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Markovic M, Ben-Shabat S, Nagendra Manda J, Abramov-Harpaz K, Regev C, Miller Y, Aponick A, Zimmermann EM, Dahan A. PLA 2-Triggered Activation of Cyclosporine-Phospholipid Prodrug as a Drug Targeting Approach in Inflammatory Bowel Disease Therapy. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14030675. [PMID: 35336048 PMCID: PMC8950246 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14030675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral medication with activity specifically at the inflamed sites throughout the gastrointestinal tract and limited systemic exposure would be a major advance in our therapeutic approach to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). For this purpose, we have designed a prodrug by linking active drug moiety to phospholipid (PL), the substrate of phospholipase A2 (PLA2). PLA2 expression and activity is significantly elevated in the inflamed intestinal tissues of IBD patients. Since PLA2 enzyme specifically hydrolyses the sn-2 bond within PLs, in our PL-based prodrug approach, the sn-2 positioned FA is replaced with cyclosporine, so that PLA2 may be exploited as the prodrug-activating enzyme, releasing the free drug from the PL-complex. Owing to the enzyme overexpression, this may effectively target free cyclosporine to the sites of inflammation. Four PL-cyclosporine prodrugs were synthesized, differing by their linker length between the PL and the drug moiety. To study the prodrug activation, a novel enzymatically enriched model was developed, the colonic brush border membrane vesicles (cBBMVs); in this model, tissue vesicles were produced from colitis-induced (vs. healthy) rat colons. PLA2 overexpression (3.4-fold) was demonstrated in diseased vs. healthy cBBMVs. Indeed, while healthy cBBMVs induced only marginal activation, substantial prodrug activation was evident by colitis-derived cBBMVs. Together with the PLA2 overexpression, these data validate our drug targeting strategy. In the diseased cBBMVs, quick and complete activation of the entire dose was obtained for the 12-carbon linker prodrug, while slow and marginal activation was obtained for the 6/8-carbon linkers. The potential to target the actual sites of inflammation and treat any localizations throughout the GIT, together with the extended therapeutic index, makes this orally delivered prodrug approach an exciting new therapeutic strategy for IBD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (M.M.); (S.B.-S.)
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (M.M.); (S.B.-S.)
| | | | - Karina Abramov-Harpaz
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (K.A.-H.); (C.R.); (Y.M.)
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Clil Regev
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (K.A.-H.); (C.R.); (Y.M.)
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Yifat Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (K.A.-H.); (C.R.); (Y.M.)
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Aaron Aponick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA; (J.N.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Ellen M. Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA;
| | - Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (M.M.); (S.B.-S.)
- Correspondence:
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Markovic M, Abramov-Harpaz K, Regev C, Ben-Shabat S, Aponick A, Zimmermann EM, Miller Y, Dahan A. Prodrug-Based Targeting Approach for Inflammatory Bowel Diseases Therapy: Mechanistic Study of Phospholipid-Linker-Cyclosporine PLA 2-Mediated Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052673. [PMID: 35269813 PMCID: PMC8910962 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapeutics with activity specifically at the inflamed sites throughout the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) would be a major advance in our therapeutic approach to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We aimed to develop the prodrug approach that can allow such site-specific drug delivery. Currently, using cyclosporine as a drug of choice in IBD is limited to the most severe cases due to substantial systemic toxicities and narrow therapeutic index of this drug. Previously, we synthesized a series of a phospholipid-linker-cyclosporine (PLC) prodrugs designed to exploit the overexpression of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) in the inflamed intestinal tissues, as the prodrug-activating enzyme. Nevertheless, the extent and rate of prodrug activation differed significantly. In this study we applied in-vitro and modern in-silico tools based on molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, to gain insight into the dynamics and mechanisms of the PLC prodrug activation. We aimed to elucidate the reason for the significant activation change between different linker lengths in our prodrug design. Our work reveals that the PLC conjugate with the 12-carbon linker length yields the optimal prodrug activation by PLA2 in comparison to shorter linker length (6-carbons). This optimized length efficiently allows cyclosporine to be released from the prodrug to the active pocket of PLA2. This newly developed mechanistic approach, presented in this study, can be applied for future prodrug optimization to accomplish optimal prodrug activation and drug targeting in various conditions that include overexpression of PLA2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (M.M.); (S.B.-S.)
| | - Karina Abramov-Harpaz
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (K.A.-H.); (C.R.)
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Clil Regev
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (K.A.-H.); (C.R.)
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (M.M.); (S.B.-S.)
| | - Aaron Aponick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA;
| | - Ellen M. Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA;
| | - Yifat Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (K.A.-H.); (C.R.)
- Ilse Katz Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
- Correspondence: (Y.M.); (A.D.)
| | - Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel; (M.M.); (S.B.-S.)
- Correspondence: (Y.M.); (A.D.)
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Moreira V, Leiguez E, Janovits PM, Maia-Marques R, Fernandes CM, Teixeira C. Inflammatory Effects of Bothrops Phospholipases A 2: Mechanisms Involved in Biosynthesis of Lipid Mediators and Lipid Accumulation. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13120868. [PMID: 34941706 PMCID: PMC8709003 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A2s (PLA2s) constitute one of the major protein groups present in the venoms of viperid and crotalid snakes. Snake venom PLA2s (svPLA2s) exhibit a remarkable functional diversity, as they have been described to induce a myriad of toxic effects. Local inflammation is an important characteristic of snakebite envenomation inflicted by viperid and crotalid species and diverse svPLA2s have been studied for their proinflammatory properties. Moreover, based on their molecular, structural, and functional properties, the viperid svPLA2s are classified into the group IIA secreted PLA2s, which encompasses mammalian inflammatory sPLA2s. Thus, research on svPLA2s has attained paramount importance for better understanding the role of this class of enzymes in snake envenomation and the participation of GIIA sPLA2s in pathophysiological conditions and for the development of new therapeutic agents. In this review, we highlight studies that have identified the inflammatory activities of svPLA2s, in particular, those from Bothrops genus snakes, which are major medically important snakes in Latin America, and we describe recent advances in our collective understanding of the mechanisms underlying their inflammatory effects. We also discuss studies that dissect the action of these venom enzymes in inflammatory cells focusing on molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in the biosynthesis of lipid mediators and lipid accumulation in immunocompetent cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Moreira
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 04044-020, Brazil;
| | - Elbio Leiguez
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (E.L.); (P.M.J.); (R.M.-M.); (C.M.F.)
| | - Priscila Motta Janovits
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (E.L.); (P.M.J.); (R.M.-M.); (C.M.F.)
| | - Rodrigo Maia-Marques
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (E.L.); (P.M.J.); (R.M.-M.); (C.M.F.)
| | - Cristina Maria Fernandes
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (E.L.); (P.M.J.); (R.M.-M.); (C.M.F.)
| | - Catarina Teixeira
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Butantan, Sao Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (E.L.); (P.M.J.); (R.M.-M.); (C.M.F.)
- Correspondence:
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Marques JG, Shokry E, Frivolt K, Werkstetter KJ, Brückner A, Schwerd T, Koletzko S, Koletzko B. Metabolomic Signatures in Pediatric Crohn's Disease Patients with Mild or Quiescent Disease Treated with Partial Enteral Nutrition: A Feasibility Study. SLAS Technol 2021; 26:165-177. [PMID: 33207993 PMCID: PMC7985853 DOI: 10.1177/2472630320969147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the metabolic response of pediatric Crohn's disease (CD) patients to partial enteral nutrition (PEN) therapy and the impact of disease activity and inflammation. We analyzed plasma samples from a nonrandomized controlled intervention study investigating the effect of partial enteral nutrition (PEN) on bone health and growth throughout one year with untargeted metabolomics using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Thirty-four paired samples from two time points (baseline and 12 months) were analyzed. Patients (median age: 13.9 years, range: 7-18.9 years, 44% females) were in remission or had mild disease activity. The intervention group received a casein-based formula for 12 months, providing ~25% of estimated daily energy requirements. Sparse partial least squares discriminant analysis (splsda) was applied for group discrimination and identifying sources of variation to identify the impact of PEN. We also investigated the correlation of metabolites with inflammation markers, including erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C-reactive protein (CRP), and fecal calprotectin. After 12 months, our results show substantial difference between PEN and non-PEN groups in the metabolome of CD patients in remission or with mild disease activity. Inflammatory markers were associated with individual compounds and chemical classes such as isoprenoids and phospholipids. Identified compounds comprise metabolites produced by human or bacterial metabolism, as well as xenobiotics recognized as flavoring agents and environmental contaminants and their biotransformation products. Further longitudinal studies that also include patients with higher disease activity are warranted to evaluate the suitability of these metabolic biomarkers for predicting disease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jair Gonzalez Marques
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Engy Shokry
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Klara Frivolt
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
- Department of Paediatrics, Comenius University Medical School, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Katharina Julia Werkstetter
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Annecarin Brückner
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Tobias Schwerd
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sibylle Koletzko
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
- Department of Pediatrics, Gastroenterology and Nutrition, School of Medicine Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Berthold Koletzko
- Department of Pediatrics, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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Markovic M, Ben-Shabat S, Dahan A. Prodrugs for Improved Drug Delivery: Lessons Learned from Recently Developed and Marketed Products. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12111031. [PMID: 33137942 PMCID: PMC7692606 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12111031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 10/18/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Prodrugs are bioreversible, inactive drug derivatives, which have the ability to convert into a parent drug in the body. In the past, prodrugs were used as a last option; however, nowadays, prodrugs are considered already in the early stages of drug development. Optimal prodrug needs to have effective absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) features to be chemically stable, to be selective towards the particular site in the body, and to have appropriate safety. Traditional prodrug approach aims to improve physicochemical/biopharmaceutical drug properties; modern prodrugs also include cellular and molecular parameters to accomplish desired drug effect and site-specificity. Here, we present recently investigated prodrugs, their pharmaceutical and clinical advantages, and challenges facing the overall prodrug development. Given examples illustrate that prodrugs can accomplish appropriate solubility, increase permeability, provide site-specific targeting (i.e., to organs, tissues, enzymes, or transporters), overcome rapid drug metabolism, decrease toxicity, or provide better patient compliance, all with the aim to provide optimal drug therapy and outcome. Overall, the prodrug approach is a powerful tool to decrease the time/costs of developing new drug entities and improve overall drug therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Arik Dahan
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-8-6479483; Fax: +972-8-6479303
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Ahmedy OA, Ibrahim SM, Salem HH, Kandil EA. Antiulcerogenic effect of melittin via mitigating TLR4/TRAF6 mediated NF-κB and p38MAPK pathways in acetic acid-induced ulcerative colitis in mice. Chem Biol Interact 2020; 331:109276. [PMID: 33002459 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2020.109276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a chronic disease driven primarily by uncontrolled pervasive inflammatory responses affecting the colon and rectum. Currently available medications carry multiple detrimental adverse effects, which have emphasized the mandatory need for safer and more efficient novel therapeutic alternatives. Melittin is the main constituent of bee venom and exhibits potent anti-inflammatory properties. The antiulcerogenic effect of oral melittin (40 μg/kg) was explored in the current study using the acetic acid-induced colitis model. Increase in body weight and decrease in colon mass index were observed in the melittin group. Microscopically, melittin ameliorated acetic acid-induced histological damage. Melittin administration has efficiently amended the elevated levels of the cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) seen in the colitis group. This was accompanied by inhibition of the upstream signaling molecules, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNF-R)-associated factor (TRAF6), mitogen-activated protein kinase 38 (p38 MAPK), and nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB) in the melittin group. Moreover, treatment with melittin resulted in marked decrease in colonic level of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) together with the enzymes involved in its synthesis, secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Additionally, melittin has attenuated acetic acid-induced oxidative stress as manifested by the significant diminishment in malondialdehyde (MDA) as well as the increase in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels. Therefore, melittin mitigated UC pathogenesis and could be considered as a potent and promising therapeutic alternative for UC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omaima A Ahmedy
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, 11562, Cairo, Egypt.
| | - Sherehan M Ibrahim
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, 11562, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Heba H Salem
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, 11562, Cairo, Egypt; College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Abha, 61441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Esraa A Kandil
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Kasr El-Aini Street, 11562, Cairo, Egypt
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Manda JN, Markovic M, Zimmermann EM, Ben-Shabat S, Dahan A, Aponick A. Phospholipid Cyclosporine Prodrugs Targeted at Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Treatment: Design, Synthesis, and in Vitro Validation. ChemMedChem 2020; 15:1639-1644. [PMID: 32618133 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202000317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Novel phospholipid (PL)-cyclosporine conjugates were prepared and studied as potential prodrugs for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Our approach relies on phospholipase A2 (PLA2 ), which is overexpressed in the inflamed intestinal tissues, as the prodrug activator to potentially release cyclosporine at the site of inflammation. PL-cyclosporine prodrug conjugates with methylene linkers of various lengths between the sn-2 position of the PL and cyclosporine were synthesized and evaluated for in vitro activation. Surprisingly, despite previous work indicating that conjugates with six methylene linkers between the lipid and drug would suffer rapid enzymatic hydrolysis, with cyclosporine this was not observed. However, compounds with longer linkers (n=10, 12 methylene units) display complete release of the drug by PLA2 -catalyzed hydrolysis, thus demonstrating the importance and profound impact of structural fine-tuning. This study represents a proof-of-concept for our hypothesis and a first step towards a truly targeted IBD treatment with cyclosporine that could be administered throughout the GI tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagadeesh Nagendra Manda
- Florida Center for Heterocyclic Compounds & Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Ellen M Zimmermann
- Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32608, USA
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, 84105, Israel
| | - Aaron Aponick
- Florida Center for Heterocyclic Compounds & Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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Li X, Lu C, Yang Y, Yu C, Rao Y. Site-specific targeted drug delivery systems for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 129:110486. [PMID: 32768972 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis and manifests as a complex and dysregulated immune response. To date, there is no cure for IBD; thus, lifelong administration of maintenance drugs is often necessary. Since conventional IBD treatment strategies do not target the sites of inflammation, only limited efficacy is observed with their use. Moreover, the possibility of severe side effects resulting from systemic drug redistribution is high when conventional drug treatments are used. Therefore, a straightforward disease-targeted drug delivery system is desirable. Based on the pathophysiological changes associated with IBD, novel site-specific targeted drug delivery strategies that deliver drugs directly to the inflammation sites can enhance drug accumulation and decrease side effects. This review summarizes novel inflammation targeted delivery systems in the management of IBD. It also discusses the challenges and new perspectives in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Li
- Department of Pharmacology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Chao Lu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Yanyan Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Chaohui Yu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China.
| | - Yuefeng Rao
- Department of Pharmacology, The First Affiliated Hospital, College of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China.
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Novel potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and monitoring of patients with ulcerative colitis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019; 31:1173-1183. [PMID: 31498278 DOI: 10.1097/meg.0000000000001490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Unambiguously, great progress has been achieved in the unraveling of more pathological pathways implicated in the development and progression of ulcerative colitis during the last decades. Novel effective drugs that have augmented the management armamentarium have been developed alongside this growing comprehension of the disease, rendering mucosal healing not only a feasible but the optimal goal of every therapy. Clinical evaluation, colonoscopy and biomarkers are the tools used by practitioners for the diagnosis and assessment of the status of the disease in order to achieve clinical remission and mucosal healing for their patients. Among these tools, colonoscopy is the gold method for the cause but is still an invasive, high-cost procedure with possible adverse events such as perforation. While clinical evaluation entails much subjectivity, biomarkers are objective, easily reproducible, non-invasive, cheap and potent surrogate tools of mucosal inflammation. Unfortunately, the well-established, currently in use serum biomarkers, such as C-reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate and others, do not display sufficiently acceptable sensitivity and specificity rates for the diagnosis of ulcerative colitis and, most importantly, do not represent precisely the mucosal inflammation status of the disease. Therefore, the discovery of new serum biomarkers has been the cause of several studies attempting to discover an "optimal" serum biomarker during the recent years. After thorough research, collection and examination of current data, this review focuses on and selectively presents promising, potential, novel serum biomarkers of ulcerative colitis as they are indicated by studies on the patient over the last years.
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Markovic M, Dahan A, Keinan S, Kurnikov I, Aponick A, Zimmermann EM, Ben-Shabat S. Phospholipid-Based Prodrugs for Colon-Targeted Drug Delivery: Experimental Study and In-Silico Simulations. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11040186. [PMID: 30995772 PMCID: PMC6523355 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11040186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In ulcerative colitis (UC), the inflammation is localized in the colon, and one of the successful strategies for colon-targeting drug delivery is the prodrug approach. In this work, we present a novel phospholipid (PL)-based prodrug approach, as a tool for colonic drug targeting in UC. We aim to use the phospholipase A2 (PLA2), an enzyme that is overexpressed in the inflamed colonic tissues of UC patients, as the PL-prodrug activating enzyme, to accomplish the liberation of the parent drug from the prodrug complex at the specific diseased tissue(s). Different linker lengths between the PL and the drug moiety can dictate the rate of activation by PLA2, and subsequently determine the amount of free drugs at the site of action. The feasibility of this approach was studied with newly synthesized PL-Fmoc (fluorenylmethyloxycarbonyl) conjugates, using Fmoc as a model compound for testing our hypothesis. In vitro incubation with bee venom PLA2 demonstrated that a 7-carbon linker between the PL and Fmoc has higher activation rate than a 5-carbon linker. 4-fold higher colonic expression of PLA2 was demonstrated in colonic mucosa of colitis-induced rats when compared to healthy animals, validating our hypothesis of a colitis-targeting prodrug approach. Next, a novel molecular dynamics (MD) simulation was developed for PL-based prodrugs containing clinically relevant drugs. PL-methotrexate conjugate with 6-carbon linker showed the highest extent of PLA2-mediated activation, whereas shorter linkers were activated to a lower extent. In conclusion, this work demonstrates that for carefully designed PL-drug conjugates, PLA2 overexpression in inflamed colonic tissues can be used as prodrug-activating enzyme and drug targeting strategy, including insights into the activation mechanisms in a PLA2 binding site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
| | - Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
| | | | | | - Aaron Aponick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA.
| | - Ellen M Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA.
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
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Markovic M, Ben-Shabat S, Keinan S, Aponick A, Zimmermann EM, Dahan A. Prospects and Challenges of Phospholipid-Based Prodrugs. Pharmaceutics 2018; 10:pharmaceutics10040210. [PMID: 30388756 PMCID: PMC6321354 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics10040210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, the prodrug approach is used already at the early stages of drug development. Lipidic prodrug approach is a growing field for improving a number of drug properties/delivery/therapy aspects, and can offer solutions for various unmet needs. This approach includes drug moiety bound to the lipid carrier, which can be triglyceride, fatty acids, steroid, or phospholipid (PL). The focus of this article is PL-based prodrugs, which includes a PL carrier covalently bound to the active drug moiety. An overview of relevant physiological lipid processing pathways and absorption barriers is provided, followed by drug delivery/therapeutic application of PL-drug conjugates, as well as computational modeling techniques, and a modern bioinformatics tool that can aid in the optimization of PL conjugates. PL-based prodrugs have increased lipophilicity comparing to the parent drug, and can therefore significantly improve the pharmacokinetic profile and overall bioavailability of the parent drug, join the endogenous lipid processing pathways and therefore accomplish drug targeting, e.g., by lymphatic transport, drug release at specific target site(s), or passing the blood-brain barrier. Moreover, an exciting gateway for treating inflammatory diseases and cancer is presented, by utilizing the PL sn-2 position in the prodrug design, aiming for PLA₂-mediated activation. Overall, a PL-based prodrug approach shows great potential in improving different drug delivery/therapy aspects, and is expected to grow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
| | | | - Aaron Aponick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32603, USA.
| | - Ellen M Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
| | - Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel.
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Dahan A, Markovic M, Keinan S, Kurnikov I, Aponick A, Zimmermann EM, Ben-Shabat S. Computational modeling and in-vitro/in-silico correlation of phospholipid-based prodrugs for targeted drug delivery in inflammatory bowel disease. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2017; 31:1021-1028. [PMID: 29101519 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-017-0079-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Targeting drugs to the inflamed intestinal tissue(s) represents a major advancement in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this work we present a powerful in-silico modeling approach to guide the molecular design of novel prodrugs targeting the enzyme PLA2, which is overexpressed in the inflamed tissues of IBD patients. The prodrug consists of the drug moiety bound to the sn-2 position of phospholipid (PL) through a carbonic linker, aiming to allow PLA2 to release the free drug. The linker length dictates the affinity of the PL-drug conjugate to PLA2, and the optimal linker will enable maximal PLA2-mediated activation. Thermodynamic integration and Weighted Histogram Analysis Method (WHAM)/Umbrella Sampling method were used to compute the changes in PLA2 transition state binding free energy of the prodrug molecule (∆∆Gtr) associated with decreasing/increasing linker length. The simulations revealed that 6-carbons linker is the optimal one, whereas shorter or longer linkers resulted in decreased PLA2-mediated activation. These in-silico results were shown to be in excellent correlation with experimental in-vitro data. Overall, this modern computational approach enables optimization of the molecular design of novel prodrugs, which may allow targeting the free drug specifically to the diseased intestinal tissue of IBD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arik Dahan
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel.
| | - Milica Markovic
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Shahar Keinan
- Cloud Pharmaceuticals Inc., 6 Davis Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Igor Kurnikov
- Cloud Pharmaceuticals Inc., 6 Davis Dr., Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Aaron Aponick
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Ellen M Zimmermann
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
| | - Shimon Ben-Shabat
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, 8410501, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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13
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Phospholipid-drug conjugates as a novel oral drug targeting approach for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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O'Sullivan S, Wang J, Pigott MT, Docherty N, Boyle N, Lis SK, Gilmer JF, Medina C. Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase-9 by a barbiturate-nitrate hybrid ameliorates dextran sulphate sodium-induced colitis: effect on inflammation-related genes. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:512-524. [PMID: 28079248 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is up-regulated in ulcerative colitis and implicated in the pathology of the disease. In this study, we have examined the effects of a barbiturate-based MMP inhibitor incorporating a nitric oxide donor/mimetic group (dinitrate-barbiturate) on the intestinal injury induced by dextran sulphate sodium (DSS). EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH In vivo experiments were carried out using male Wistar rats given 5% DSS ad libitum in drinking water. The dinitrate-barbiturate, non-nitrate equivalent, nitrate side chains alone or vehicle were administered rectally, twice daily. MMP-9 release was measured by gelatin zymography, and analysis of gene expression was carried out using RT-qPCR. TaqMan low density arrays were used to evaluate the expression of 91 inflammatory genes in the rat colon. KEY RESULTS The dinitrate-barbiturate inhibited the induction and activity of MMP-9 during DSS colitis in the rat. This occurred in association with significant reductions in the colitic response to DSS as assessed by an established clinical disease activity index and a pathological colitis grade score. The compound modified expression rates of numerous inflammation-related genes in the colon. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS This study demonstrated the efficacy of the dinitrate-barbiturate in DSS-induced colitis. Therefore, barbiturate-nitrate hybrids may be developed as a promising anti-inflammatory approach to the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane O'Sullivan
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Jun Wang
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Neil Docherty
- Department of Physiology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Noreen Boyle
- Department of Physiology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Samuel Kana Lis
- Department of Physiology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - John F Gilmer
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Carlos Medina
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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El-Meligy RM, Awaad AS, Soliman GA, Bacha AB, Alafeefy AM, Kenawy SA. Prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerative colitis activity and the possible mechanisms of action of some desert plants. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2014; 30:250-8. [PMID: 24811429 DOI: 10.3109/14756366.2014.915394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to evaluate both prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerative colitis activity and the possible mechanism of action of seven desert plant extracts. Seven desert plants from different families; Conyza dioscoridis (L.) Desf. (Asteraceae), Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorpiaceae), Origanum syriacum L. and Salvia lanigera L. (Lamiaceae), Sisymbrium irio L., Solanum nigrum Linn. (Solanaceae) and Solenostemma arghel (Del.) Hayne. (Asclepiadaceae) were separately evaluated at three doses (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) using the acetic acid-induced colitis model. The investigated extracts possessed prophylactic and curative anti-ulcerative colitis activities in a dose-dependent manner, where Salvia lanigera (87.9) and Solenostemma arghel (89.2) were the most effective extracts whereas the dexamesathone produced 68%. These extracts were further investigated for estimation of their mechanism of action. The in vitro potential radical (DPPH) scavenging activities of the investigated extracts were well supported with the reduction of colonic MDA content for both extracts. Suppression of the inflammatory mediator TNF-α and inhibition of both PLA2 and protease enzymes may play an important role in the anti-ulcerative colitis activities. The investigated extracts were safe for use up to 5 g/kg and the total alcohol extracts of Salvia lanigera and Solenostemma arghel (400 mg/kg for 35 d) showed no alteration on liver and kidney functions. Phytochemical screening of the investigated extracts revealed the presence of flavonoids, tannins, unsaturated sterols, and proteins which could be responsible for the activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reham M El-Meligy
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, King Saud University , Riyadh , KSA
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Romero R, Yoon BH, Chaemsaithong P, Cortez J, Park CW, Gonzalez R, Behnke E, Hassan SS, Gotsch F, Yeo L, Chaiworapongsa T. Secreted phospholipase A2 is increased in meconium-stained amniotic fluid of term gestations: potential implications for the genesis of meconium aspiration syndrome. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2014; 27:975-83. [PMID: 24063538 DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2013.847918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Meconium-stained amniotic fluid (MSAF) represents the passage of fetal colonic content into the amniotic cavity. Meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS) is a complication that occurs in a subset of infants with MSAF. Secreted phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) is detected in meconium and is implicated in the development of MAS. The purpose of this study was to determine if sPLA2 concentrations are increased in the amniotic fluid of women in spontaneous labor at term with MSAF. MATERIALS AND METHODS This was a cross-sectional study of patients in spontaneous term labor who underwent amniocentesis (n = 101). The patients were divided into two study groups: (1) MSAF (n = 61) and (2) clear fluid (n = 40). The presence of bacteria and endotoxin as well as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and sPLA2 concentrations in the amniotic fluid were determined. Statistical analyses were performed to test for normality and bivariate analysis. The Spearman correlation coefficient was used to study the relationship between sPLA2 and IL-6 concentrations in the amniotic fluid. RESULTS Patients with MSAF have a higher median sPLA2 concentration (ng/mL) in amniotic fluid than those with clear fluid [1.7 (0.98-2.89) versus 0.3 (0-0.6), p < 0.001]. Among patients with MSAF, those with either microbial invasion of the amniotic cavity (MIAC, defined as presence of bacteria in the amniotic cavity), or bacterial endotoxin had a significantly higher median sPLA2 concentration (ng/mL) in amniotic fluid than those without MIAC or endotoxin [2.4 (1.7-6.0) versus 1.7 (1.3-2.5), p < 0.05]. There was a positive correlation between sPLA2 and IL-6 concentrations in the amniotic fluid (Spearman Rho = 0.3, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION MSAF that contains bacteria or endotoxin has a higher concentration of sPLA2, and this may contribute to induce lung inflammation when meconium is aspirated before birth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Romero
- Perinatology Research Branch, NICHD/NIH/DHHS , Bethesda, MD and Detroit, MI , USA
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Microarray Analyses of Genes Differentially Expressed by Diet (Black Beans and Soy Flour) during Azoxymethane-Induced Colon Carcinogenesis in Rats. J Nutr Metab 2012; 2012:351796. [PMID: 22496968 PMCID: PMC3306975 DOI: 10.1155/2012/351796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that black bean (BB) and soy flour (SF)-based diets inhibit azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colon cancer. The objective of this study was to identify genes altered by carcinogen treatment in normal-appearing colonic mucosa and those attenuated by bean feeding. Ninety-five male F344 rats were fed control (AIN) diets upon arrival. At 4 and 5 weeks, rats were injected with AOM (15 mg/kg) or saline and one week later administered an AIN, BB-, or SF-based diet. Rats were sacrificed after 31 weeks, and microarrays were conducted on RNA isolated from the distal colonic mucosa. AOM treatment induced a number of genes involved in immunity, including several MHC II-associated antigens and innate defense genes (RatNP-3, Lyz2, Pla2g2a). BB- and SF-fed rats exhibited a higher expression of genes involved in energy metabolism and water and sodium absorption and lower expression of innate (RatNP-3, Pla2g2a, Tlr4, Dmbt1) and cell cycle-associated (Cdc2, Ccnb1, Top2a) genes. Genes involved in the extracellular matrix (Col1a1, Fn1) and innate immunity (RatNP-3, Pla2g2a) were induced by AOM in all diets, but to a lower extent in bean-fed animals. This profile suggests beans inhibit colon carcinogenesis by modulating cellular kinetics and reducing inflammation, potentially by preserving mucosal barrier function.
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Kajander K, Myllyluoma E, Kyrönpalo S, Rasmussen M, Sipponen P, Mattila I, Seppänen-Laakso T, Vapaatalo H, Orešič M, Korpela R. Elevated pro-inflammatory and lipotoxic mucosal lipids characterise irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15:6068-74. [PMID: 20027679 PMCID: PMC2797663 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.15.6068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) by comparing the global mucosal metabolic profiles of IBS patients with those of healthy controls.
METHODS: Fifteen IBS patients fulfilling the Rome II criteria, and nine healthy volunteers were included in the study. A combined lipidomics (UPLC/MS) and metabolomics (GC × GC-TOF) approach was used to achieve global metabolic profiles of mucosal biopsies from the ascending colon.
RESULTS: Overall, lipid levels were elevated in patients with IBS. The most significant upregulation was seen for pro-inflammatory lysophosphatidylcholines. Other lipid groups that were significantly upregulated in IBS patients were lipotoxic ceramides, glycosphingolipids, and di- and triacylglycerols. Among the metabolites, the cyclic ester 2(3H)-furanone was almost 14-fold upregulated in IBS patients compared to healthy subjects (P = 0.03).
CONCLUSION: IBS mucosa is characterised by a distinct pro-inflammatory and lipotoxic metabolic profile. Especially, there was an increase in several lipid species such as lysophospholipids and ceramides.
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Babu A, Mauchley D, Meng X, Banerjee AM, Gamboni-Robertson F, Fullerton DA, Weyant MJ. The secretory phospholipase A2 gene is required for gastroesophageal reflux-related changes in murine esophagus. J Gastrointest Surg 2009; 13:2212-8. [PMID: 19672667 DOI: 10.1007/s11605-009-0972-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2009] [Accepted: 07/15/2009] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The initial response of esophageal mucosa to gastroduodenal reflux is inflammation and hyperplasia. Secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) is a known mediator of gut inflammation, and its levels are increased in Barrett's esophagus. We hypothesized that the sPLA(2) gene is required to produce esophageal mucosal hyperplasia in response to gastroduodenal reflux. METHODS C57BL/6 (n = 5) sPLA(2) (-/-) mice and C57BL/6( Cg-Tg(PLA2G2A)703N16 ) mice (n = 4) sPLA(2) (-/+) underwent a side-to-side surgical anastomosis between the duodenum and gastroesophageal junction (DGEA). Control animals [sPLA(2) (-/-) (n = 5), sPLA(2) (-/+) (n = 4)] underwent laparotomy with incision and repair of the esophagus. Tissue was harvested after 4 weeks, and H&E staining was performed to quantify esophageal mucosal thickness. Ki67 and sPLA(2) immunostaining were performed to quantitate differences in cell division and sPLA(2) expression. RESULTS Mice expressing human sPLA(2) had a 2.5-fold increase in thickness of the esophageal mucosa as compared to controls (p = 0.01). A 6.5-fold increase in proliferation (p = 0.02) and a twofold increase in sPLA(2) expression (p = 0.04) were demonstrated in animals exposed to gastroduodenal reflux. CONCLUSIONS The presence of sPLA(2) is necessary for early mucosal hyperplasia produced by exposure of the esophagus to gastroduodenal contents. sPLA(2) expression is upregulated by gastroduodenal reflux, strengthening its role as a critical mediator of early mucosal hyperplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashok Babu
- Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine Aurora, 12631 East 17th Avenue, C310, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
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Braun A, Treede I, Gotthardt D, Tietje A, Zahn A, Ruhwald R, Schoenfeld U, Welsch T, Kienle P, Erben G, Lehmann WD, Fuellekrug J, Stremmel W, Ehehalt R. Alterations of phospholipid concentration and species composition of the intestinal mucus barrier in ulcerative colitis: a clue to pathogenesis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2009; 15:1705-20. [PMID: 19504612 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.20993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phospholipids are essential for the normal function of the intestinal mucus barrier. The objective of this study was to systematically investigate phospholipids in the intestinal mucus of humans suffering from inflammatory bowel diseases, where a barrier defect is strongly supposed to be pathogenetic. METHODS Optimal mucus recovery was first validated in healthy mice and the method was then transferred to the endoscopic acquisition of ileal and colonic mucus from 21 patients with ulcerative colitis (UC), 10 patients with Crohn's disease (CD), and 29 healthy controls. Nano-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) was used to determine phosphatidylcholine (PC), lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), and sphingomyelin (SM) in lipid extracts of mucus specimens. RESULTS Human and rodent mucus contained very similar phospholipid species. In the ileal and colonic mucus from patients suffering from UC, the concentration of PC was highly significantly lower (607 +/- 147 pmol/100 microg protein and 745 +/- 148 pmol/100 microg protein) compared to that of patients with CD (3223 +/- 1519 pmol/100 microg protein and 2450 +/- 431 pmol/100 microg protein) and to controls (3870 +/- 760 pmol/100 microg protein and 2790 +/- 354 pmol/100 microg protein); overall, P = 0.0002 for ileal specimens and P < 0.0001 for colonic specimens. Independent of disease activity, patients suffering from UC showed an increased saturation grade of PC fatty acid residues and a higher LPC-to-PC ratio. CONCLUSIONS The intestinal mucus barrier of patients with UC is significantly altered concerning its phospholipid concentration and species composition. These alterations may be very important for the pathogenesis of this disease and underline new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Braun
- Department of Gastroenterology, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
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Okamoto R, Tsuchiya K, Nemoto Y, Akiyama J, Nakamura T, Kanai T, Watanabe M. Requirement of Notch activation during regeneration of the intestinal epithelia. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009; 296:G23-35. [PMID: 19023031 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.90225.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Notch signaling regulates cell differentiation and proliferation, contributing to the maintenance of diverse tissues including the intestinal epithelia. However, its role in tissue regeneration is less understood. Here, we show that Notch signaling is activated in a greater number of intestinal epithelial cells in the inflamed mucosa of colitis. Inhibition of Notch activation in vivo using a gamma-secretase inhibitor resulted in a severe exacerbation of the colitis attributable to the loss of the regenerative response within the epithelial layer. Activation of Notch supported epithelial regeneration by suppressing goblet cell differentiation, but it also promoted cell proliferation, as shown in in vivo and in vitro studies. By utilizing tetracycline-dependent gene expression and microarray analysis, we identified a novel group of genes that are regulated downstream of Notch1 within intestinal epithelial cells, including PLA2G2A, an antimicrobial peptide secreted by Paneth cells. Finally, we show that these functions of activated Notch1 are present in the mucosa of ulcerative colitis, mediating cell proliferation, goblet cell depletion, and ectopic expression of PLA2G2A, thereby contributing to the regeneration of the damaged epithelia. This study showed the critical involvement of Notch signaling during intestinal tissue regeneration, regulating differentiation, proliferation, and antimicrobial response of the epithelial cells. Thus Notch signaling is a key intracellular molecular pathway for the proper reconstruction of the intestinal epithelia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryuichi Okamoto
- Dept. of Advanced Therapeutics in Gastrointestinal Diseases, Graduate School, Tokyo Medical and Dental Univ., 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8519, Japan
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Secretory phospholipase A2 is required to produce histologic changes associated with gastroduodenal reflux in a murine model. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008; 135:1220-7. [PMID: 18544357 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtcvs.2007.10.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2007] [Revised: 09/14/2007] [Accepted: 10/04/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The earliest response of esophageal mucosa to gastric reflux is the development of oxidative damage and inflammation. These processes contribute to the development of metaplasia known as Barrett's esophagus, as well as the progression to malignancy. Secretory phospholipase A(2) is a mediator of inflammation with levels that are increased in Barrett's metaplasia and carcinoma when compared with levels in normal samples. Our goal is to determine the role of secretory phospholipase A(2) in the development of reflux-associated changes in the esophageal mucosa. METHODS Secretory phospholipase A(2)-deficient mice (C57BL/6, n = 5) and mice known to express high levels of secretory phospholipase A(2) (BALB/c, n = 5) underwent side-to-side surgical anastomosis of the first portion of the duodenum and gastroesophageal junction, allowing exposure of esophageal mucosa to duodenal and gastric contents duodeno-gastroesophageal anastomosis. Control animals (n = 5) of each strain underwent laparotomy with esophagotomy and repair. Tissue was frozen in embedding medium. Hematoxylin and eosin staining and Ki67 and secretory phospholipase A(2) immunohistochemistry were used to evaluate esophageal tissue and its response to duodeno-gastroesophageal anastomosis. RESULTS Immunofluorescent staining confirmed the absence of secretory phospholipase A(2) in C57BL/6 mice and its presence in BALB/c mice. Hematoxylin and eosin staining demonstrated significant thickening of the esophageal mucosa in response to gastroesophageal reflux in the presence of secretory phospholipase A(2). Mice known to express high levels of secretory phospholipase A(2) also demonstrated increased numbers of proliferating cells. Secretory phospholipase A(2)-deficient mice were immune to the early changes induced by mixed reflux. CONCLUSIONS The presence of secretory phospholipase A(2) appears necessary for early histologic changes produced by exposure of the esophagus to gastroduodenal contents. This enzyme is identified as a promising target for evaluation of mechanisms of carcinogenesis and chemoprevention of esophageal carcinoma.
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Kekkonen RA, Sysi-Aho M, Seppänen-Laakso T, Julkunen I, Vapaatalo H, Orešič M, Korpela R. Effect of probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG intervention on global serum lipidomic profiles in healthy adults. World J Gastroenterol 2008; 14:3188-94. [PMID: 18506924 PMCID: PMC2712851 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.14.3188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the effect of three weeks’ intervention with a probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) bacteria on global serum lipidomic profiles and evaluate whether the changes in inflammatory variables (CRP, TNF-α and IL-6) are reflected in the global lipidomic profiles of healthy adults.
METHODS: We performed UPLC/MS-based global lipidomic platform analysis of serum samples (n = 26) in a substudy of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled 3-wk clinical intervention trial investigating the immunomodulatory effects of probiotics in healthy adults.
RESULTS: A total of 407 lipids were identified, corresponding to 13 different lipid classes. Serum samples showed decreases in the levels of lysophosphatidylcholines (LysoGPCho), sphingomyelins (SM) and several glycerophosphatidylcholines (GPCho), while triacylglycerols (TAG) were mainly increased in the probiotic LGG group during the intervention. Among the inflammatory variables, IL-6 was moderately associated by changes in global lipidomic profiles, with the top-ranked lipid associated with IL-6 being the proinflammatory LysoGPCho (20:4). There was a weak association between the lipidomic profiles and the two other inflammatory markers, TNF-α and CRP.
CONCLUSION: This was the first study to investigate the effects of probiotic intervention on global lipidomic profiles in humans. There are indications that probiotic LGG intervention may lead to changes in serum global lipid profiles, as reflected in decreased GPCho, LysoGPCho and SM as well as mainly increased TAG.
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Triggiani M, Granata F, Frattini A, Marone G. Activation of human inflammatory cells by secreted phospholipases A2. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2006; 1761:1289-300. [PMID: 16952481 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2006.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2006] [Revised: 07/07/2006] [Accepted: 07/17/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Secreted phospholipases A(2) (sPLA(2)s) are enzymes detected in serum and biological fluids of patients with various inflammatory, autoimmune and allergic disorders. Different isoforms of sPLA(2)s are expressed and released by human inflammatory cells, such as neutrophils, eosinophils, T cells, monocytes, macrophages and mast cells. sPLA(2)s generate arachidonic acid and lysophospholipids thus contributing to the production of bioactive lipid mediators in inflammatory cells. However, sPLA(2)s also activate human inflammatory cells by mechanisms unrelated to their enzymatic activity. Several human and non-human sPLA(2)s induce degranulation of mast cells, neutrophils and eosinophils and activate exocytosis in macrophages. In addition some, but not all, sPLA(2) isoforms promote cytokine and chemokine production from macrophages, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes and endothelial cells. These effects are primarily mediated by binding of sPLA(2)s to specific membrane targets (heparan sulfate proteoglycans, M-type, N-type or mannose receptors) expressed on effector cells. Thus, sPLA(2)s may play an important role in the initiation and amplification of inflammatory reactions by at least two mechanisms: production of lipid mediators and direct activation of inflammatory cells. Selective inhibitors of sPLA(2)-enzymatic activity and specific antagonists of sPLA(2) receptors are current being tested for pharmacological treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Triggiani
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, Center for Basic and Clinical Immunology Research (CISI), University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Via Pansini 5, Italy.
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Woodruff TM, Arumugam TV, Shiels IA, Newman ML, Ross PA, Reid RC, Fairlie DP, Taylor SM. A potent and selective inhibitor of group IIa secretory phospholipase A2 protects rats from TNBS-induced colitis. Int Immunopharmacol 2005; 5:883-92. [PMID: 15778124 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2005.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2004] [Revised: 12/30/2004] [Accepted: 01/17/2005] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)) enzymes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of human inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). In this study we compared the efficacy of a potent, new and highly selective inhibitor of group IIa human sPLA(2) enzyme (5-(4-benzyloxyphenyl)-4S-(7-phenylheptanoylamino)-pentanoic acid; sPLA(2)I), with that of sulfasalazine, in a rat model of trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis. Following a single oral dose of sPLA(2)I (5 mg/kg), pharmacoactive levels of drug were detected in the serum within 15 min and for up to 24 h by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis. Rats treated with sPLA(2)I (5 mg/kg/day) prior to induction of colitis were significantly healthier than TNBS-alone rats, as shown by reduced mortality, improved food intake and increased body weight, and significantly reduced colon myeloperoxidase levels, edema, tumour necrosis factor-alpha levels, and colon macroscopic pathology scores after 8 days. Rats pretreated with sulfasalazine (100 mg/kg/day) also had reduced disease expression markers similar to the sPLA(2)I, but exhibited no improvement in colon edema. This study supports a role for the group IIa sPLA(2) enzyme in pathology associated with the TNBS rat model of IBD, and suggests a possible therapeutic application for selective inhibitors of group IIa sPLA(2) inhibitors in the treatment of IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
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Takabatake N, Sata M, Inoue S, Shibata Y, Abe S, Wada T, Machiya JI, Ji G, Matsuura T, Takeishi Y, Muramatsu M, Kubota I. A novel polymorphism in secretory phospholipase A2-IID is associated with body weight loss in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 172:1097-104. [PMID: 16002569 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200503-319oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Chronic and systemic inflammation, a potential cause of body weight loss in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), may be associated with the proinflammatory properties of secretory phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s), especially the group II subfamily sPLA2s. OBJECTIVES We tested our hypothesis that the individual susceptibility to body weight loss in patients with COPD is attributed to the genetic variances of this sPLA2 gene region. METHODS A total of 12 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) encompassing the sPLA2 gene region were determined in 276 male patients with COPD. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS We first analyzed our patients whose body mass index (BMI) was at the bottom 100 (BMI, 17.13 +/- 1.29 kg/m2) and at the top 100 (23.83 +/- 1.98) in relation to SNPs. Both the Fisher's exact test (odds ratio, 2.36; 95% confidence interval, 1.34-4.18; p = 0.004) and logistic regression analysis (odds ratio, 2.10; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-3.90; p = 0.019) showed statistical significance between one SNP (National Center for Biotechnology Information SNP reference: rs584367) and the reduction of BMI in the recessive model in patients with COPD. Using all the patients, a significant difference between the values of BMI (log transformed) of the mutant group (CT + TT) and that of the nonmutant group (CC) of this SNP (mean [SE], 1.293 [0.005] vs. 1.317 [0.006]; p = 0.003) was found after adjustment for age, smoking habit, and pulmonary function (analysis of covariance). Importantly, this SNP caused a change in amino acids in sPLA2-IID protein (Gly80Ser). CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that sPLA2-IID may be one of the susceptibility genes that contribute to body weight loss in patients with COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noriaki Takabatake
- First Department of Internal Medicine, Yamagata University School of Medicine, 2-2-2, Iida-Nishi, Yamagata 990-9585, Japan
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Granata F, Petraroli A, Boilard E, Bezzine S, Bollinger J, Del Vecchio L, Gelb MH, Lambeau G, Marone G, Triggiani M. Activation of Cytokine Production by Secreted Phospholipase A2 in Human Lung Macrophages Expressing the M-Type Receptor. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 174:464-74. [PMID: 15611272 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.1.464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Secreted phospholipases A(2) (sPLA(2)) are enzymes released in plasma and extracellular fluids during inflammatory diseases. Because human group IB and X sPLA(2)s are expressed in the lung, we examined their effects on primary human lung macrophages (HLM). Both sPLA(2)s induced TNF-alpha and IL-6 release in a concentration-dependent manner by increasing their mRNA expression. This effect was independent of their enzymatic activity because 1) the capacity of sPLA(2)s to mobilize arachidonic acid from HLM was unrelated to their ability to induce cytokine production; and 2) two catalytically inactive isoforms of group IB sPLA(2) (bromophenacyl bromide-inactivated human sPLA(2) and the H48Q mutant of the porcine sPLA(2)) were as effective as the catalytically active sPLA(2)s in inducing cytokine production. HLM expressed the M-type receptor for sPLA(2)s at both mRNA and protein levels, as determined by RT-PCR, immunoblotting, immunoprecipitation, and flow cytometry. Me-indoxam, which decreases sPLA(2) activity as well as binding to the M-type receptor, suppressed sPLA(2)-induced cytokine production. Incubation of HLM with the sPLA(2)s was associated with phosphorylation of ERK1/2, and a specific inhibitor of this pathway, PD98059, significantly reduced the production of IL-6 elicited by sPLA(2)s. In conclusion, two distinct sPLA(2)s produced in the human lung stimulate cytokine production by HLM via a mechanism that is independent of their enzymatic activity and involves activation of the ERK1/2 pathway. HLM express the M-type receptor, but its involvement in eliciting cytokine production deserves further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francescopaolo Granata
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, University of Naples Federico II, Via S. Pansini 5, 80131 Naples, Italy
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Granata F, Balestrieri B, Petraroli A, Giannattasio G, Marone G, Triggiani M. Secretory phospholipases A2 as multivalent mediators of inflammatory and allergic disorders. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2003; 131:153-63. [PMID: 12876405 DOI: 10.1159/000071481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2)s) are enzymes responsible for mobilization of fatty acids, including arachidonic acid (AA), from phospholipids. These enzymes are classified as high-molecular-weight cytosolic PLA(2)s (cPLA(2)s) and low-molecular-weight secretory PLA(2)s (sPLA(2)s). There is increasing evidence that large quantities of sPLA(2)s are released in the plasma of patients with systemic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. In addition, high levels of sPLA(2)s can be detected at sites of allergic inflammation including the upper airways of patients with rhinitis and the lower airways of patients with asthma. These extracellular enzymes play an important role in inflammation by releasing AA, which can be subsequently converted to proinflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. Generation of AA mediated by sPLA(2)s occurs through different mechanisms, including (1) the direct hydrolysis of outer cell membrane phospholipids, (2) internalization and transfer of sPLA(2)s to intracellular pools of phospholipids enriched in AA, and (3) activation of cPLA(2)s. In addition, sPLA(2)s induce degranulation and production of cytokines and chemokines from a variety of cells involved in inflammatory and immune responses. These effects are exerted by mechanisms that are independent of the enzymatic activity and are mediated by the interaction of sPLA(2)s with specific or promiscuous membrane receptors. Therefore, sPLA(2)s may have an important role in inflammatory and allergic reactions by activating multiple mechanisms within inflammatory and immune cells, leading to the production of eicosanoids, cytokines and chemokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francescopaolo Granata
- Division of Clinical Immunology and Allergy, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Nevalainen TJ, Haapamäki MM, Grönroos JM. Roles of secretory phospholipases A(2) in inflammatory diseases and trauma. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2000; 1488:83-90. [PMID: 11080679 DOI: 10.1016/s1388-1981(00)00112-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Six distinct secretory small molecular weight phospholipases A(2) (PLA(2)) have been cloned and characterized from human tissues. Two of them, pancreatic group IB PLA(2) (PLA(2)-IB) and synovial-type group IIA PLA(2) (PLA(2)-IIA) have been studied as to their association to various inflammatory diseases. PLA(2)-IB is a digestive enzyme synthesized by pancreatic acinar cells. In acute pancreatitis, which is characterized by destruction of pancreatic tissue, PLA(2)-IB is released into the circulation, but its role in pancreatic and other tissue damage is still hypothetical. The concentration of PLA(2)-IIA increases in blood plasma in generalized inflammatory response resulting from infections, chronic inflammatory diseases, acute pancreatitis, trauma and surgical operations. PLA(2)-IIA is synthesized in a number of gland cells and is present in cellular secretions on mucosal surfaces including Paneth cells of intestinal mucosa, prostatic gland cells and seminal plasma, and lacrimal glands and tears. PLA(2)-IIA is expressed in hepatoma-derived cells in vitro and hepatocytes in vivo. PLA(2)-IIA is regarded as an acute phase protein and seems to function as an antibacterial agent especially effective against Gram-positive bacteria. Other putative functions in the inflammatory reaction include hydrolysis of cell membrane phospholipids and release of arachidonic acid for prostanoid synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Nevalainen
- Department of Pathology, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Finland.
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Haapamäki MM, Grönroos J, Nurmi H, Irjala K, Peuravuori H, Nevalainen TJ. Serum lysozyme in inflammatory gastric and enteric diseases and in functional dyspepsia. Scand J Gastroenterol 1984; 66:585-93. [PMID: 17101550 DOI: 10.1080/00365510600898263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Serum lysozyme was reevaluated in inflammatory bowel disease and other gastrointestinal disorders. A total of 109 patients were divided into six groups: ulcerative colitis (28), Crohn's disease (9), simple atrophic gastritis (16), atrophic gastritis and pernicious anemia (23), functional dyspepsia (17), and controls (16). Elevated levels of lysozyme, compared with control levels, were found not only in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease but also in atrophic gastritis with or without pernicious anemia and in functional dyspepsia. The elevation of lysozyme, since it results from the product of granulocytes and macrophages present in increased amounts in the mucosa of inflammatory bowel diseases, is easily explained. The cellular infiltration in atrophic gastritis may also explain the elevated lysozyme levels. The higher lysozyme levels in some patients with functional dyspepsia could possibly reflect an underlying latent inflammatory process.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Haapamäki
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Surgery, Umeå University Hospital, Umeå, Sweden.
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