Antiproliferative Effect of Vine Stem Extract from Spatholobus Suberectus Dunn on Rat C6 Glioma Cells Through Regulation of ROS, Mitochondrial Depolarization, and P21 Protein Expression

Spatholobi caulis: A systematic review of its traditional uses, chemical constituents, biological activities and clinical applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Spatholobi caulis (SC), the dried vine stem of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn, is known as Ji Xue Teng in China, and has long been used as traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) to treat anaemia, menstrual abnormalities, rheumatoid arthritis, purpura, etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: The aim of this review is to provide a systematic and updated summary of the traditional uses, chemical constituents, biological activities and clinical applications of SC. In addition, several suggestions for future research on SC are also proposed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Extensive information and data on SC were obtained from electronic databases (ScienceDirect, Web of Science, PubMed, CNKI, Baidu Scholar, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, SpringerLink and Wiley Online). Additional information was collected from Ph.D. and MSc dissertations, published books, and classic material medica.

RESULTS

To date, phytochemical studies have revealed that approximately 243 chemical ingredients have been isolated from SC and identified, including flavonoids, glycosides, phenolic acids, phenylpropanoids, volatile oils, sesquiterpenoids and other compounds. Many studies have indicated that extracts and pure constituents from SC possess a wide spectrum of in vitro and in vivo pharmacological effects, such as anti-tumour, haematopoietic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, antiviral and antibacterial effects, as well as other activities. SC could be applied to the treatment of leukopenia, aplastic anemic, endometriosis, etc. according to the clinical reports. The traditional efficacies of SC is due to the biological functions of its chemical compounds, especially flavonoids. However, research investigating the toxicological effects of SC is relatively limited.

CONCLUSIONS

SC is widely used in TCM formulae and its some traditional efficacies has been confirmed by extensive recent pharmacological and clinical studies. Most the biological activities of the SC may be attributed to flavonoids. However, in-depth studies on the molecular mechanisms of the effective ingredients and extracts of SC are limited. Further systematic studies focusing on pharmacokinetics, toxicology and quality control are needed to ensure the effective and safe application of SC.

Spatholobus suberectus inhibits lipogenesis and tumorigenesis in triple-negative breast cancer via activation of AMPK-ACC and K-Ras-ERK signaling pathway

Background and aim

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly invasive type of breast cancer with a poor prognosis. Currently, there are no effective management strategies for TNBC. Earlier, our lab reported the percolation of Spatholobus suberectus for the treatment of breast cancer. Lipid metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of cancer. However, the anti-TNBC efficiency of S. suberectus extract and its causal mechanism for preventing lipogenesis have not been fully recognized. Hence, the present study aimed to investigate the inhibitory role of S. suberectus extract on lipogenesis and tumorigenesis in TNBC in vitro and in vivo by activating AMPK-ACC and K-Ras-ERK signaling pathways using lipidomic and metabolomic techniques.

Experimental procedure

Dried stems of S. suberectus extract inhibited lipogenesis and tumorigenesis and promoted fatty acid oxidation as demonstrated by the identification of the metabolites and fatty acid markers using proteomic and metabolomic analysis, qPCR, and Western blot.

Results and conclusion

The results indicated that S. suberectus extract promotes fatty acid oxidation and suppresses lipogenic metabolites and biomarkers, thereby preventing tumorigenesis via the AMPK-ACC and K-Ras-ERK signaling pathways. On the basis of this preclinical evidence, we suggest that this study represents a milestone and complements Chinese medicine. Further studies remain underway in our laboratory to elucidate the active principles of S. suberectus extract. This study suggests that S. suberectus extract could be a promising therapy for TNBC.

A comprehensive review: Botany, phytochemistry, traditional uses, pharmacology, and toxicology of Spatholobus suberectus vine stems

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Spatholobus suberectus vine stem (SSVS) is the dried lianoid stem of the leguminous plant, Spatholobus suberectus Dunn, which is mainly distributed in China and some Southeast Asian countries. Due to its notable effects of promoting blood circulation and tonifying blood, regulating menstruation and relieving pain, this phytomedicine has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for hundreds of years.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review is designed to provide a comprehensive profile of SSVS concerning its botany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology and attempts to provide a scientific basis and future directions for further research and development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Related document information was collected with the help of databases such as the Web of Science, Science Direct, PubMed, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and Flora of China.

RESULTS

SSVS is reported to be traditionally used to treat rheumatic arthralgia, numbness and paralysis, blood deficiency, irregular menstruation and other gynecological diseases. Botanical studies have revealed that there are some confusable varieties in some specific locations with a long history. Additionally, 145 chemical constituents have been isolated and identified from SSVS, including flavonoids, organic acids, terpenoids, lignans, and phenolic glycosides. Pharmacological studies have shown that SSVS has a variety of effects, such as nervous system regulation, and antioxidative, antitumor, antiviral, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects. However, in regard to the absorption-distribution-metabolism-elimination-toxicity (ADMET) of SSVS, few studies have been carried out, and few articles have been published.

CONCLUSION

With a long history of traditional uses, a variety of bioactive phytochemicals and a wide range of definite pharmacological activities, SSVS is believed to have great potential in clinical applications and further research, development and exploitation. The precise action mechanisms, rational quality control and quality markers, and explicit ADMET routes should be highlighted in the future, which might provide effective help to safely, effectively and sustainably use this herbal medicine.

An active fraction from Spatholobus suberectus dunn inhibits the inflammatory response by regulating microglia activation, switching microglia polarization from M1 to M2 and suppressing the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells

Neurodegenerative disorders are known to be associated with neuroinflammation caused by microglia. Therefore, regulation of microglia activation and polarization to inhibit neuroinflammatory reactions seems to hold promise as a therapeutic approach in neurodegenerative disorders. Spatholobus suberectus Dunn (SSD) has been utilized as a traditional Chinese medicine remedy for brain diseases for thousands of years. SSD possesses various pharmacological activities, such as circulation invigoration, neuroprotection, and anti-inflammatory. The objective of this research was to examine the anti-neuroinflammatory effects and molecular mechanisms of an active fraction from SSD (ASSD) in vitro culture BV2 cells, a type of mouse microglia cell line. The inflammatory responses in BV2 cells were induced by stimulating them with 1 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and the effects of ASSD on LPS-stimulated inflammation were monitored. Besides, by using the methods of Western blot, immunofluorescence, and RT-PCR, the mechanisms of ASSD on microglia activation, M1/M2 polarization, and the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway were investigated. Our findings demonstrate that the treatment doses of ASSD neither induce cytotoxicity nor promote the production of inflammatory cytokines. In addition, immunofluorescence analysis show that ASSD inhibited the expression of ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1(Iba1) and inducible nitricoxide synthase (iNOS), and induced arginase 1 (Arg1) expression. Moreover, Western blot analysis indicated that ASSD significantly down-regulated TLR4, MyD88, p-IκB, NF-κB p65, and NF-κB p-p65 protein expression levels. Furthermore, RT-qPCR assay show that ASSD significantly down-regulated iNOS, TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB mRNA expression levels, and up-regulated Arg1 mRNA expression level. According to the findings, ASSD can suppress microglia-mediated inflammatory responses by modulating microglia activation, inducing a shift from M1 to M2 polarization, and inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Ethnopharmacology, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacological Activities of Spatholobus suberectus Vine Stem

Spatholobus suberectus vine stem is an important medicinal material in Chinese, Vietnamese, and Korean traditional medicines. Its decoction has long been used to treat blood disorders, such as anemia and menstrual irregularity, as well as rheumatoid diseases. Previous phytochemical investigations characterized 88 compounds from S suberectus, which mainly belonged to the phenolic class, especially of the flavonoid type. Pharmacological studies showed the beneficial effects of extracts of the plant on the cardiovascular tract, which is ethnopharmacologically relevant to the plant's use in traditional medicine. Besides that, the extracts and isolated compounds also exhibited antimicrobial, anticancer, antiinflammatory, and antioxidant activities. The past study results support the use of S suberectus vine stem in traditional medicine and also revealed new directions of pharmacological effects of this medicinal plant.

A Review of the Pharmacological Potential of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn on Cancer

Spatholobus suberectus Dunn (SSD) has been extensively employed in Traditional Chinese Medicine to treat several ailments. SSD and its active compounds are effective therapeutic agents for treating a variety of diseases with negligible side effects. Therefore, we aimed to investigate its phytochemistry, pharmacology, and potential therapeutic effects exclusively in cancer prevention and treatment. Phytochemical and pharmacological information was collected and arranged in a rational order. SSD has been frequently attributed to having antioxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, hematopoietic, neuroprotective, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties. Evidence has indicated that the bioactive constituents in SSD have attracted increasing scientific attention due to their preventive role in cancers. Further, the present review provides the current information on the health implications of SSD, thus allowing for future clinical trials to explore its restorative benefits. All data of in vitro and animal investigations of SSD, as well as its effect on human health, were obtained from an electronic search and library database. The diverse pharmacological potential of SSD provides an opportunity for preclinical drug discovery, and this comprehensive review strongly indicates that SSD is an excellent anti-tumorigenic agent that modulates or prevents breast cancer.

Genus Spatholobus: a comprehensive review on ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology

Edible medicinal plants are important sources for the development of health beneficial products and drugs. Several species of the genus Spatholobus are considered as medicinal and food homologous plants in various Asian countries for the treatment of menstrual pain, anemia, paralysis, arthralgia, etc. Regarding this genus, mounting investigations on different aspects have been conducted; however, a comprehensive review about these findings is yet to be compiled. Herein, we reviewed the up-to-date information on the botanical description, distribution, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of the Spatholobus species for the first time to support their development potential. Thus far, 175 phytochemicals have been isolated, and flavonoids are the predominant constituents. Furthermore, 141 compounds show the ideal characteristic behavior of a drug-like molecule. Besides, the compounds and crude extracts of this genus have been demonstrated to exert a wide range of in vitro and in vivo bioactivities, such as antitumor activity, antioxidant activity, antiinflammatory activity, antiischemic activity, antimicrobial activity, and neuroprotective activity. Toxicity studies have revealed that Spatholobus species seem to have no apparent toxic effects. Even so, the need for in-depth studies to reveal the scientific connotation of the widely documented traditional actions, the structure-activity relationship of the bioactive compounds, and the systematic toxic reactions are warranted, and also to provide essential evidence for the beneficial use of Spatholobus plants and developing novel health care products and therapeutic drug from this genus.

Network Pharmacology-Based Strategy to Investigate the Anti-Breast Cancer Mechanisms of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn

Spatholobus suberectus Dunn (SSD) possesses potential antitumor activity; however, the mechanism underlying its anti-proliferative effect on breast cancer is unclear. In this study, we explored potential SSD targets for breast cancer treatment through a network pharmacology approach. First, by integrating multiple databases, a total of 16 potential bioactive compounds and 252 targets were screened. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened by analyzing breast cancer gene chip data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus databases. By overlapping drug targets and DEGs, 33 common targets were found; their functions were further analyzed with Gene Ontology and KEGG analysis. A network of 16 compounds and 33 common targets was constructed, from which 10 hub targets were identified using CytoHubba. Based on the KEGG result and network analysis, the 33 common targets were mainly enriched in the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway and PPARγ was identified as the potential target of SSD. Moreover, the 10 hub targets were correlated with prognosis and immune infiltration in breast cancer via bioinformatic analysis. Finally, molecular docking and experiments in vitro further verified the targeting ability and anti-breast cancer activity of SSD. SSD is promising in the treatment of breast cancer; PPARγ may be its potential therapeutic target.

The Antitriple Negative Breast cancer Efficacy of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn on ROS-Induced Noncanonical Inflammasome Pyroptotic Pathway

Breast cancer (BCa) is the leading cause of women's death worldwide; among them, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most troublesome subtypes with easy recurrence and great aggressive properties. Spatholobus suberectus Dunn has been used in the clinic of Chinese society for hundreds of years. Shreds of evidence showed that Spatholobus suberectus Dunn has a favorable outcome in the management of cancer. However, the anti-TNBC efficacy of Spatholobus suberectus Dunn percolation extract (SSP) and its underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated. Hence, the present study is aimed at evaluating the anti-TNBC potential of SSP both in vitro and in vivo, through the cell viability, morphological analysis of MDA-MB-231, LDH release assay, ROS assay, and the tests of GSH aborted pyroptotic noninflammasome signaling pathway. Survival analysis using the KM Plotter and TNM plot database exhibited the inhibition of transcription levels of caspase-4 and 9 related to low relapse-free survival in patients with BCa. Based on the findings, SSP possesses anti-TNBC efficacy that relies on ROS-induced noncanonical inflammasome pyroptosis in cancer cells. In this study, our preclinical evidence is complementary to the preceding clinic of Chinese society; studies on the active principles of SPP remain underway in our laboratory.

Inhibition of EMMPRIN by microRNA-124 suppresses the growth, invasion and tumorigenicity of gliomas

MicroRNAs (miR) are a group of non-coding, small RNAs, 18-20 nucleotides in length, that are frequently involved in the development of a variety of different types of cancer, including glioma, which is a type of severe tumor in the brain. Previous studies reported that miR-124 levels were downregulated in glioma specimens; however, the potential role of miR-124 in glioma currently remains unclear. The present study performed experiments, including dual-luciferase reporter assay (DLRA), MTT assay, transwell assay and flow cytometry, with the aim of elucidating the molecular mechanism of miR-124 in glioma. The results indicated that miR-124 expression was decreased in glioma tissues, accompanied by the increased expression of extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer (EMMPRIN). The expression of EMMPRIN was inhibited by miR-124 transfection. The DLRA results revealed that EMMPRIN directly targets miR-124. Furthermore, upon overexpression of miR-124 in the U87 cells, cell proliferation was significantly inhibited, apoptosis was increased, and cell migration and invasion were decreased. Furthermore, tumor growth was blocked by miR-124 in mice. Based on these results, the present study concluded that miR-124 is critical for amelioration of glioma by targeting EMMPRIN, thereby acting as a tumor suppressor. Thus, miR-124/EMMPRIN constitutes a plausible basis for the treatment of glioma.

Isoliquiritigenin Suppresses EMT-Induced Metastasis in Triple-Negative Breast Cancer through miR-200c/C-JUN/[Formula: see text]-Catenin

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the subtype of breast cancer with more aggressive growth and metastasis and without efficient therapies. Hence, it is worthwhile to search for potential effective drug candidates. According to our previous study, isoliquiritigenin (ISL) exerted a potent anticancer effect on breast cancer proliferation. Its effect on TNBC growth, metastasis and mechanism deserves further investigation. In this study, PCR array screened a significant increase of miR-200c in BT-549 and MDA-MB-231 cells after ISL treatment, and ISH exerted that miR-200c was expressed at a low level in breast cancer tissue of patients. We also found that ISL could up-regulate miR-200c, resulting in the inhibition of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Meanwhile, ISL could inhibit metastasis and tumor growth in nude mice models through the increase of miR-200c. Further study displayed that ISL decreased c-Jun expression through the increase of miR-200c. Interestingly, we also detected that ISL might increase miR-200c expression through the demethylation of miR-200c promoter region. These findings indicated that ISL could be potentially developed as a novel drug candidate for TNBC in microRNA-based cancer therapies.

Review of Natural Compounds for the Management and Prevention of Lymphoma

Lymphoma is a type of blood cancer that can be categorized into two types-Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) and Non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). A total of 509,590 and 79,990 cases of NHL and HL were newly diagnosed in 2018, respectively. Although conventional therapy has stridden forward over recent decades, its adverse effects are still a hurdle to be solved. Thus, to help researchers develop better lymphoma treatment, this study aims to review the systematic anticancer data for natural products and their compounds. A variety of natural products showed anticancerous effects on lymphoma by regulation of intracellular mechanisms including apoptosis as well as cell cycle arrest. As these results shed light on the potential to substitute conventional therapy with natural products, it may become a promising strategy for lymphoma treatment in the near future.

Isoliquiritigenin Derivative Regulates miR-374a/BAX Axis to Suppress Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Tumorigenesis and Development

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a subtype of breast cancer that accounts for the largest proportion of breast cancer-related deaths. Thus, it is imperative to search for novel drug candidates with potent anti-TNBC effects. Recent studies suggest that isoliquiritigenin (ISL) can significantly suppress the growth, migration, and invasion of breast cancer cells. We previously synthesized ISL derivatives and found that 3′,4′,5′,4″-tetramethoxychalcone (TMC) inhibits TNBC cell proliferation to a greater degree than ISL. The present study aimed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the anti-TNBC effects of TMC in vitro and in vivo. We show that TMC significantly inhibits the proliferative, migratory, and invasive abilities of MDA-MB-231 and BT549 cells. TMC induces apoptosis through the upregulation of Bax and downregulation of Bcl-2. PCR arrays demonstrate a significant decrease in miR-374a expression in TNBC cells after 24-h TMC treatment. MiR-374a is overexpressed in TNBC cells and has oncogenic properties. Real-time PCR analysis confirmed that TMC inhibits miR-374a in a dose-dependent manner, and luciferase assays confirmed that BAX is targeted by miR-374a. Further, we show that TMC increases Bax protein and mRNA levels by inhibiting miR-374a. TMC also attenuates TNBC tumor volumes and weights in vivo. These results demonstrate that TMC inhibits TNBC cell proliferation, foci formation, migration, invasion, and tumorigenesis, suggesting its potential to serve as a novel drug for treating TNBC through miR-374a repression.

CDKL5 promotes proliferation, migration, and chemotherapeutic drug resistance of glioma cells via activation of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway

Gliomas, the most prevalent cancer in the central nervous system, are characterized by high morbidity and mortality, emphasizing the need to understand their etiology. Here, we report that cyclin‐dependent kinase‐like 5 (CDKL5) is highly expressed in gliomas, and CDKL5 overexpression promotes invasion, proliferation, migration and drug (β‐lapachone) resistance of glioma cells. In vitro, CDKL5 overexpression enhanced invasion, growth and migration of glioma cells, and stimulated the phosphoinositide 3‐kinase (PI3K)/AKT axis. Furthermore, CDKL5 overexpression in vivo promoted glioma proliferation, whereas CDKL5 knockdown had opposing effects. The effect of CDKL5 on drug resistance was eliminated if the PI3K/AKT axis was suppressed, and cisplatin combined with the PI3K/AKT suppressor XL147 remarkably prohibited proliferation in xenografts overexpressing CDKL5. Collectively, our findings suggest that CDKL5 acts through the PI3K/AKT axis in glioma cells, and indicate a possible role for CDKL5 in glioma therapy.

Dudleya brittonii extract promotes survival rate and M2-like metabolic change in porcine 3D4/31 alveolar macrophages

Objective

Although alveolar macrophages play a key role in the respiratory immunity of livestock, studies on the mechanism of differentiation and survival of alveolar macrophages are lacking. Therefore, we undertook to investigate changes in the lipid metabolism and survival rate, using 3D4/31 macrophages and Dudleya brittonii which has been used as a traditional asthma treatment.

Methods

3D4/31 macrophages were used as the in vitro porcine alveolar macrophages model. The cells were activated by exposure to phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Dudleya brittonii extraction was performed with distilled water. For evaluating the cell survival rate, we performed the water-soluble tetrazolium salt cell viability assay and growth curve analysis. To confirm cell death, cell cycle and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels were measured using flow cytometric analysis by applying fluorescence dye dichlorofluorescein diacetate and propidium iodide. Furthermore, we also evaluated cellular lipid accumulation with oil red O staining, and fatty acid synthesis related genes expression levels using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) with SYBR green dye. Glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, and tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle related gene expression levels were measured using qPCR after exposure to Dudleya brittonii extract (DB) for 12 h.

Results

The ROS production and cell death were induced by PMA treatment, and exposure to DB reduced the PMA induced downregulation of cell survival. The PMA and DB treatments upregulated the lipid accumulation, with corresponding increase in the acetyl-CoA carboxylase alpha, fatty acid synthase mRNA expressions. DB-PMA co-treatment reduced the glycolysis genes expression, but increased the expressions of fatty acid oxidation and TCA cycle genes.

Conclusion

This study provides new insights and directions for further research relating to the immunity of porcine respiratory system, by employing a model based on alveolar macrophages and natural materials.