1
|
Slob W, Zeilmaker MJ, Hoogenveen RT. The Relationship Between Internal and External Dose: Some General Results Based on a Generic Compartmental Model. Toxicol Sci 2020; 177:60-70. [PMID: 32514576 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfaa082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Statements on how the internal-to-external-dose (IED) relationship looks like are often based on qualitative toxicokinetic arguments. For example, the recently proposed kinetically derived maximum dose (KMD) states that the IED relationship must have an inflection point, due to saturation of underlying processes like metabolism or absorption. However, such statements lack a solid quantitative foundation. Therefore, we derived expressions for the IED relationship for a number of scenarios based on a generic compartmental model involving saturation. The scenarios included repeated or single dose, and saturable metabolism or saturable absorption. For some of these scenarios, an explicit expression for the IED relationship can be derived, for others only implicit expressions can be established, which need to be evaluated numerically. The results show that saturable processes will lead to an IED relationship that is nonlinear over the whole dose range, ie, it can be approximated by a linear relationship at the lower end, whereas the approximation will become gradually poorer with increasing doses. The finding that saturation does not lead to an inflection point in the IED relationship, as assumed in the KMD, implies that the KMD is not a valid approach for selecting the top dose in toxicological studies. An additional use of our results is that the derived explicit expressions of the IED relationship can be fitted to IED data, and, possibly, for extrapolation outside the observed dose range.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wout Slob
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), VPZ, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marco J Zeilmaker
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), VPZ, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Rudolf T Hoogenveen
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), VPZ, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Perharič L, Fatur T, Drofenik J. European Union's strategy on endocrine disrupting chemicals and the current position of Slovenia. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol 2016; 67:99-105. [PMID: 27331297 DOI: 10.1515/aiht-2016-67-2728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In view of the European Union regulations 1107/2009 and 528/2012, which say that basic substances in plant protection and biocidal products marketed in the European Union (EU) should not have an inherent capacity to cause endocrine disruption, an initiative was started to define scientific criteria for the identification of endocrine disruptors (EDs). The objectives of the EU strategy on EDs are to protect human health and the environment, to assure the functioning of the market, and to provide clear and coherent criteria for the identification of EDs that could have broad application in the EU legislation. Policy issues were to be addressed by the Ad-hoc group of Commission Services, EU Agencies and Member States established in 2010, whereas the scientific issues were to be addressed by the Endocrine Disruptors Expert Advisory Group (ED EAG), established in 2011. The ED EAG adopted the 2002 World Health Organization (WHO) definition of endocrine disruptor and agreed that for its identification it is necessary to produce convincing evidence of a biologically plausible causal link between an adverse effect and endocrine disrupting mode of action. In 2014, the European Commission proposed four ED identification criteria options and three regulatory options, which are now being assessed for socio-economic, environmental, and health impact. Slovenia supports the establishing of identification criteria and favours option 4, according to which ED identification should be based on the WHO definition with the addition of potency as an element of hazard characterisation. As for regulatory options, Slovenia favours the risk-based rather than hazard-based regulation.
Collapse
|
3
|
Casas M, Nieuwenhuijsen M, Martínez D, Ballester F, Basagaña X, Basterrechea M, Chatzi L, Chevrier C, Eggesbø M, Fernandez MF, Govarts E, Guxens M, Grimalt JO, Hertz-Picciotto I, Iszatt N, Kasper-Sonnenberg M, Kiviranta H, Kogevinas M, Palkovicova L, Ranft U, Schoeters G, Patelarou E, Petersen MS, Torrent M, Trnovec T, Valvi D, Toft GV, Weihe P, Weisglas-Kuperus N, Wilhelm M, Wittsiepe J, Vrijheid M, Bonde JP. Prenatal exposure to PCB-153, p,p'-DDE and birth outcomes in 9000 mother-child pairs: exposure-response relationship and effect modifiers. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2015; 74:23-31. [PMID: 25314142 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2014.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Accepted: 09/13/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Low-level exposure to polychlorinated biphenyl-153 (PCB-153) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p-p'-DDE) can impair fetal growth; however, the exposure-response relationship and effect modifiers of such association are not well established. This study is an extension of an earlier European meta-analysis. Our aim was to explore exposure-response relationship between PCB-153 and p-p'-DDE and birth outcomes; to evaluate whether any no exposure-effect level and susceptible subgroups exist; and to assess the role of maternal gestational weight gain (GWG). We used a pooled dataset of 9377 mother-child pairs enrolled in 14 study populations from 11 European birth cohorts. General additive models were used to evaluate the shape of the relationships between organochlorine compounds and birth outcomes. We observed an inverse linear exposure-response relationship between prenatal exposure to PCB-153 and birth weight [decline of 194g (95% CI -314, -74) per 1μg/L increase in PCB-153]. We showed effects on birth weight over the entire exposure range, including at low levels. This reduction seems to be stronger among children of mothers who were non-Caucasian or had smoked during pregnancy. The most susceptible subgroup was girls whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. After adjusting for absolute GWG or estimated fat mass, a reduction in birth weight was still observed. This study suggests that the association between low-level exposure to PCB-153 and birth weight exists and follows an inverse linear exposure-response relationship with effects even at low levels, and that maternal smoking and ethnicity modify this association.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maribel Casas
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Mark Nieuwenhuijsen
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Martínez
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ferran Ballester
- CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Centre for Public Health Research (CSISP)-FISABIO, Valencia, Spain
| | - Xavier Basagaña
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mikel Basterrechea
- Public Health Division of Gipuzkoa, Basque Government, Spain; Health Research Institute, Biodonostia, San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Leda Chatzi
- Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Greece
| | - Cécile Chevrier
- Inserm, Rennes, France; University of Rennes I, Rennes, France
| | - Merete Eggesbø
- Department of Genes and Environment, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mariana F Fernandez
- CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Centro de Investigación BioMédica, University of Granada, San Cecilio University Hospital, Granada, Spain
| | - Eva Govarts
- Environmental Risk and Health, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Mol, Belgium
| | - Mònica Guxens
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joan O Grimalt
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDÆA-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Irva Hertz-Picciotto
- Department of Public Health Sciences, School of Medicine, University of CA, Davis, USA
| | - Nina Iszatt
- Department of Genes and Environment, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Monika Kasper-Sonnenberg
- Department of Hygiene, Social and Environmental Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Hannu Kiviranta
- Department of Environmental Health, National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Kuopio, Finland
| | - Manolis Kogevinas
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; National School of Public Health, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Ulrich Ranft
- IUF - Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Greet Schoeters
- Environmental Risk and Health, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Mol, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp (UA), Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Evridiki Patelarou
- Department of Social Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, Greece
| | - Maria Skaalum Petersen
- Department of Occupational Medicine and Public Health, Faroese Hospital System, Faroe Islands
| | | | | | - Damaskini Valvi
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Gunnar Vase Toft
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Pál Weihe
- Department of Occupational Medicine and Public Health, Faroese Hospital System, Faroe Islands
| | - Nynke Weisglas-Kuperus
- Erasmus MC Sophia Children's Hospital, University Medical Centre, Department of Pediatrics, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael Wilhelm
- Department of Hygiene, Social and Environmental Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Jürgen Wittsiepe
- Department of Hygiene, Social and Environmental Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
| | - Martine Vrijheid
- Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jens Peter Bonde
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg, Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tang L, Guérard M, Zeller A. Quantitative assessment of the dose-response of alkylating agents in DNA repair proficient and deficient ames tester strains. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2014; 55:15-23. [PMID: 24273186 DOI: 10.1002/em.21825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2013] [Revised: 10/04/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Mutagenic and clastogenic effects of some DNA damaging agents such as methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) and ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS) have been demonstrated to exhibit a nonlinear or even "thresholded" dose-response in vitro and in vivo. DNA repair seems to be mainly responsible for these thresholds. To this end, we assessed several mutagenic alkylators in the Ames test with four different strains of Salmonella typhimurium: the alkyl transferases proficient strain TA1535 (Ogt+/Ada+), as well as the alkyl transferases deficient strains YG7100 (Ogt+/Ada-), YG7104 (Ogt-/Ada+) and YG7108 (Ogt-/Ada-). The known genotoxins EMS, MMS, temozolomide (TMZ), ethylnitrosourea (ENU) and methylnitrosourea (MNU) were tested in as many as 22 concentration levels. Dose-response curves were statistically fitted by the PROAST benchmark dose model and the Lutz-Lutz "hockeystick" model. These dose-response curves suggest efficient DNA-repair for lesions inflicted by all agents in strain TA1535. In the absence of Ogt, Ada is predominantly repairing methylations but not ethylations. It is concluded that the capacity of alkyl-transferases to successfully repair DNA lesions up to certain dose levels contributes to genotoxicity thresholds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leilei Tang
- pRED, Pharma Research and Early Development, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Slob W, Setzer RW. Shape and steepness of toxicological dose-response relationships of continuous endpoints. Crit Rev Toxicol 2013; 44:270-97. [PMID: 24252121 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2013.853726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A re-analysis of a large number of historical dose-response data for continuous endpoints indicates that an exponential or a Hill model with four parameters adequately describes toxicological dose-responses. No exceptions were found for the datasets considered, which related to a wide variety of endpoints and to both in vivo and in vitro studies of various types. For a given endpoint/study type dose-response shapes were found to be homogenous among chemicals in the in vitro studies considered, while a mild among-chemical variation in the steepness parameter seemed to be present in the in vivo studies. Our findings have various practical consequences. For continuous endpoints, model selection in the BMD approach is not a crucial issue. The often applied approach of using constraints on the model parameters to prevent "infinite" slopes at dose zero in fitting a model is not in line with our findings, and appears to be unjustified. Instead, more realistic ranges of parameter values could be derived from re-analyses of large numbers of historical dose-response datasets in the same endpoint and study type, which could be used as parameter constraints in future individual datasets. This approach will be particularly useful for weak datasets (e.g. few doses, much scatter). In addition, this approach may open the way to use fewer animals in future studies. In the discussion, we argue that distinctions between linear, sub/supralinear or thresholded dose-response shapes, based on visual inspection of plots, are not biologically meaningful nor useful for risk assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wout Slob
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM) , Bilthoven , The Netherlands and
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Bergman Å, Andersson AM, Becher G, van den Berg M, Blumberg B, Bjerregaard P, Bornehag CG, Bornman R, Brandt I, Brian JV, Casey SC, Fowler PA, Frouin H, Giudice LC, Iguchi T, Hass U, Jobling S, Juul A, Kidd KA, Kortenkamp A, Lind M, Martin OV, Muir D, Ochieng R, Olea N, Norrgren L, Ropstad E, Ross PS, Rudén C, Scheringer M, Skakkebaek NE, Söder O, Sonnenschein C, Soto A, Swan S, Toppari J, Tyler CR, Vandenberg LN, Vinggaard AM, Wiberg K, Zoeller RT. Science and policy on endocrine disrupters must not be mixed: a reply to a "common sense" intervention by toxicology journal editors. Environ Health 2013; 12:69. [PMID: 23981490 PMCID: PMC3765603 DOI: 10.1186/1476-069x-12-69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 08/07/2013] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The "common sense" intervention by toxicology journal editors regarding proposed European Union endocrine disrupter regulations ignores scientific evidence and well-established principles of chemical risk assessment. In this commentary, endocrine disrupter experts express their concerns about a recently published, and is in our considered opinion inaccurate and factually incorrect, editorial that has appeared in several journals in toxicology. Some of the shortcomings of the editorial are discussed in detail. We call for a better founded scientific debate which may help to overcome a polarisation of views detrimental to reaching a consensus about scientific foundations for endocrine disrupter regulation in the EU.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Åke Bergman
- Department of Materials and Environmental Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Georg Becher
- Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Heloise Frouin
- Institute of Ocean Sciences, Fisheries and Oceans, Sidney, BC, Canada
| | | | - Taisen Iguchi
- National Institute for Basic Biology, Okazaki, Japan
| | - Ulla Hass
- Danish Technical University, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Anders Juul
- Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Karen A Kidd
- University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Leif Norrgren
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Erik Ropstad
- Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo, Norway
| | - Peter S Ross
- Institute of Ocean Sciences, Fisheries and Oceans, Sidney, BC, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Shanna Swan
- School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Karin Wiberg
- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Gollapudi BB, Johnson GE, Hernandez LG, Pottenger LH, Dearfield KL, Jeffrey AM, Julien E, Kim JH, Lovell DP, Macgregor JT, Moore MM, van Benthem J, White PA, Zeiger E, Thybaud V. Quantitative approaches for assessing dose-response relationships in genetic toxicology studies. ENVIRONMENTAL AND MOLECULAR MUTAGENESIS 2013; 54:8-18. [PMID: 22987251 DOI: 10.1002/em.21727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Revised: 07/19/2012] [Accepted: 07/23/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Genetic toxicology studies are required for the safety assessment of chemicals. Data from these studies have historically been interpreted in a qualitative, dichotomous "yes" or "no" manner without analysis of dose-response relationships. This article is based upon the work of an international multi-sector group that examined how quantitative dose-response relationships for in vitro and in vivo genetic toxicology data might be used to improve human risk assessment. The group examined three quantitative approaches for analyzing dose-response curves and deriving point-of-departure (POD) metrics (i.e., the no-observed-genotoxic-effect-level (NOGEL), the threshold effect level (Td), and the benchmark dose (BMD)), using data for the induction of micronuclei and gene mutations by methyl methanesulfonate or ethyl methanesulfonate in vitro and in vivo. These results suggest that the POD descriptors obtained using the different approaches are within the same order of magnitude, with more variability observed for the in vivo assays. The different approaches were found to be complementary as each has advantages and limitations. The results further indicate that the lower confidence limit of a benchmark response rate of 10% (BMDL(10) ) could be considered a satisfactory POD when analyzing genotoxicity data using the BMD approach. The models described permit the identification of POD values that could be combined with mode of action analysis to determine whether exposure(s) below a particular level constitutes a significant human risk. Subsequent analyses will expand the number of substances and endpoints investigated, and continue to evaluate the utility of quantitative approaches for analysis of genetic toxicity dose-response data.
Collapse
|
8
|
Sutter CH, Bodreddigari S, Sutter TR, Carlson EA, Silkworth JB. Analysis of the CYP1A1 mRNA dose-response in human keratinocytes indicates that relative potencies of dioxins, furans, and PCBs are species and congener specific. Toxicol Sci 2010; 118:704-15. [PMID: 20819910 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfq262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Reports indicate that toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) based primarily on rodent data do not accurately predict in vitro human responsiveness to certain dioxin-like chemicals (DLCs). To investigate this in cells responsive to dioxins and relevant to chloracne, normal human epidermal keratinocytes were treated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) and several DLCs, each with a TEF value of 0.1, representing three classes of congeners. We estimated half maximal effective concentration (EC50)-based donor-specific relative potency (REP) values for cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) messenger RNA (mRNA) induction for TCDD, 1,2,3,6,7,8-hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (HxCDD), 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran (TCDF), 1,2,3,6,7,8-hexachlorodibenzofuran (HxCDF), and 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 126). We also determined EC50-based population-level REP values (n = 4) for CYP1A1 mRNA induction for TCDD, HxCDF, and PCB 126. Furthermore, an alternative factor, the relative threshold factor (RTF) based on the low end (threshold) of the dose-response curve, was calculated. Our results demonstrated that HxCDF had a population-based REP value of 0.98, 9.8-fold higher than its assigned TEF value of 0.1. Conversely, PCB 126 had an REP value of 0.0027 and an RTF of 0.0022, 37-fold and 45-fold less than its assigned TEF of 0.1, respectively. The REP values for HxCDD and TCDF were 0.24 and 0.10, respectively, similar to their assigned value of 0.1. Therefore, although the DLCs tested in the current study all possessed the same assigned TEF value of 0.1, congener-specific differences in REPs and RTFs were observed for human keratinocytes. These congener-specific discrepancies are likely because of differences in interspecies factors that have yet to be defined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carrie H Sutter
- Department of Biological Sciences and W. Harry Feinstone Center for Genomic Research, University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee 38152-3560, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Answer to A.M. Jeffrey: Thresholds: Absolute, practical, pragmatic, apparent and virtual. Toxicol Lett 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
10
|
van der Ven LT, van de Kuil T, Leonards PE, Slob W, Lilienthal H, Litens S, Herlin M, Håkansson H, Cantón RF, van den Berg M, Visser TJ, van Loveren H, Vos JG, Piersma AH. Endocrine effects of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) in a one-generation reproduction study in Wistar rats. Toxicol Lett 2009; 185:51-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2008] [Revised: 11/28/2008] [Accepted: 12/01/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
11
|
Lovell DP. Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis of Studies to Demonstrate a Threshold in Genetic Toxicology: A Mini-review. Genes Environ 2008. [DOI: 10.3123/jemsge.30.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
|