care that will be performed. Systematic early intervention program will be according to developmental milestones, anticipating in a month evolutionary step acquisition of motor and / or cognitive expected for corrected age. Active comparator with a Conventional Group (CG): standard care according to the routine care of the NICU and their needs in the follow up program. Neurodevelopment outcome with blinded evaluations in both groups between 12 and 18 months by Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development third edition and Alberta Motor Infant scale will be performed. All evaluations will be conducted in the presence of parents or caregivers in a safe room for the child move around during the evaluation.

DISCUSSION

If we can show that a continuous and global early intervention at home performed by low income families is better than the standard care for very preterm infants, this kind of program may be applied elsewhere in the world. We received grants by Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, DECIT, Cnpq and Health Ministry. Grand Challenges Brazil: All Children Thriving.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The study was restrospectively registered in ClinicalTrials.gov . in July 15 2016 ( NCT02835612 ).

The impact of childhood parental quality on mental health outcomes in older adults

OBJECTIVE

Parental bonding is cited as a determinant of mental health outcomes in childhood, adolescence and early-mid adulthood. Examination of the long-term impact for older adults is limited. We therefore examine the long-term risk of perceived poor parental bonding on mental health across the lifespan and into early-old age.

METHODS

Participants (N = 1255) were aged 60-64 years of age and drawn from the Australian Life Histories and Health study. Quality of parental bonding was assessed with the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). Self-reported history of doctors' mental health diagnoses and current treatment for each participant was recorded. Current depression was assessed with the Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression-8 (CESD-8). Due to known gender differences in mental health rates across the lifespan, analyses were stratified by sex.

RESULTS

A bi-factor analysis of the PBI in a structural equation framework indicated perceived Poor Parental Quality as a risk for both ever and current depression for both sexes. For males, Over-Protective Fathers were a risk for ever and current depression, whilst overall Poor Parental Quality was a risk for reporting current depression treatment. Whilst a number of the risks associated with current depression and treatment were attenuated when controlling for current mood, parental quality remained a significant risk for having reported a lifetime diagnosis for depression and anxiety for men.

CONCLUSION

Our results extend the existing literature base and demonstrate that mental health risk attributed to poor perceived parental quality continues across the life-course and into early-old age.

Parental bonding and adolescents' depressive and anxious symptoms in Pakistan

INTRODUCTION

A quantitative cross sectional study was carried out to investigate the role of parental bonding in relation to depressive and anxious symptoms among secondary school adolescents in Pakistan. The study also aimed to investigate the construct validity of the parental bonding inventory in the cultural context of Pakistan.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 1124 adolescents recruited from eight secondary schools in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Urdu translated versions of Parental Bonding Instrument (Qadir et al., 2005) and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scales (Mumford et al., 1991) were administered in classroom settings. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were used to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Results from the CFA of the Urdu version of the Parental Bonding Instrument supported a modified version of the three factor model proposed by Kendler (1996) consisting of warmth, protectiveness and authoritarianism. Based on SEM, we found a significant relationship between low parental warmth and depression symptoms among adolescents, whereas maternal protectiveness was a significant predictor for anxiety. Parental authoritarianism was not a significant predictor for depression or anxiety.

DISCUSSION

Findings of this study indicate that parental bonding is a central construct within a developmental framework in the cultural context of Pakistan, and is important when considering long-term psychosocial functioning of individuals. It should be explored further in clinical populations of Pakistani adolescents to ascertain significance of these constructs for interventions.

Association between resilience and posttraumatic stress disorder among Brazilian victims of urban violence: a cross-sectional case-control study

Introduction

This study investigated the association between resilience and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among Brazilian victims of urban violence. It also compared defense mechanisms, parental bonding, and childhood trauma between those who developed PTSD and those who did not.

Methods

This cross-sectional case-control study included 66 adult subjects exposed to recent urban violence in southern Brazil - 33 with PTSD and 33 healthy controls matched by sex and age - who were administered the Resilience Scale, Defense Style Questionnaire, Parental Bonding Instrument, and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. The statistical tests used were the McNemar test for categorical variables, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for continuous asymmetric variables, and the paired Student t-test for continuous symmetric variables.

Results

The PTSD group showed lower total Resilience Scale scores compared with controls (128.4±20.7 vs. 145.8±13.1, respectively; p = 0.01), along with a lower ability to solve situations and lower personal values that give meaning to life (p = 0.019). They also had lower rates of mature defense mechanisms (p < 0.001) and higher rates of emotional (p = 0.001) and physical (p = 0.003) abuse during childhood.

Conclusion

Lower levels of resilience, especially the ability to solve situations and having personal values that give meaning to life, immature defense mechanisms, and emotional and physical abuse in childhood are associated with PTSD in adult Brazilian victims of urban violence.

Parental and school bonding in Iranian adolescent perpetrators and victims of bullying

This study compared parental and school bonding in adolescents in Iran who are perpetrators of bullying, victims of bullying and not-involved in bullying. Secondary school students ( N = 240) were selected by cluster random sampling and screening, and categorized as perpetrators of bullying ( N = 80), victims of bullying ( N = 80) and non-involved ( N = 80) by teacher and vice-principal nominations. The Parental Bonding Instrument and the School Bonding Scales were completed by the students. With some exceptions (i.e., no between-group differences in maternal overprotectiveness and boys reported higher levels of school involvement than girls), results suggest similar patterns in Iran as in Western societies. With regard to parental bonding, perpetrators of bullying reported lower levels of maternal and paternal care than victims of bullying and non-involved students, higher levels of paternal overprotectiveness than non-involved students, higher levels of paternal authoritarianism (or lower levels of autonomy) than victims and non-involved students, and higher levels of maternal authoritarianism than victims. For school bonding, perpetrators of bullying reported lower levels of school and teacher attachment than the other two groups and victims reported lower levels of school and teacher attachment than non-involved students. Implications for school psychologists are discussed.

A Persian version of the parental bonding instrument: factor structure and psychometric properties

The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) is a widely used self-report measure for quantifying key parenting styles as perceived by the child during its first 16 years. While its development study identified two key parental dimensions, subsequent studies have variably confirmed those two or argued for one or more additional parental constructs. We developed a Persian translation of the PBI and administered it to a sample of 340 high school students. The construct validity of the Persian PBI was examined by Exploratory Factor Analysis while Confirmatory Factor Analysis was used to identify the most adequate model. Analyses of the Persian PBI favored a four-factor model for both parental forms. The Persian PBI has a factorial structure consistent with constructs identified in western cultures, as well as high internal consistency and test-retest reliability. Multivariate analyses indicated significant differences between boys and girls across some factors. The PBI appears an acceptable and appropriate measure for quantifying parent-child bonding in Iranian samples.

Cognitive trio: relationship with major depression and clinical predictors in Han Chinese women

BACKGROUND

Previous studies support Beck's cognitive model of vulnerability to depression. However, the relationship between his cognitive triad and other clinical features and risk factors among those with major depression (MD) has rarely been systematically studied.

METHOD

The three key cognitive symptoms of worthlessness, hopelessness and helplessness were assessed during their lifetime worst episode in 1970 Han Chinese women with recurrent MD. Diagnostic and other risk factor information was assessed at personal interview. Odds ratios (ORs) were calculated by logistic regression.

RESULTS

Compared to patients who did not endorse the cognitive trio, those who did had a greater number of DSM-IV A criteria, more individual depressive symptoms, an earlier age at onset, a greater number of episodes, and were more likely to meet diagnostic criteria for melancholia, postnatal depression, dysthymia and anxiety disorders. Hopelessness was highly related to all the suicidal symptomatology, with ORs ranging from 5.92 to 6.51. Neuroticism, stressful life events (SLEs) and a protective parental rearing style were associated with these cognitive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

During the worst episode of MD in Han Chinese women, the endorsement of the cognitive trio was associated with a worse course of depression and an increased risk of suicide. Individuals with high levels of neuroticism, many SLEs and high parental protectiveness were at increased risk for these cognitive depressive symptoms. As in Western populations, symptoms of the cognitive trio appear to play a central role in the psychopathology of MD in Chinese women.

Parenting and risk for mood, anxiety and substance use disorders: a study in population-based male twins

BACKGROUND

Previous studies consistently identified a relationship between parenting behavior and psychopathology. In this study, we extended prior analyses performed in female twins to a large sample of twins from male-male pairs.

METHODS

We used interview data on 2,609 adult male twins from a population-based twin registry. We examined the association between three retrospectively reported parenting dimensions (coldness, protectiveness, and authoritarianism) and lifetime history of seven common psychiatric and substance use disorders. Using univariate structural equation modeling, we also examined the influence of the genetic and environmental factors on parenting.

RESULTS

Examined individually, coldness was consistently associated with risk for a broad range of adult psychopathology. Averaged odds of psychiatric disorders associated with parenting were increased between 26 and 36 %. When the three parenting dimensions were examined together, coldness remained significant for major depression, phobia, and generalized anxiety disorder. Controlling for other disorders, the associations between the parenting dimensions and psychopathology were non-specific. Twin fitting model demonstrated that modest heritability accounted for parenting, whereas most variance resulted from the non-shared environment.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our current and prior findings, there is broad similarity in the impact of parenting on adult psychopathology between men and women.

Perceived parenting and risk for major depression in Chinese women

BACKGROUND

In Western countries, a history of major depression (MD) is associated with reports of received parenting that is low in warmth and caring and high in control and authoritarianism. Does a similar pattern exist in women in China?

METHOD

Received parenting was assessed by a shortened version of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in two groups of Han Chinese women: 1970 clinically ascertained cases with recurrent MD and 2597 matched controls. MD was assessed at personal interview.

RESULTS

Factor analysis of the PBI revealed three factors for both mothers and fathers: warmth, protectiveness, and authoritarianism. Lower warmth and protectiveness and higher authoritarianism from both mother and father were significantly associated with risk for recurrent MD. Parental warmth was positively correlated with parental protectiveness and negatively correlated with parental authoritarianism. When examined together, paternal warmth was more strongly associated with lowered risk for MD than maternal warmth. Furthermore, paternal protectiveness was negatively and maternal protectiveness positively associated with risk for MD.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the structure of received parenting is very similar in China and Western countries, the association with MD is not. High parental protectiveness is generally pathogenic in Western countries but protective in China, especially when received from the father. Our results suggest that cultural factors impact on patterns of parenting and their association with MD.

Can parental bonding be assessed in children? Factor structure and factorial invariance of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) between adults and children

This study examined the factorial structure of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in the Greek population. Using confirmatory factor analysis different proposed models of the basic dimensions of PBI were evaluated. The results indicated that Kendler's three-factor (i.e. care, protectiveness and authoritarianism) solution was found to be more satisfactory than the other competing two-, three- and four-factor models. A second aim was the investigation of the factorial invariance of the PBI across different age groups (adults vs. children). The results revealed that PBI can be used in children samples (measurement invariance) but it seems that PBI latent variables may be perceived differently across different age groups (not structural invariance). The authors conclude that further research is needed in order to understand whether the differences are due to actual developmental changes in children's perceptions of the parent-child relationship or conceptual problems regarding the children's ability to conceive the PBI's theoretical constructs.

Psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Parental Bonding Instrument

BACKGROUND

The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) is a widely used assessment tool for measuring parental characteristics that affect parent-child bonds. The measure was developed for and has been most administered in Western populations. Psychometric analyses have yielded discrepant results as to whether the PBI is best represented by a two-factor model (care and overprotection) or a three-factor model (care, overprotection, and autonomy).

OBJECTIVES

Little is known about how the PBI performs in Chinese samples, and there is limited data from Eastern populations as a whole. The purpose of this study is to: (1) explore the data and identify the underlying structural model that best fits the Chinese culture, and (2) to further compare the factor structure that emerges in a Chinese sample with that which has emerged in other Eastern cultures (i.e., Japanese) and Western countries.

METHODS

The present study investigated the psychometric properties of a Chinese translation of the PBI among a sample (N=1417) of mothers of kindergarten children. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to identify the most adequate model.

RESULTS

Results supported a four-factor model that included an indifference factor (χ(2)/df<3.0; RMSEA<0.06; SRMR<0.08). Both the two-factor and three-factor models performed poorly (χ(2)/df>5.0; RMSEA>0.08; SRMR>1.0; CFI<0.90 for both). In this sample, use of a Chinese translated version of the PBI was successful. Support for the four-factor model is consistent with findings from previous studies of Eastern populations and discrepant from those among Western samples.

CONCLUSIONS

The indifference factor may reflect aspects of parenting specific to Eastern cultures, which tend to value group cohesion over individualization and independence. More research is needed to determine whether these findings are generalizable to all Eastern countries and whether aspects of Chinese culture (e.g., the single-child law) produce unique effects that may impact PBI administration in China.