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Tupertsev B, Osipenko S, Kireev A, Nikolaev E, Kostyukevich Y. Simple In Vitro 18O Labeling for Improved Mass Spectrometry-Based Drug Metabolites Identification: Deep Drug Metabolism Study. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054569. [PMID: 36902002 PMCID: PMC10002766 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The identification of drug metabolites formed with different in vitro systems by HPLC-MS is a standard step in preclinical research. In vitro systems allow modeling of real metabolic pathways of a drug candidate. Despite the emergence of various software and databases, identification of compounds is still a complex task. Measurement of the accurate mass, correlation of chromatographic retention times and fragmentation spectra are often insufficient for identification of compounds especially in the absence of reference materials. Metabolites can "slip under the nose", since it is often not possible to reliably confirm that a signal belongs to a metabolite and not to other compounds in complex systems. Isotope labeling has proved to be a tool that aids in small molecule identification. The introduction of heavy isotopes is done with isotope exchange reactions or with complicated synthetic schemes. Here, we present an approach based on the biocatalytic insertion of oxygen-18 isotope under the action of liver microsomes enzymes in the presence of 18O2. Using the local anesthetic bupivacaine as an example, more than 20 previously unknown metabolites were reliably discovered and annotated in the absence of the reference materials. In combination with high-resolution mass spectrometry and modern methods of mass spectrometric metabolism data processing, we demonstrated the ability of the proposed approach to increase the degree of confidence in interpretating metabolism data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Tupertsev
- Center of Molecular and Cellular Biology (CMCB), Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Nobel Str., 3, 121205 Moscow, Russia
- Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Phystech School of Biological and Medical Physics, Institutskiy per., 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey Osipenko
- Center for Computational and Data-Intensive Science and Engineering, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Nobel Str., 3, 121205 Moscow, Russia
| | - Albert Kireev
- Center of Molecular and Cellular Biology (CMCB), Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Nobel Str., 3, 121205 Moscow, Russia
| | - Eugene Nikolaev
- Center of Molecular and Cellular Biology (CMCB), Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Nobel Str., 3, 121205 Moscow, Russia
| | - Yury Kostyukevich
- Center of Molecular and Cellular Biology (CMCB), Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Nobel Str., 3, 121205 Moscow, Russia
- Correspondence:
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Martin S, Lenz EM, Smith R, Temesi DG, Orton AL, Clench MR. Methanol adducts leading to the identification of a reactive aldehyde metabolite of CPAQOP in human liver microsomes by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2017; 31:145-151. [PMID: 27943491 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The incubation of CPAQOP (1-[(2R)-2-[[4-[3-chloro-4-(2-pyridyloxy)anilino]quinazolin-5-yl]oxymethyl]-1-piperidyl]-2-hydroxy) with human liver microsomes generated several metabolites that highlighted the hydroxyacetamide side chain was a major site of metabolism for the molecule. The metabolites were derived predominantly from oxidative biotransformations; however, two unexpected products were detected by liquid chromatography/ultraviolet/mass spectrometry (LC/UV/MS) and identified as methanol adducts. This observation prompted further LC/MS investigations into their formation. METHODS Three separate incubations of CPAQOP were conducted in human liver microsomes; Naïve, fortified with methoxyamine and fortified with glutathione. Separation was achieved via ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with either methanol or acetonitrile gradients containing formic acid. MS analysis was conducted by electrospray ionisation LTQ Orbitrap mass spectrometry acquiring accurate mass full scan, data-dependent MS2 and all ion fragmentation. RESULTS No methanol adducts were detected by MS when acetonitrile was used in the mobile phase instead of methanol, verifying that a metabolite was reacting with methanol on column. Although this reactive metabolite could not be isolated or structurally characterised by LC/MS directly, product ion spectra of the methanol adducts confirmed addition of methanol on the hydroxyacetamide side chain. Additional experiments using methoxyamine showed the disappearance of the two methanol adducts and appearance of a methoxyamine adduct, confirming the presence of an aldhyde. Product ion spectra of the methoxyamine adduct confirmed addition of methoxyamine to the hydroxyacetamide side chain. CONCLUSIONS The proposed bioactivation of CPAQOP occurred via the reactive aldehyde intermediate, which readily reacted with methanol in the mobile phase to form a pair of isomeric hemiacetal methanol adducts. In acidified methanol the equilibrium favoured the methanol adduct and in acidified acetonitrile it favoured the hydrate; therefore, the reactive aldehyde metabolite was not detected and could not be structurally characterised directly. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Martin
- Oncology iMED, Hodgkin Building, Chesterford Science Park, AstraZeneca UK Ltd., Saffron Walden, Essex, CB10 1XL, UK
| | - Eva M Lenz
- Oncology iMED, Hodgkin Building, Chesterford Science Park, AstraZeneca UK Ltd., Saffron Walden, Essex, CB10 1XL, UK
| | - Robin Smith
- Oncology iMED, Alderley Park, AstraZeneca UK Ltd., Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TG, UK
| | - David G Temesi
- Oncology iMED, Alderley Park, AstraZeneca UK Ltd., Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 4TG, UK
- (DGT) Recipharm, Vale of Bardsley, Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancashire, OL7 9RR, UK
| | - Alexandra L Orton
- Oncology iMED, Hodgkin Building, Chesterford Science Park, AstraZeneca UK Ltd., Saffron Walden, Essex, CB10 1XL, UK
| | - Malcolm R Clench
- Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Howard Street, Sheffield, S1 1WB, UK
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Comparison of trapping profiles between d-peptides and glutathione in the identification of reactive metabolites. Toxicol Rep 2015; 2:1024-1032. [PMID: 28962444 PMCID: PMC5598498 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2015.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 07/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Qualitative trapping profile of reactive metabolites arising from six structurally different compounds was tested with three different d-peptide isomers (Peptide 1, gly–tyr–pro–cys–pro–his-pro; Peptide 2, gly–tyr–pro–ala–pro–his–pro; Peptide 3, gly–tyr–arg–pro–cys–pro–his–lys–pro) and glutathione (GSH) using mouse and human liver microsomes as the biocatalyst. The test compounds were classified either as clinically “safe” (amlodipine, caffeine, ibuprofen), or clinically as “risky” (clozapine, nimesulide, ticlopidine; i.e., associated with severe clinical toxicity outcomes). Our working hypothesis was as follows: could the use of short different amino acid sequence containing d-peptides in adduct detection confer any add-on value to that obtained with GSH? All “risky” agents’ resulted in the formation of several GSH adducts in the incubation mixture and with at least one peptide adduct with both microsomal preparations. Amlodipine did not form any adducts with any of the trapping agents. No GSH and peptide 2 and 3 adducts were found with caffeine, but with peptide 1 one adduct with human liver microsomes was detected. Ibuprofen produced one Peptide 1-adduct with human and mouse liver microsomes but not with GSH. In conclusion, GSH still remains the gold trapping standard for reactive metabolites. However, targeted d-peptides could provide additional information about protein binding potential of electrophilic agents, but their clinical significance needs to be clarified using a wider spectrum of chemicals together with other safety estimates.
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Laine JE, Auriola S, Pasanen M, Juvonen RO. d-Isomer of gly-tyr-pro-cys-pro-his-pro peptide: A novel and sensitive in vitro trapping agent to detect reactive metabolites by electrospray mass spectrometry. Toxicol In Vitro 2011; 25:411-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2010] [Revised: 07/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Hong H, Caceres-Cortes J, Su H, Huang X, Roongta V, Bonacorsi S, Hong Y, Tian Y, Iyer RA, Humphreys WG, Christopher LJ. Mechanistic Studies on a P450-Mediated Rearrangement of BMS-690514: Conversion of a Pyrrolotriazine to a Hydroxypyridotriazine. Chem Res Toxicol 2010; 24:125-34. [DOI: 10.1021/tx100337s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Haizheng Hong
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Janet Caceres-Cortes
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Hong Su
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Xiaohua Huang
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Vikram Roongta
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Samuel Bonacorsi
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Yang Hong
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Yuan Tian
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Ramaswamy A. Iyer
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - W. Griffith Humphreys
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
| | - Lisa J. Christopher
- Departments of Pharmaceutical Candidate Optimization and Radiochemistry, Bristol-Myers Squibb Research, Princeton, New Jersey 08543, United States
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Siméon FG, Wendahl MT, Pike VW. The [F]2-Fluoro-1,3-thiazolyl Moiety - an Easily-Accessible Structural Motif for Prospective Molecular Imaging Radiotracers. Tetrahedron Lett 2010; 51:6034-6036. [PMID: 21057601 DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2010.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
2-Fluoro-1,3-thiazoles were rapidly and efficiently labeled with no-carrier-added fluorine-18 (t(1/2) = 109.7 min) by treatment of readily prepared 2-halo precursors with cyclotron-produced [(18)F]fluoride ion. The [(18)F]2-fluoro-1,3-thiazolyl moiety constitutes a new and easily-labeled structural motif for prospective molecular imaging radiotracers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrice G Siméon
- Molecular Imaging Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Building 10, Rm. B3 C346A, 10 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-1003, USA
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Kulkarni SS, Zou MF, Cao J, Deschamps JR, Rodriguez AL, Conn PJ, Newman AH. Structure-activity relationships comparing N-(6-methylpyridin-yl)-substituted aryl amides to 2-methyl-6-(substituted-arylethynyl)pyridines or 2-methyl-4-(substituted-arylethynyl)thiazoles as novel metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 antagonists. J Med Chem 2009; 52:3563-75. [PMID: 19445453 DOI: 10.1021/jm900172f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 (mGluR5) has been implicated in anxiety, depression, pain, mental retardation, and addiction. The potent and selective noncompetitive mGluR5 antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP, 1) has been a critically important tool used to further elucidate the role of mGluR5 in these CNS disorders. In an effort to provide novel and structurally diverse selective mGluR5 antagonists, we previously described a set of analogues with moderate activity wherein the alkyne bond was replaced with an amide group. In the present report, extended series of both amide and alkyne-based ligands were synthesized. MGluR5 binding and functional data were obtained that identified (1) several novel alkynes with comparable affinities to 1 at mGluR5 (e.g., 10 and 20-23), but (2) most structural variations to the amide template were not well tolerated, although a few potent amides were discovered (e.g., 55 and 56). Several of these novel analogues show drug-like physical properties (e.g., cLogP range = 2-5) that support their use for in vivo investigation into the role of mGluR5 in CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh S Kulkarni
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse-Intramural Research Program, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Shetty HU, Zoghbi SS, Siméon FG, Liow JS, Brown AK, Kannan P, Innis RB, Pike VW. Radiodefluorination of 3-fluoro-5-(2-(2-[18F](fluoromethyl)-thiazol-4-yl)ethynyl)benzonitrile ([18F]SP203), a radioligand for imaging brain metabotropic glutamate subtype-5 receptors with positron emission tomography, occurs by glutathionylation in rat brain. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2008; 327:727-35. [PMID: 18806125 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.108.143347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabotropic glutamate subtype-5 receptors (mGluR5) are implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders. Positron emission tomography (PET) with a suitable radioligand may enable monitoring of regional brain mGluR5 density before and during treatments. We have developed a new radioligand, 3-fluoro-5-(2-(2-[(18)F](fluoromethyl)thiazol-4-yl)ethynyl)benzonitrile ([(18)F]SP203), for imaging brain mGluR5 in monkey and human. In monkey, radioactivity was observed in bone, showing release of [(18)F]-fluoride ion from [(18)F]SP203. This defluorination was not inhibited by disulfiram, a potent inhibitor of CYP2E1. PET confirmed bone uptake of radioactivity and therefore defluorination of [(18)F]SP203 in rats. To understand the biochemical basis for defluorination, we administered [(18)F]SP203 plus SP203 in rats for ex vivo analysis of metabolites. Radio-high-performance liquid chromatography detected [(18)F]fluoride ion as a major radiometabolite in both brain extract and urine. Incubation of [(18)F]SP203 with brain homogenate also generated this radiometabolite, whereas no metabolism was detected in whole blood in vitro. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the brain extract detected m/z 548 and 404 ions, assignable to the [M + H](+) of S-glutathione (SP203Glu) and N-acetyl-S-l-cysteine (SP203Nac) conjugates of SP203, respectively. In urine, only the [M + H](+) of SP203Nac was detected. Mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry and multi-stage mass spectrometry analyses of each metabolite yielded product ions consistent with its proposed structure, including the former fluoromethyl group as the site of conjugation. Metabolite structures were confirmed by similar analyses of SP203Glu and SP203Nac, prepared by glutathione S-transferase reaction and chemical synthesis, respectively. Thus, glutathionylation at the 2-fluoromethyl group is responsible for the radiodefluorination of [(18)F]SP203 in rat. This study provides the first demonstration of glutathione-promoted radiodefluorination of a PET radioligand.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Umesha Shetty
- Molecular Imaging Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1003, USA.
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Kalgutkar AS, Driscoll J, Zhao SX, Walker GS, Shepard RM, Soglia JR, Atherton J, Yu L, Mutlib AE, Munchhof MJ, Reiter LA, Jones CS, Doty JL, Trevena KA, Shaffer CL, Ripp SL. A Rational Chemical Intervention Strategy To Circumvent Bioactivation Liabilities Associated with a Nonpeptidyl Thrombopoietin Receptor Agonist Containing a 2-Amino-4-arylthiazole Motif. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:1954-65. [DOI: 10.1021/tx700270r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amit S. Kalgutkar
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - James Driscoll
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Sabrina X. Zhao
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Gregory S. Walker
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Richard M. Shepard
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - John R. Soglia
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - James Atherton
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Linning Yu
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Abdul E. Mutlib
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Michael J. Munchhof
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Lawrence A. Reiter
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Christopher S. Jones
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Johnathan L. Doty
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Kristen A. Trevena
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Christopher L. Shaffer
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
| | - Sharon L. Ripp
- Pharmacokinetics, Dynamics and Metabolism Department, Pfizer Global Research and Development, Groton, Connecticut 06340, and Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
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Lea PM, Faden AI. Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 antagonists MPEP and MTEP. CNS DRUG REVIEWS 2006; 12:149-66. [PMID: 16958988 PMCID: PMC6494124 DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2006.00149.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate regulates the function of central nervous system (CNS), in part, through the cAMP and/or IP3/DAG second messenger-associated metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). The mGluR5 antagonist 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)-pyridine (MPEP) has been extensively used to elucidate potential physiological and pathophysiological functions of mGluR5. Unfortunately, recent evidence indicates significant non-specific actions of MPEP, including inhibition of NMDA receptors. In contrast, in vivo and in vitro characterization of the newer mGluR5 antagonist 3-[(2-methyl-1,3-thiazol-4-yl)ethynyl]pyridine (MTEP) indicates that it is more highly selective for mGluR5 over mGluR1, has no effect on other mGluR subtypes, and has fewer off-target effects than MPEP. This article reviews literature on both of these mGluR5 antagonists, which suggests their possible utility in neurodegeneration, addiction, anxiety and pain management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan I. Faden
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
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Kulkarni SS, Nightingale B, Dersch CM, Rothman RB, Newman AH. Design and synthesis of noncompetitive metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 5 antagonists. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2006; 16:3371-5. [PMID: 16678408 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2006.04.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2006] [Revised: 04/05/2006] [Accepted: 04/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A series of diaryl amides was designed and synthesized as novel nonethynyl mGluR5 antagonists. The systematic variation of the pharmacophoric groups led to the identification of a lead compound that demonstrated micromolar affinity for the mGluR5. Further optimization resulted in compounds with improved binding affinities and antagonist profiles, in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh S Kulkarni
- Medicinal Chemistry Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, NIH, DHHS, 5500 Nathan Shock Drive, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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