Aerobic and anaerobic profiles, heart rate and match analysis in older soccer players

Bone Health, Body Composition and Physiological Demands in 70-85-Year-Old Lifelong Male Football Players

The effects of lifelong football training on bone health, body composition and physiological demands were evaluated. A total of 20 veteran football players (VPG; 73.4 ± 3.7 years) and 18 untrained age-matched men (CG; 75.6 ± 4.2 years) were enrolled. Whole-body and regional dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry scans of arms, legs, proximal femur and lower spine (L1-L4) were recorded in all participants. We observerd higher bone mineral density (BMD) in the whole-body, arms and femoral regions and higher bone mineral content (BMC) in the legs and lower spine compared to the CG (p < 0.05), also higher total lean body mass (p < 0.05) and lower total body fat percentage (p < 0.05), were found. No differences in food habits were evidenced between the VPG and the CG, as evaluated using 3-day food records. Resting heart rate (RHR), blood pressure (BP) and activity profile during a football match were recorded using a global positioning system only in the VPG. The mean heart rate (HR)of theoretical maximal HR (ThHRmax), and peak of ThHRmax were 83.9 ± 8.6% and 98.6 ± 10.2%, respectively; the mean of total distance covered was 3666 ± 721 m, and the means of accelerations and decelerations were 419 ± 61 and 428 ± 65, respectively. Lifelong participation in football training improves regional BMD and BMC in legs, femur and lumbar spine compared to the CG. A high number of intense actions in term of HR and accelerations and decelerations suggests an elevated energy expenditure that in turn correlates to the healthier body composition observed in the VPG compared to the CG.

Investigating External and Internal Loads in Male Older Adult Basketball Players during Official Games

This study aimed at assessing the external [Player Load (PL), acceleration (ACC), changes of direction (COD), JUMP, and their relative values (PL/min; ACC/min; COD/min and JUMP/min)] and internal [percentage of the peak heart rate (%HRpeak) and the training load calculated with the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) method (sRPE-load)] loads of masters (senior citizen) basketball players during official games. Thirteen male basketball masters players (age: 66.6 ± 2.1 years; body mass: 89.9 ± 8.7 kg; stature: 183.7 ± 4.6 cm) were monitored during an official Lietuvos Krepsinio Veteranu Lyga (LKVL) 65-year game. Beside descriptive analysis, a chi-square goodness of fit test was adopted to assess the differences in the distribution within JUMP, ACC and COD classes of intensities (i.e., low, medium and high). The results revealed PL = 269.9 ± 83.3 AU and PL/min = 6.54 ± 1.29 AU/min. Moreover, significant differences (p < 0.001) in the distribution of the intensity classes were found for JUMP, ACC, and COD, with the lowest intensities as the most frequent. Finally, HRpeak = 81.7 ± 8.1% and sRPE-load = 148.9 ± 69.7 AU were found, with sRPE = ~3 AU. In conclusion, a low external load during an official basketball game was found compared to other basketball populations. Moreover, a high objective internal load did not correspond to a low perceived demand, which might increase the training adherence and motivation during long-term studies.

A 7-min halftime jog mitigated the reduction in sprint performance for the initial 15-min of the second half in a simulated football match

This study compared the effects of a 7-min shuttle jog during halftime to a control condition (seated rest) on subsequent athletic performance and lower-leg temperature in the second half. Eighteen male football players (22 years, 179 cm, 70 kg, 10 years of athletic career) randomly performed a 20-m shuttle jog (at an intensity of 70% of heart rate maximum) and a seated rest (sitting on a bench) during halftime in two separate sessions. A 5-min football simulation protocol consisting of football-specific activities (jumping, sprinting, kicking, passing, and dribbling at various intensities and distances) was repeated nine times to mimic the first and second half of a football match. Athletic performance (maximal vertical jump height, 20-m sprint time, and the Arrowhead agility test time) recorded during a 15-min period were averaged to represent each time point (first half: T1 to T3; second half: T4 to T6). Lower-leg skin and muscle (using the insulation disk technique) temperature was recorded before and after the first and second half. There was no condition effect over time in maximal vertical jump: F_5,187 = 0.53, p = 0.75, Arrowhead agility test time: F_5,187 = 1.25, p = 0.29, and lower-leg temperature (skin: F_3,119 = 1.40, p = 0.25; muscle: F_3,119 = 1.08, p = 0.36). The 20-m sprint time between conditions during the initial 15-min of the second half was different (condition × time: F_5,187 = 2.42, p = 0.04) that subjects who performed the shuttle jog ran 0.09 sec faster (3.08 sec, p = 0.002, ES = 0.68), as compared with those who did the seated rest (3.17 sec). The results of our study confirmed that a decremental effect of the static rest on sprinting performance during the initial period of the second halftime can be attenuated by a halftime warm-up.

A Multi-Systems Approach to Human Movement after ACL Reconstruction: The Cardiopulmonary System

The cardiopulmonary system plays a pivotal role in athletic and rehabilitative activities following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction, along with serving as an important support for the functioning of other physiologic systems including the integumentary, musculoskeletal, and nervous systems. Many competitive sports impose high demands upon the cardiorespiratory system, which requires careful attention and planning from rehabilitation specialists to ensure athletes are adequately prepared to return to sport. Cardiopulmonary function following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) can be assessed using a variety of methods, depending on stage of healing, training of the clinician, and equipment availability. Reductions in cardiovascular function may influence the selection and dosage of interventions that are not only aimed to address cardiopulmonary impairments, but also deficits experienced in other systems that ultimately work together to achieve goal-directed movement. The purpose of this clinical commentary is to present cardiopulmonary system considerations within a multi-physiologic systems approach to human movement after ACLR, including a clinically relevant review of the cardiopulmonary system, assessment strategies, and modes of cardiopulmonary training to promote effective, efficient movement.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

5.

Recreational soccer as sport medicine for middle-aged and older adults: a systematic review

Background

Strategies to prevent or attenuate the age-related decline in physical and physiological function and reduce chronic disease risk factors are of clinical importance.

Objective

To examine the health benefits of recreational soccer in middle-aged and older adults.

Design

Systematic review in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines.

Data sources

All available records up until 9 June 2017 in PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL Plus, PsycINFO and Cochrane Library databases.

Eligibility criteria for selecting studies

All randomised trials with or without a control group (randomised controlled trials or randomised uncontrolled trials) and non-randomised controlled trials that used recreational soccer, which includes small-sided soccer games, as the sole or principal intervention, and reported relevant effects in untrained/sedentary, healthy or unhealthy adults aged 40 years and above were included.

Results

Five trials described in 13 articles were included, which scored 6–9 out of 12 points on the modified Delphi quality rating scale. The duration was from 12 to 52 weeks, with various frequencies, volumes and game formats performed both outdoors and indoors with men and women. The trials indicate that recreational soccer may result in improvement in cardiovascular function, body composition and functional ability, although no significant changes were observed in postural balance.

Conclusion

Recreational soccer should be considered an alternative exercise modality for untrained, healthy or unhealthy middle-aged and older adults of both sexes to maintain an active lifestyle and mitigate a wide array of physical and physiological age-related changes.

Somatic, Endurance Performance and Heart Rate Variability Profiles of Professional Soccer Players Grouped According to Age

This cross-sectional study compared somatic, endurance performance determinants and heart rate variability (HRV) profiles of professional soccer players divided into different age groups: GI (17–19.9 years; n = 23), GII (20–24.9 years; n = 45), GIII (25–29.9 years; n = 30), and GIV (30–39 years; n = 26). Players underwent somatic and HRV assessment and maximal exercise testing. HRV was analyzed by spectral analysis of HRV, and high (HF) and low (LF) frequency power was transformed by a natural logarithm (Ln). Players in GIV (83 ± 7 kg) were heavier (p < 0.05) compared to both GI (73 ± 6 kg), and GII (78 ± 6 kg). Significantly lower maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max, ml•kg^-1•min^-1) was observed for GIV (56.6 ± 3.8) compared to GI (59.6 ± 3.9), GII (59.4 ± 4.2) and GIV (59.7 ± 4.1). All agegroups, except for GII, demonstrated comparable relative maximal power output (Pmax). For supine HRV, significantly lower Ln HF (ms2) was identified in both GIII (7.1 ± 0.8) and GIV (6.9 ± 1.0) compared to GI (7.9 ± 0.6) and GII (7.7 ± 0.9). In conclusion, soccer players aged >25 years showed negligible differences in Pmax unlike the age group differences demonstrated in VO2max. A shift towards relative sympathetic dominance, particularly due to reduced vagal activity, was apparent after approximately 8 years of competing at the professional level.

Changes in jump, sprint, and coordinative performances after a senior soccer match

This study aimed to verify the short-term after effects of a soccer match on senior players' all-out and interlimb coordination performances. Right before (prematch) and after (postmatch) a match, 10 senior (52.3 ± 10.2 years) male soccer players were administered jump (countermovement jump [CMJ]; repeated jump [RJ]), sprint (10 m and 10 m while dribbling the ball [10 mDB]), in-phase (IP) and antiphase (AP) interlimb coordination (synchronized hand and foot flexions and extensions at 80, 120, 180 bpm). Heart rate (HR) responses and subjective rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and rating of muscle pain (RMP) were used to evaluate the intensity of the friendly match. During the match, HR >85% of individual HRmax occurred for 50% of playing time. Subjective ratings at the end of the match were 12.9 ± 2.2 pt and 2.7 ± 2.2 pt for RPE and RMP, respectively. Postmatch CMJ, 10 m, 10 mDB, AP, IP 80 bpm, and IP 120 bpm performances did not show any difference with respect to prematch values, whereas improvements (p < 0.05) in RJ (prematch: 17.4 ± 3.9 cm; postmatch: 19.3 ± 4.8 cm) and IP 180 bpm (prematch: 30.4 ± 15.1 second; postmatch: 50.3 ± 18.9 second) emerged. These findings indicate that senior soccer players are able to cope with the high demands of match play and suggest that an acute bout of intense exercise has an arousing effect that counteracts fatigue effects and facilitates the performance of old trained individuals on complex motor behaviors relying on central executive control. In considering that players consider soccer as highly motivating, with advancing years this sport could help players in preserving high mental and physical functions and maintaining active engagement in life through social interactions.

The effect of Zingiber officinale R. rhizomes (ginger) on plasma pro-inflammatory cytokine levels in well-trained male endurance runners

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of ginger on the concentrations of plasma interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in welltrained male endurance runners. To this end, twenty-eight high-level endurance runners were randomly assigned to two groups (control and experimental). They performed the same weekly training volume for 12 weeks. The Bruce treadmill test was used three days before the start of the 12-week training period and after weeks 6 and 12 to evaluate the physiological effects of training and ginger administration. After completing the first 6-week period of exercise training protocol, two groups received 500 mg capsules of ginger powder and placebo, respectively, three times a day for the second 6-week period. Blood samples were collected before (resting blood sample) and after the Bruce treadmill test. IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were assayed using standard commercial ELISA kits. Two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine significant differences between control and experimental plasma IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α concentration means of pre- and post-test periods. The IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α concentrations at the end of week 12/weeks 6 and 12 between two training groups were significantly different (p = 0.01, p = 0.01, and p = 0.01). In the experimental group alone, there were also significant differences in the mean IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α concentrations at the end of weeks 6 and 12 (p = 0.01, p = 0.01, and p = 0.01). Our findings indicated that post-exercise plasma elevations of several pro-inflammatory cytokines can be attenuated by a six-week ginger administration period.

Effect of football or strength training on functional ability and physical performance in untrained old men

The effects of 16 weeks of football or strength training on performance and functional ability were investigated in 26 (68.2 ± 3.2 years) untrained men randomized into a football (FG; n = 9), a strength training (ST; n = 9), or a control group (CO; n = 8). FG and ST trained 1.6 ± 0.1 and 1.5 ± 0.1 times per week, respectively, with higher (P < 0.05) average heart rate (HR) (∼140 vs 100 bpm) and time >90%HRmax (17 vs 0%) in FG than ST, and lower (P < 0.05) peak blood lactate in FG than ST (7.2 ± 0.9 vs 10.5 ± 0.6 mmol/L). After the intervention period (IP), VO₂ max (15%; P < 0.001), cycle time to exhaustion (7%; P < 0.05), and Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance Level 1 performance (43%; P < 0.01) were improved in FG, but unchanged in ST and CO. HR during walking was 12% and 10% lower (P < 0.05) in FG and ST, respectively, after IP. After IP, HR and blood lactate during jogging were 7% (P < 0.05) and 30% lower (P < 0.001) in FG, but unchanged in ST and CO. Sit-to-stand performance was improved (P < 0.01) by 29% in FG and 26% in ST, but not in CO. In conclusion, football and strength training for old men improves functional ability and physiological response to submaximal exercise, while football additionally elevates maximal aerobic fitness and exhaustive exercise performance.

Exercise performance and cardiovascular health variables in 70-year-old male soccer players compared to endurance-trained, strength-trained and untrained age-matched men

The aim was to investigate performance variables and indicators of cardiovascular health profile in elderly soccer players (SP, n = 11) compared to endurance-trained (ET, n = 8), strength-trained (ST, n = 7) and untrained (UT, n = 7) age-matched men. The 33 men aged 65-85 years underwent a testing protocol including measurements of cycle performance, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) and body composition, and muscle fibre types and capillarisation were determined from m. vastus lateralis biopsy. In SP, time to exhaustion was longer (16.3 ± 2.0 min; P < 0.01) than in UT (+48%) and ST (+41%), but similar to ET (+1%). Fat percentage was lower (P < 0.05) in SP (-6.5% points) than UT but not ET and ST. Heart rate reserve was higher (P < 0.05) in SP (104 ± 16 bpm) than UT (+21 bpm) and ST (+24 bpm), but similar to ET (+2 bpm), whereas VO2max was not significantly different in SP (30.2 ± 4.9 ml O2 · min(-1) · kg(-1)) compared to UT (+14%) and ST (+9%), but lower (P < 0.05) than ET (-22%). The number of capillaries per fibre was higher (P < 0.05) in SP than UT (53%) and ST (42%) but similar to ET. SP had less type IIx fibres than UT (-12% points). In conclusion, the exercise performance and cardiovascular health profile are markedly better for lifelong trained SP than for age-matched UT controls. Incremental exercise capacity and muscle aerobic capacity of SP are also superior to lifelong ST athletes and comparable to endurance athletes.

Cardiovascular function is better in veteran football players than age-matched untrained elderly healthy men

The aim of the study was to determine whether lifelong football training may improve cardiovascular function, physical fitness, and body composition. Our subjects were 17 male veteran football players (VPG; 68.1 ± 2.1 years) and 26 healthy age-matched untrained men who served as a control group (CG; 68.2 ± 3.2 years). Examinations included measurements of cardiac function, microvascular endothelial function [reactive hyperemic index (RHI)], maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), and body composition. In VPG, left ventricular (LV) end-diastolic volume was 20% larger (P < 0.01) and LV ejection fraction was higher (P < 0.001). Tissue Doppler imaging revealed an augmented LV longitudinal displacement, i.e., LV shortening of 21% (P < 0.001) and longitudinal 2D strain was 12% higher (P < 0.05), in VPG. In VPG, resting heart rate was lower (6 bpm, P < 0.05), and VO2max was higher (18%, P < 0.05). In addition, RHI was 21% higher (P < 0.05) in VPG. VPG also had lower body mass index (P < 0.05), body fat percentage, total body fat mass, android fat percentage, and gynoid fat percentage (all P < 0.01). Lifelong participation in football training is associated with better LV systolic function, physical fitness, microvascular function, and a healthier body composition. Overall, VPG have better cardiovascular function compared with CG, which may reduce their cardiovascular morbidity and mortality.

Heart rate monitoring in soccer: interest and limits during competitive match play and training, practical application

The identification of physiological loads imposed by soccer training or match play reveals essential information, which may help improve training and recovery strategies. Until today, the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring is not standardized in soccer. Thus, the aim of this review was to analyze, determine and compare the exercise intensity (EI) monitored by HR in professional, youth, and recreational soccer players during matches and training sessions using a meta-analysis. Heart rate is one of the most common physiological variables used to determine exercise internal training load. The mean EI recorded during competitive matches was described as 70-80% of VO2max or 80-90% of maximal heart rate (HRmax), independent of the playing level. With respect to HR training zones, approximately 65% of the total match duration is spent at intensity of 70-90% HRmax and rarely below 65% HRmax. However, although HRmax is mostly employed in the literature, monitoring EI should be expressed in relation to reserve heart rate, as it was described as a more reliable indicator of HR, allowing interindividual comparisons. The HR response according to the playing position indicates that midfielders are characterized by the highest EI, followed by forwards and fullbacks. Moreover, in the second half of the match, the EI is lower than that observed during the first half; this reduction could be correlated with the level of the player's physical conditioning. Consequently, coaches may favor the use of interval training or small-sided training games because these are shown to improve both aerobic capacity and the ability to repeat high-intensity actions. Small-sided games allow reaching similar HR responses to those found during interval training and match play but with greater heterogeneity values. Future investigations should include a larger sample of players with special reference to playing position and the expression of EI in percentage of the reserve heart rate, analyzing the possible intergender differences in HR response.

Soccer practice as an add-on treatment in the management of individuals with a diagnosis of schizophrenia

Physical activity is an important aspect of good health for everyone; it is even more important for psychiatric patients who usually live an unhealthy lifestyle. In recent years, there has been growing focus on the use of soccer as a vehicle to improve the health of subjects with severe mental illness. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of soccer practice on the self-reported health quality of life (SRHQL) and sports performance (SP) in psychotic subjects. Eighteen male patients with diagnosis of schizophrenia were randomized into either a trained (TG) or a control group (CG). The TG was trained for 12 weeks using two soccer training sessions per week. The CG did not perform any regular sports activity during the experimental period. Anthropometric measurements, SRHQL, personal time records in a 30 meter sprint test and slalom test running with a ball were evaluated before and after the experimental period. SRHQL was assessed using Short Form-12 questionnaire measuring physical and mental component summary scores. After the training period, the TG showed a relevant decrease by 4.6% in bodyweight (BW) and body mass index compared to baseline. Conversely, the CG showed an increased BW and body mass index by 1.8% from baseline to posttest. Moreover, after 12 weeks we found that control patients increased their BW significantly when compared to trained patients (Δ = 5.4%; P < 0.05). After the training period, comparing the baseline TG's Short Form-12-scores to posttest results, we found an improvement of 10.5% and 10.8% in physical component summary and mental component summary, respectively. In addition, performances on the 30 meter sprint test and slalom test running with a ball in the TG improved significantly (P < 0.01) from baseline to posttest when compared to CG. Soccer practice appears able to improve psychophysical health in individuals with diagnosis of schizophrenia. Indeed, our study demonstrated that programmed soccer physical activity could reduce antipsychotic medication-related weight gain and improve SRHQL and sports performance in psychotic subjects.

Inter-limb coordination, strength, jump, and sprint performances following a youth men's basketball game

This study aimed to verify whether basketball players are able to maintain strength (handgrip), jump (countermovement jump [CMJ]), sprint (10 m and 10 m bouncing the ball [10 mBB]), and interlimb coordination (i.e., synchronized hand and foot flexions and extensions at 80, 120, and 180 bpm) performances at the end of their game. Ten young (age 15.7 ± 0.2 years) male basketball players volunteered for this study. During the friendly game, heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and rate of muscle pain (RMP) were assessed to evaluate the exercise intensity. Overall, players spent 80% of the time playing at intensities higher than 85% HRmax. Main effects (p < 0.05) for game periods emerged for HR and the number of players involved in a single action, with lower occurrence of maximal efforts and higher involvement of teammates after the first 2 periods. At the end of the game, players reported high (p < 0.05) RPE (15.7 ± 2.4) and RMP (5.2 ± 2.3) values; decreased (p < 0.05) sprint capabilities (10 m: pre = 1.79 ± 0.09 seconds, post = 1.84 ± 0.08 seconds; 10 mBB: pre = 1.81 ± 0.11 seconds, post = 1.96 ± 0.08 seconds); increased (p < 0.05) interlimb coordination at 180 bpm (pre = 33.3 ± 20.2 seconds, post = 43.9 ± 19.8 seconds); and maintained jump (pre = 35.2 ± 5.2 cm, post = 35.7 ± 5.2 cm), handgrip (pre = 437 ± 73 N, post = 427 ± 55 N), and coordinative performances at lower frequencies of executions (80 bpm: pre = 59.7 ± 1.3 seconds, post = 60.0 ± 0.0 seconds; 120 bpm: pre = 54.7 ± 12.3 seconds, post = 57.3 ± 6.7 seconds). These findings indicate that the heavy load of the game exerts beneficial effects on the efficiency of executive and attentive control functions involved in complex motor behaviors. Coaches should structure training sessions that couple intense physical exercises with complex coordination tasks to improve the attentional capabilities of the players.

Aerobic-Anaerobic Profiles, Heart Rate and Match Analysis in Old Basketball Players

BACKGROUND

Scientific information on master competitions is mainly in individual sports and there is a lack of information on the senior team sport matches.

OBJECTIVE

To provide aerobic and anaerobic profiles of senior (55 +/- 5 years) basketball players (n = 10), and to evaluate the physiological load and the match analysis of a senior basketball match.

METHODS

Participants were administered a maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2 max)) and anaerobic tests (jump tests: counter movement jump (CMJ) and bounce jump (BJ), and running tests: 10-m sprint and running 10 m while bouncing the ball (10-m(BB))). During a senior basketball match, the players' heart rate (HR), electrocardiogram (ECG), blood lactate concentration (LA) and motor activities were recorded.

RESULTS

The maximal aerobic test values were: HR(peak) 149 +/- 9 beats.min(-1); power 187 +/- 23 W; VO(2peak) 22.9 +/- 2.2 ml.kg(-1).min(-1); LA(peak) 8.3 +/- 1.9 mM. Jump test values were: CMJ = 24.9 +/- 6.5 cm and BJ = 20.5 +/- 4.75 cm. Running performances were: 10-m sprint in 2.26 +/- 0.18 s; 10-m(BB) in 2.34 +/- 0.14 s; 10-m(BB)/10-m sprint ratio 1.1 +/- 0.1. During the match, no adverse event or ST-segment changes or complex arrhythmias occurred. HR exceeded 85% of HR(peak) for 59 +/- 37%. LA values were 3.7 +/- 1.8 mM. Players spent 48% walking, 19% positioning, 17% running, 15% inactive, and 1% jumping. A limited number of fouls (2 +/- 1.5) was observed and players performed only 2-point shots.

CONCLUSION

Older basketball players undergoing a training regimen of 1.5 h.week(-1) showed good anaerobic characteristics and a moderate aerobic capacity. Although the senior basketball match required high intensities (only 3% of total match time spent at HR <70% of HR(max)), the ECG Holter monitoring showed no adverse event, ST-segment changes or complex arrhythmias. Finally, their play did not include the technical skills recently introduced to basketball.