Policies in Activity-based Flexible Offices -'I am sloppy with clean-desking. We don't really know the rules.'

Physical work environment in an activity-based flex office: a longitudinal case study

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate and explore Occupational Health and Safety (OHS) management, office ergonomics, and musculoskeletal symptoms in a group of office workers relocating from cell offices to activity-based flex offices (AFOs).

METHODS

The analysis was based on qualitative interview data with 77 employees and longitudinal questionnaire data from 152 employees.

RESULTS

Results indicate that there was a need to clarify roles and processes related to the management of OHS. Self-rated sit comfort, working posture, and availability of daylight deteriorated and symptoms in neck and shoulders increased after the relocation and seemed to be influenced by many factors, such as difficulties adjusting the workstations, the availability of suitable workplaces, and age, sex, and individual needs.

CONCLUSION

Research on the long-term effects of physical work environments and management of (OHS) issues after implementing activity-based flex offices is sparse. This study demonstrates the importance of planning and organising OHS issue management when implementing an AFO, and to carefully implement office ergonomics among office workers.

Implementation of Activity-Based Workplaces (ABW)-The Importance of Participation in Process Activities

Relocation to new office solutions such as activity-based workplaces (ABW) has increased but satisfaction with the ABW among employees varies, and the importance of participation in the relocation process is unclear. This study aimed to examine the association between employees' extent of participation in the implementation process activities and satisfaction with the relocation to ABW. Data were collected from 699 employees in a Swedish governmental agency 3-months prior to, 3-months and 9-months after relocation to the ABW. Questionnaires were used to assess participation in process activities and perceived satisfaction with knowledge about working in ABW, office rules, and information and support during the process. Participation in activities was significantly associated with higher overall satisfaction with knowledge, office rules, information and support, and effects were generally more pronounced as the number of attended activities increased. Satisfaction also increased among non-participants, although without reaching the same levels as participants. Our results show the importance to offer and facilitate a high participation in the relocation process activities to obtain satisfaction with a relocation to ABW.

The office of the future: Operational energy consumption in the post-pandemic era

As a result of COVID-19 and in order to combat the spread of the virus, work-from-home and remote working has become a widely accepted practice in professional settings globally. It is widely known that we are currently experiencing a highly transient period in terms of how we define work. Office work is progressively becoming more collaborative, modern workforce more mobile, and office occupancy more dynamic. As flexible working evolves, it becomes apparent that the role of workspace is also changing. So will the occupancy patterns and operation of office building. Using a mixed-method approach, this paper explores the future of offices, considering flexible working model and investigates the operational energy consumption of UK office buildings in the post-pandemic era. Previous research has shown that office buildings are one of the five largest sectors in the building stock in terms of energy consumption. The results of this study demonstrate that by embracing emerging transitions in hybrid working model and activity-based workspace environments, the energy demand in the office building sector could fall below pre-COVID-19 levels, with significant energy savings reaching up to 50% energy reduction in comparison to the pre-pandemic situation.

How teachers’ expectations influence their experiences with activity-based workplaces in higher education

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to explore the influence of teachers’ expectations on their experiences and satisfaction response dregarding the introduction of activity-based workplaces (ABWs) in a Dutch university of applied sciences.

Design/methodology/approach

The first author executed a three-year at-home ethnographic study as senior lecturer at the university in which the research was executed.

Findings

Teachers have will expectations, should expectations and want expectations that relate to the stages before, during and after the introduction of ABWs. Unmet should and will expectations negatively affect want expectations and not only influence teachers’ affective commitment to their work but also generate dissatisfaction and even anger toward the organization, showing the importance of monitoring all three types of expectations.

Research implications

Users evaluate their expectations against their experiences which can lead to the formation of (dis)satisfaction regarding the introduction of ABWs. To explain the satisfaction response, research should consider expectations and experiences.

Practical implications

Discrepancies between users’ expectations and experiences lead to dissatisfaction with ABWs. Involving users and aiming to capture their expectations in the design support professionals predicting satisfaction and preventing the organization from costly re-refurbishments.

Social implications

Exploring users' expectations creates an understanding of users' everyday processes and underlying values which can improve the fit between users and building and reduce costs. Reducing accommodation costs benefits society, as more money can be spent on education.

Originality/value

This paper integrates Lefebvre’s spatial theory and Oliver’s disconfirmation theory to study the influence of expectations on users’ experiences and describes the process before, during and after introducing ABWs.

Impact of activity-based work environments on knowledge work performance – quasi-experimental study in governmental workplaces

Purpose

Work environment change from the traditional cell- and open-space offices to activity-based work (ABW) generates many concerns among workforce and management. The purpose of this study is to observe impacts of ABW change on several knowledge work performance drivers and outputs.

Design/methodology/approach

A quasi-experimental design was applied to distinguish the impact of ABW on several dimensions of knowledge work performance in three governmental organizations. The empirical measures that were observed in the study were: perceptions of physical environment, virtual environment and social environment, individual ways of working, well-being at work and self-assessed productivity.

Findings

Well-being at work or productivity will not collapse because of ABW change. Most of the facets of self-assessed productivity and all of the well-being facets did not change because of the adoption of ABW. ABW change had a positive impact on group work effectiveness but negative effect on perceptions of the facilities as conducive for efficient working. ABW change had an enhancing effect on the routine of protecting one’s concentration from software-induced interruptions and decreasing effect on using mobile technologies to work during idle times and using technology to avoid unnecessary traveling. ABW change made telework more acceptable.

Originality/value

To the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study was one the first studies following real-world change to ABW with quasi-experimental design. The difference-in-differences approach made it possible to isolate the causal impact of ABW change on the knowledge work performance drivers and outputs from other simultaneous changes taking place in the studied workplaces.

To work at home or in the office? Well-being, information flow and relationships between office workers before and during the COVID-19 pandemic

Purpose

This paper aims to compare employee well-being, information flow and relationships with co-workers and supervisors for people working at home and working in different office types before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Design/methodology/approach

A nationwide study of 2,845 Estonian office workers in autumn 2019 and 2,972 in spring 2020 was carried out.

Findings

It was discovered that in normal circumstances, people at home had similar results to those in a cell office or activity-based office. Open-plan offices were found to be the worst in respect to the facets of work studied. However, in the context of the pandemic, the playing field became more level in some respects and worse in the case of activity-based offices.

Practical implications

When telework is well arranged both in terms of facilities and organising the necessary communication and information flow, then it is a viable alternative to working in an office. What is more, employers need to pay more attention to the physical and social work conditions in open-plan offices and also activity-based offices in the context of a pandemic.

Originality/value

Previous studies have only compared telework with working in an office in general. Comparing working at home with different kinds of offices gives valuable insights.

A review of research in activity-based working over the last ten years: lessons for the post-COVID workplace

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to map and describe findings from research conducted in workspaces designed to support activity-based working (ABW) over the past 10 years (2010–2020) with a view of informing post-COVID workplaces of the positive and negative attributes of ABW.

Design/methodology/approach

Scopus was used as the search engine for this review. Papers which reported findings related to ABW and performed field study in ABW workspaces with adult occupants were included. Out of the 442 initial papers, 40 papers were included following iterative title and abstract and full text review process and consideration of inclusion and exclusion criteria. These papers were divided into three groupings (organizational, human and physical environment) based on their major focus. Positive and negative effects of ABW environments on occupants are discussed within these three topics in consideration of the implications for the post-COVID workplace.

Findings

Although the included studies were inclined to be either more positive (i.e. interior design) or negative (i.e. indoor environmental quality, productivity, distraction and privacy) in relation to various attributes of ABW, no single effect of ABW environments on occupants was in full agreement between the studies. The shortcomings of ABW environments are more related to how this way of working is implemented and how occupants use it, rather than the concept itself. A partial uptake of ABW leads to occupants’ dissatisfaction, lower productivity and lower well-being, while a holistic approach increases the chance of success. It is hypothesised that many currently reported negative aspects of the ABW concept might diminish overtime as ABW evolves and as new challenges arise. A continuous post-occupancy evaluation after relocation to an ABW-supportive environment can inform the organization about the changing needs and preference of the occupants; hence, the organization can tailor the ABW solution to the arising needs. The inter-connection between the three key ABW pillars (organizational, human and physical environment) is crucial to the success of this concept specifically in the context of the post-COVID-19 workplace.

Originality/value

This paper highlights the key shortcomings and limitations of studies produced over the past decade and identifies keys gaps in the current body of literature. It provides a new insight on how findings related to open-plan offices designed to support ABW can be categorized on the three big heading of organizational, physical and human-related aspects, and further investigates the positive and negatives outcomes reported on ABW under these headings. It also discusses how the findings arising from this literature review can inform the post-COVID workplace.

Cognitive Ergonomics of Assembly Work from a Job Demands-Resources Perspective: Three Qualitative Case Studies

In manufacturing companies, cognitive processing is required from assembly workers to perform correct and timely assembly of complex products, often with varied specifications and high quality demands. This paper explores assembly operators’ perceptions of cognitive/mental workload to provide a holistic understanding of the work conditions that affect cognitive demands and performance. While the physical loading aspects of assembly work are well known, most empirical literature dealing with cognitive/mental loading in manufacturing tends to examine a few particular aspects, rather than address the issue with a holistic system view. This semi-structured interview study, involving 50 industrial assembly operators from three Swedish companies, explores how assemblers perceive that their cognitive performance and well-being is influenced by a wide variety of factors within the context of mechanical product assembly. The interview transcripts were analysed using a priori coding, followed by bottom-up Thematic Analysis. The results indicate that a variety of systemic effects on assemblers’ cognitive performance can be classified as job demands or resources. Quite often, the absence of a resource mirrors a related demand, and “good assembly conditions”, as described by the interviewees, often re-frame demands as desirable challenges that foster motivation and positive feelings towards the work. The identified demands and resources stem from task design, timing, physical loading, intrinsic and extrinsic motivators, social teamwork and the product’s “interface” design. Despite organisational differences and conditions between the three companies that took part in the study, the results are largely consistent.

Switching behaviour in activity-based working environments: an exploration of the reasons and influencing factors

Purpose

A tendency that employees do not frequently switch between different activity settings was reported in previous studies, which are opposed to underlying assumptions of activity-based working (ABW) offices. Although ABW is increasingly becoming a standard office concept, employees’ switching behaviour has not been studied in depth. This study aims to understand employees’ switching behaviour by identifying reasons (not) to switch and various influencing factors of switching behaviour.

Design/methodology/approach

An online survey was conducted across Switzerland and Belgium, and 124 respondents participated in the questionnaire. The mismatch model was developed to examine whether the misfit between either activity or preference and work environment leads to switching to another place in the office.

Findings

Results show that most of the respondents switch multiple times a day, which runs counter to the previous studies. Furthermore, this study presented clear evidence that mandatory switching frequency is independent of various factors presented in the study, indicating that the distinction between mandatory and voluntary switching is valid. Besides, results identified privacy, acoustics, distraction, proximity to team/colleagues as reasons to switch and as reasons not to switch, place preference/attachment, proximity to the team were determined.

Originality/value

This study contributed to better understanding switching behaviour by defining, distinguishing switching behaviour, identifying reasons (not) to switch and influencing factors of switching frequency. In addition, this study compared the misfit between activity and environment and the misfit between preference and environment as push factors leading to switching behaviour. These findings can provide more knowledge of switching behaviour to workplace or facility management practitioners.

Office relocation: changes in privacy fit, satisfaction and fatigue

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an office move (and associated changes in settings, protocols and autonomy) on changes in privacy fit, privacy-related coping appraisal as well as changes in satisfaction and fatigue. The study builds on Altman’s (1975) privacy regulation model and the cognitive appraisal theory as a transactional model of stress.

Design/methodology/approach

Data was collected over two points of measurement from 61 office workers who moved from a standard open-plan office to an office that is activity based. The first questionnaire was distributed six weeks prior to the office move and the follow-up questionnaire approximately eight months after. With its longitudinal design, this study extends past research by demonstrating the changing nature of privacy fit and revealing predictors of change in privacy fit and coping appraisal.

Findings

Cross-lagged autoregression analysis of change confirmed suggested predictors such as increase in variety of settings and in adherence of others to protocols that positively influenced post-move privacy fit. Further, change in coping appraisal post move was predicted by an increase in perceived environmental and behavioural flexibility. Changes in privacy fit and appraisal were associated with increases in job and workplace satisfaction and decreases in emotional and mental work fatigue post move.

Originality/value

Results could inform physical workplace design as well as cultural interventions in organisations. To the best of authors’ knowledge, this is the first study investigating the psychological process of privacy experience by using a transactional model of stress.

State of science: the future of work - ergonomics and human factors contributions to the field

This article is concerned with scholarly ergonomics and human factors (E/HF) contributions to date to the field of research inquiry known as the 'future of work'. The review considers E/HF perspectives on how the nature of work is changing and what this means for the practice of E/HF and for human performance and wellbeing at work. This field of research has attracted much attention from scholars from various disciplines as flexible working arrangements and casualised employment, in particular, have come under the microscope during the COVID-19 pandemic. The article begins by setting out the future of work field, focussing on the mega trends and future of work forces that are most relevant to the discipline. Next, E/HF contributions to this field are identified and discussed. Surprisingly, given the E/HF tradition as a system discipline fundamentally concerned with the study of human work, and as a contributor to transdisciplinary research related to the design of work systems, a search of the scholarly literature found few contributions outside of the automation systems field that addressed the future of work and E/HF directly. A research agenda is presented to address gaps in current knowledge in a number of key future of work domains. Practitioner's Summary: We reflect on E/HF contributions to the 'future of work' field and how the practice of E/HF needs to consider the changing nature of work. We outline future of work concerns and suggest research areas for further E/HF attention towards the design of decent and sustainable work for all. Abbreviations: E/HF: ergonomics and human factors; ILO: International Labour Organisation; COVID-19.

Sense of Coherence, Health, Well-Being, and Work Satisfaction before and after Implementing Activity-Based Workplaces

Activity-based workplaces (ABWs) are implemented with possible implications for health, well-being, and work satisfaction in the workplace. Drawing on the theoretical framework, i.e., sense of coherence (SOC), the aim was to investigate how indicators pf SOC-meaningfulness, manageability and comprehensibility-are associated with, or function as barriers or facilitators for, health, well-being and work satisfaction during relocation to an ABW. We followed the implementation of ABWs at the Swedish Transport Administration (2018-2019). Questionnaires were administered before (n = 536), 3 months (n = 409) and 9 months (n = 373) after relocation. Focus group interviews (15) were conducted before and after. Data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA and content analysis. Relocation to an ABW was associated with a reduced work satisfaction (physical p < 0.001; psychosocial p < 0.001), and minor changes in health and occupational well-being during relocation (p > 0.001). The reduction in work satisfaction was smaller among employees with high meaningfulness in the relocation process (p < 0.001). All SOC indicators were positively associated with overall health, well-being and work satisfaction (p < 0.001). Interviews suggested that meaningfulness was facilitated by participation in the presented activities and that communication before relocation was crucial. The results indicate that organizations implementing ABWs should promote perceived meaningfulness in the process to mitigate possible declines in satisfaction with the physical and psychosocial work environment.

Location choices of face-to-face interactions in academic buildings: an experience sampling approach

Although it is recognised that face-to-face interactions are important for sharing interests and (new) knowledge, it remains unknown how and where students and university employees interact in academic buildings. Therefore, the aim of this study is to analyse the location choice for face-to-face interactions in an academic building, including several personal- and interaction characteristics. An Experience Sampling Method (ESM) was used to collect data on 643 face-to-face interactions during two weeks in the Flux building at Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands. In general, students more often interacted in meeting rooms than teaching staff, and support staff interacted less in eat/drink areas and the hallways than other users. Unexpectedly, some of the lectures took place outside of traditional project-/lecture space. Real estate managers of university campuses could use these results to create better interactive work environments that stimulate face-to-face interactions among employees and students of different departments. Practitioner Summary: Based on longitudinal data of ftf interactions among students and employees in an academic building, results showed that ftf interaction characteristics, compared to personal characteristics, are most important for explaining the location choice of interactions. These insights could help to design academic work environments that optimise the support of interactions. Abbreviation: ABO: activity-based office; ANOVA: analyses of variance; ESM: experience sampling method; FTF: face-to-face; HR: human resources; MMNL: mixed multinomial logit model; NewWoW: new ways of working.

Feel well and do well at work

Purpose

This paper aims to investigate employee well-being in relation to office landscapes in a post-relocation context. The aims are to identify spatial attributes of the office landscape that influence employee well-being and underlying contextual factors that explain employee well-being post-relocation.

Design/methodology/approach

A mixed-method approach was adopted. The data collection involved 16 semi-structured interviews with employees, an interview with the leading architect of the office renovation, study of a dossier on the renovation project and observations.

Findings

Most of the informants experienced the new office landscape positively despite few shortcomings. Spatial attributes were identified that influenced the informants’ well-being positively in terms of affects, satisfaction, social relations and environmental mastery. Conversely, negative influences on well-being were also reported regarding affects, satisfaction and environmental mastery. Conflicting views on some of the spatial attributes and contextual factors related to the planning process and the former office landscape were identified.

Originality/value

The value of this paper lies in investigating the office landscape at the spatial attributes level, despite office type, and their influence on hedonic and eudaimonic components of employee well-being. The research approach adopted proved its usefulness for in-depth studies of the interrelations between office landscapes and employee well-being.