Observing the coach-created motivational environment across training and competition in youth sport

Coaching dynamics in elite volleyball: The role of a need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching style during competitive games

Grounded in Self-Determination Theory, this game-to-game study among Flemish volleyball coaches and athletes had two primary objectives. First, we examined how variations in need-supportive and need-thwarting coaching styles related to variations in athletes' basic psychological needs, motivation, and coach-rated performance. Second, we examined whether athletes who perceived their coach as need-thwarting during a specific game would experience different outcomes based on the overall need-supportive or need-thwarting coaching style they encountered across games. Linear mixed modeling on data from 190 elite volleyball athletes (Mage = 23.95, 32.6 % male) and their 26 coaches (Mage = 48.12, 95.7 % male) indicated positive associations between game-specific need-supportive coaching and athletes' reports of game-specific basic psychological need experiences and motivation, as well as coach-rated performance, whereas game-specific need-thwarting coaching showed opposite trends. Athlete perceptions of a coaching style were more predictive of the outcomes than coach perceptions. Second, the lack of systematic cross-level interactions between game-specific coaching and team-level coaching indicated that the observed correlates of game-specific need-thwarting and need-supportive coaching hold regardless of the perceived overall need-thwarting or need-supportive style of the coach across games.

Sources of Sport Satisfaction and Perceived Self-Efficacy Among Youth in a Competitive Environment

Young people's sources of satisfaction in sport are an important indicator of their long-term sport participation. Contextual factors and an individual's internal dispositions act synergistically to determine a positive experience. We studied sources of sport satisfaction and perceived self-efficacy of 1,151 male and female youth athletes (M age = 14.72, SD = 1.56 years) in Brazil who were engaged in school state level competition. The participants responded to questionnaires on their sport satisfaction and perceived self-efficacy. We considered sex, training time, and last game results as independent variables in accessing participant differences in perceived satisfaction. We observed an increasing trend toward more significant satisfaction as sport experience increased. Perceived self-efficacy was a moderator for young participants' self-reported positive experience in sports. Thus, in our offer of evidence on sources of satisfaction in sport and perceived self-efficacy among youth in competition, we found the extent of the sport experience and self-efficacy to be important factors in the developmental pathway.

The role of quality relationships and communication strategies for the fulfilment of secure and insecure athletes' basic psychological needs

The correlates of coach-athlete relationship quality have been the focus of research for over a decade; however, little is known about the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying these associations. The present study conducted a moderated mediation analysis to examine (a) the mediating role of communication strategies (via COMPASS) on the association between the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and athlete psychological needs satisfaction and (b) whether individual differences in athletes' attachment style (secure, anxious, avoidant) moderates the mediational relationship. 350 Swedish athletes representing a range of sports and competition levels completed a multi-section questionnaire. Mediation and moderation analysis partially found that coach-athlete relationship quality and athletes basic psychological needs were associated via the COMPASS strategies of support, motivation, assurance and openness. It was also found that athletes secure attachment with their coach significantly moderated the mediated effects of motivation and support. These findings highlight the practical utility of motivation, support, openness and assurance strategies in enhancing the quality of the coach-athlete relationship. Moreover, these findings demonstrate that the attachment orientation of athletes towards their coaches play a significant role in determining what communication strategies to use to enhance both the relationship quality and an athlete's competence, autonomy and relatedness.

A cluster analysis of high-performance female team players' perceived motivational climate: Implications on perceived motor competence and autonomous behaviour

High performance sport for females is an area which is gaining more and more relevance today, but which hasn't received the same research interest as sport for males. The aim of the present study was to analyse the motivational climate perceived by high performance female athletes and the implications on perceived motor competence and autonomous behaviour and check the differences according category, sport experience and training hours in performance and master climate. The participants were 615 female athletes who practice top level team sports, with ages comprised of 16 to 38 (M = 22,10; SD = 4,91). The sample consisted of two different categories: junior (n = 242) and senior (n = 373). These players participated in different team sports, specifically football, handball, basketball and volleyball, training between 6 and 24 hours a week (M = 8,34; DT = 4,33). The variables measured were: perceived motivational climate in sport, autonomous behaviour and perceived motor competence. A cluster analysis was carried out using, as a variable, the perceived motivational climate, and showing the existence of two profiles, one related to ego and the other to task. The multivariate analysis showed that the profile orientated towards the task had significant differences compared to the autonomous behaviour (M = 4.66 vs M = 3.41). At the same time an analysis was carried out looking at different social demographic variables, revealing how there were differences in the sports experience (those participants with more than ten years' experience were more orientated towards ego, compared to those with less than ten years' experience) and the category (junior athletes were more orientated towards the task, compared to senior athletes). It was concluded that a greater orientation towards the task can lead to an improvement in the perception of motor competence, with the youngest and least experienced athletes being the most prominent in this category.

Comparison of physiological responses of running on a nonmotorized and conventional motor-propelled treadmill at similar intensities

This study aimed to test the agreement of the incremental test's physiological responses between tethered running on a nonmotorized treadmill (NMT) to matched relative intensities while running on a conventional motorized treadmill (MT). Using a within-subject crossover design, nine male recreational runners (age = 22 ± 5 years; height = 175 ± 6 cm; weight = 68.0 ± 16.6 kg) underwent two test sessions: one was an incremental intensity protocol on an MT; the other was on an instrumented NMT. Intensity thresholds at \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\dot{\text V}}$$\end{document}V˙O_2max, respiratory compensation point (iRCP), and lactate threshold (iLT) were registered for analysis, together with \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\dot{\text V}}$$\end{document}V˙˙O₂, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\dot{\text V}}$$\end{document}V˙˙E, ƒ_R, and blood lactate concentration ([Lac]). Comparisons were based on hypothesis testing (Student's T-test), effect sizes (Cohen's d), ICC, and Bland Altman analysis. Statistical significance was accepted at p < 0.05. Attained \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\dot{\text V}}$$\end{document}V˙O_2max (MT = 52.2 ± 7.3 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 vs NMT = 50.1 ± 8.1 mL·kg^-1·min^-1) and \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\dot{\text V}}$$\end{document}V˙˙O₂ at iRCP (MT = 46.3 ± 7.2 mL·kg^-1·min^-1 vs NMT = 42.8 ± 9.3 mL·kg^-1·min^-1) were not different between ergometers (p = 0.15 and 0.13, respectively), with significant ICCs (0.84 and 0.70, respectively) and Pearson’s correlations (r = 0.87 and 0.76, respectively). The [Lac] at iLT presented poor agreement between conditions. Significant correlations were found (r between 0.72 and 0.83) for relative power values of i\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${\dot{\text V}}$$\end{document}V˙O_2max (6.56 ± 1.28 W·kg⁻¹), iRCP (4.38 ± 1.50 W·kg⁻¹), and iLT (4.15 ± 1.29 W·kg⁻¹) related to their counterpart obtained on MT. Results show that running on an NMT offers a higher glycolytic demand under the same relative internal load as running on an MT but with a similar aerobic response and correlated intensity determination.

The effect of mid-season coach turnover on running match performance and match outcome in professional soccer players

The aim of this research was to examine the physical match performance and match outcome before and after coach turnover in professional soccer teams compared with a control group containing coaches working continuously for 3 consecutive seasons. Analysed data included 325 performances of teams led by dismissed coaches (DC), 313 of teams led by new coaches (NC), and 580 of teams led by unchanged coaches (UnC). Variables, such as average number of collected points, total distance (TD), total distance per minute (TD/min), high-speed running (HSR), sprinting and number of high-intensity runs (NHIR), were analysed in the last 15 games of DC and 15 matches of NC. These periods were divided into 3 blocks out of 5 matches (5-match blocks). NC collected a significantly higher number of points than DC (p = 0.015), whereas average points collected by UNC were significantly greater than DC (p < 0.001 and NC (p = 0.012). TD and TD/min for DC were significantly lower (p < 0.001) compared with both NC and UnC, whereas significant differences in HSR (p = 0.003) and NHIR (p = 0.03) were identified between DC and NC. The current study reported that mid-season coach turnover may result in short-term improvement in team results and physical match performance. However, this effect disappears after a period of approximately 5 games.

Analysis of the Different Scenarios of Coach's Anger on the Performance of Youth Basketball Teams

In spite of the negative effects of anger, coaches are often seen becoming angry during games. This is especially worrying in U18 categories. Thus, the objective of this study was to identify the influence that the coach’s anger has on the performance of a basketball team in competition. For this, an ad hoc observation tool was designed, in which 587 moments of anger from the coaching staff (64 coaches) were recorded in the 24 semi-final and final matches of the Spanish Autonomous Region Team Championships in 2019 and 2020 in the infantil (M = 14 years old) and cadete (M = 16 years old) categories. The results show that, in response to most incidents of coach anger, the performance of the team did not change. Significant differences were identified in some scenarios, with low- or medium-intensity anger targeted at the defence, where the team performance improved. However, anger towards the referee in the last quarter with scores level had a negative influence on the team’s performance.

Perceived Coach-Created Motivational Climates as Predictors of Athletes' Goal Reengagement: The Mediational Role of Goal Motives

Athletes have to face several challenges during the sport season, and one of them could involve dealing with unattainable goals. In these situations, being able to reengage in other goals as a form of goal adjustment and in response to contextual demands is adaptive. According to previous literature, some aspects of the athletes' social context, such as coach-created motivational climates, could encourage more adaptive responses in athletes, and so it is possible that these climates would also promote athletes' goal regulation and goal reengagement. The purpose of this study was twofold: to analyze whether athletes' perception of empowering and disempowering climates were related to their goal reengagement through the mediation of goal motives; and to examine the interaction between the two climates when they predict reengagement through athletes' goal motives. Participants were 414 Spanish university athletes (49.5% male, 50.5% female) who belonged to different university teams, with ages ranging from 17 to 33 years old (M = 20.61, SD = 2.58). In the sport facilities, all of them completed questionnaires that evaluated their perception of empowering and disempowering climates, their goal motives, and their goal reengagement. Structural equation modeling (SEM) results showed that perceived empowering climate positively predicted autonomous goal motives, which in turn had a positive relationship with goal reengagement. Conversely, perceived disempowering climate positively predicted controlled goal motives, which were not related to goal reengagement. Thus, we only found support for the indirect relationship between perceived empowering climate and goal reengagement through autonomous goal motives. Moderated mediation analyses revealed that interaction effects between perceived empowering and disempowering climates were not significant in the prediction of goal reengagement through goal motives. Findings revealed that the perception of empowering climates promotes athletes' goal reengagement when goals become unattainable via the increase in their autonomous goal motives. Conversely, when athletes perceive disempowering climates, they have more controlled goal motives, which are not related to goal reengagement. In addition, the study supports the need to educate coaches to create more empowering and less disempowering climates.

Effect of workshops for coaches on the motor ability of balance in children practicing sports in late childhood

BACKGROUND

The coach attitude impacts the whole mind and body system of a child athlete from emotional and motivational aspects to motor skills like motor coordination. It translates into the ability to control and stabilize posture. The vestibular system plays an important role in this regulation. This system, next to the visual system and mechanoreceptors, is responsible for balance and control during posture transition. Moreover, the vestibular system is influenced by emotional factors. Therefore the authors of this study focused on the changes in the balance stability of children practicing sport after the implementation of the psychological workshops for coaches.

METHODS

Fifty-nine children at the age of 9-12 practicing soccer, art gymnastic and sport gymnastic were divided into two groups. The experimental group consisted of 31 participants and 28 in the control group. Experimental group children were under the influence of the 3 coaches who attended three workshops over 12 weeks period. Control group children were coached by 5 coaches who attended no workshops. Postural stability tests were performed on children before and after the workshops.

RESULTS

The statistically significant changes were observed in selected parameters of children's balance stability after the experiment. The significant difference between the experimental and control group in Overall Stability Index (OSI) (p < 0.0002), Anterior-Posterior Stability Index (AP) (p < 0.01), Medial-Lateral Stability Index (ML) (p < 0.01) with eyes open were observed after the experiment. The results show a significant deterioration in control group contrary to the experimental group where the improvement trend was observed. Moreover, the difference between the groups was observed in OSI parameter (p < 0.005) with eyes closed after the experiment.

CONCLUSION

The results obtained by the authors of the current study may support the thesis that educating coaches allows for better results in postural stability of child's athletes. Nevertheless, this thesis requires further research, with particular emphasis on the age and gender of young athletes.

A Teaching Games for Understanding Program to Deal With Reasons for Dropout in Under-11 Football

Young players report that they dropout of organized football due to excessive emphasis on technical execution, low success, and the lack of autonomy and motivation experienced by players during training sessions. Purpose: To determine whether a TGfU intervention during a youth football program led players to improve in variables related to dropout. That means tactical-technical competence (decision-making, skill execution), success (successful game performance), autonomy (number of decisions made, player autonomy, number of game involvements, player participation), and motivation (enjoyment, intention to be physically active). Method: Twenty under-11-players and two coaches were recruited from 17 clubs. A pretest-posttest design with a multi-method approach was used. Coaches were trained and mentored in TGfU. Data were collected using Game Performance Assessment Instrument, enjoyment and intention to be physically active scales, and two focus groups with the players and the coaches. Results: Players improved in decision-making, skill execution, successful game performance, number of decisions made, number of game involvements, and intention to be physically active (p < .05). Participants attributed the results to the TGfU pedagogical features emphasized during the coaches' training and mentoring. Conclusion: Considering the reasons for dropout in football, in terms of excessive emphasis on technical execution, low success, and the lack of autonomy and motivation experienced by players, TGfU could be a useful pedagogical approach for teaching-learning organized youth football. The TGfU pedagogical features emphasized during coaches' training and mentoring could be crucial to obtain these results due to the fact that they were the sub-themes highlighted during the focus groups.

The Effectiveness of Psychological Workshops for Coaches on Well-Being and Psychomotor Performance of Children Practicing Football and Gymnastics

Coach workshops based on seven principles (inspiration, explanation, expectation, support, reward, appreciation, growth and winning) enhance the sport experience of adult athletes. Therefore, we have investigated the effects of such workshops with coaches of child athletes. Study participants were coaches of 57 9- to 12-year old girls (practicing gymnastics) and boys (practicing football). Three coaches of 28 children attended three workshops over 12 weeks, while a control group of 5 coaches of 29 children attended no workshops. Measures of well-being and psychomotor performance were taken on the children before and after the intervention; differences in mean changes between intervention and control groups were adjusted for baseline, standardized, and assessed with a conservative magnitude-based decision method. There were clear substantial effects of the workshop on motivation averaged across several dimensions (girls, large, most likely beneficial), on a decision test (boys, small-moderate, very likely beneficial), on state anxiety self-reflection (girls, moderate, likely harmful), and on reaction time (boys, small, possibly harmful). The beneficial effects of the workshop in this pilot study are encouraging, but the unclear and potentially harmful effects and the roles of presenter- and coach-specific effects need to be investigated further with a representative sample of coaches and more children before the workshop is recommended for implementation.

The Role of Controlled Motivation in the Self-Esteem of Adolescent Students in Physical Education Classes

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to analyse the relationships between the satisfaction of psychological basic needs, physical education, academic controlling motivation, and self-esteem, and to propose a prediction model in line with the postulates from the hierarchical model found in the self-determination theory. The participants were 618 physical education students from primary and secondary school (317 girls and 301 boys) aged between 10 and 14 years old (M = 11.62; SD = 0.94). The questionnaires basic psychological needs in exercise measurement scale (BPNES), perceived locus of causality scale (PLOC), the academic motivation scale (EME), and physical self-perception profile (PSPP) were used to measure the studied variables. The results showed that autonomy and relatedness significantly and negatively predicted physical education controlling motivation, which predicted a positive and significant academic controlling motivation. This, in turn, negatively and significantly predicted self-esteem. It is concluded that it is essential to avoid controlling motivation to promote the development of a positive self-perception in students.

Assessment of Referees in Terms of Building a Positive Climate and Responsiveness to the Health, Emotional, and Social Needs of Rugby Players in Competitive Children Sport

One of the key elements of effective sports programs that contribute to a child’s sense of joy and satisfaction in participating in sports is contact with an adult who builds a caring climate deliberately and intentionally. Referees play a special role in providing positive experiences for young athletes. The main aim of this study was to assess the quality of referee–player interactions in terms of building a positive climate during the game and the referee’s responsiveness to the health, emotional, social, and cognitive needs of young rugby players aged 6–12 years. The research was conducted among 23 referees refereeing children’s rugby matches in Poland. The structure observation method and The Referee–Players’ Interaction Assessment Scoring System tool were used in the study. Each referee was observed twice. The referee’s verbal and non-verbal communication was recorded using a GoPro Hero 8 camera and an Ejeas Fbim wireless intercom system. A Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to examine differences between referees’ ratings on two dimensions. The Mann-Whitney U test was employed to test the significance of differences in the mean scores of referees between groups divided by experience. The referees, in both dimensions (building positive climate and responsiveness to the players’ needs), scored on a 7-point scale, were rated at an average level of 3.22 (SD = 1.65) and 4.39 (SD = 1.67), respectively, with the responsiveness dimension rating being statistically significantly higher than the positive climate rating. The results showed that referee experience was not a determinant of the rating of the quality of referee–players’ interactions in both dimensions. From these studies, it was concluded that there is a need to complement the existing training programs for referees with the contents from the field of pedagogy and developmental psychology. This will help them build a positive climate during the game and show how to respond to children’s health, cognitive, emotional, and social needs. Furthermore, developing a referee’s pedagogical skills can improve their relationship with players, which can ultimately translate into a greater sense of job satisfaction. The formulated practical implications can also be transposed to other team sports.

Validation of the Lithuanian Version of the Coach-Created Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire (EDMCQ-C)

Based on Duda's conceptualization of the motivational climate, the Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire-Coach (EDMCQ-C) is a recently developed scale that assesses junior athletes' perception of the social environmental dimensions proposed by achievement goal theory and self-determination theory. The goal of the current investigation was to evaluate the Lithuanian translation of the EDMCQ-C and more broadly extend the validity and reliability of this questionnaire in sport participants. 712 adolescents from different sport teams in Lithuanian were the participants in this study. Exploratory structural equation modelling provided an acceptable fit of a two-factor model (i.e., empowering and disempowering) of EDMCQ-C. Reliability analysis revealed good levels of internal consistency for the empowering and disempowering climate factors. Discriminant validity was confirmed by a negative correlation between empowering and disempowering climate subscales. Correlations between empowering and disempowering subscales with values, motivation and self-esteem constructs demonstrate convergent validity. Associations between the climate dimensions and prosocial and antisocial behaviour in sport demonstrate predictive validity of EDMCQ-C. The evidence from this study suggests the Lithuanian version of EDMCQ-C is a promising scale for the assessment of athletes' perceptions of the empowering and disempowering features of the motivational climate created by their coach.

Parents' Sport Socialization Values, Perceived Motivational Climate and Adolescents' Antisocial Behaviors

Parents play a key role in young athletes’ sport experience. In particular, parents’ sport goals for children may influence young athletes’ morally relevant sport behaviors. The present study involves 172 Italian adolescents (female = 51.7%; age M = 15.41, SD = 1.73) practicing team sports and analyzed whether and the extent to which parents’ sport socialization values, those values adolescents perceived their parents wanted them to endorse (i.e., moral, competence, status values), were associated with young athletes’ antisocial behaviors towards teammates and opponents. Adolescents’ perceptions of the prominent motivational climate (i.e., mastery and performance) within their team were also considered. Participants were asked to fill out questionnaires, including the Youth Sport Values Questionnaire-2, adapted to measure adolescents’ perceptions of parental socialization values, the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire and the Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior in Sport Scale. The results of multiple linear regression analysis and relative weight analysis showed that mastery motivational climate, as protective factor, and mothers’ status values, as risk factor, were the most important variables in predicting adolescents’ antisocial behavior towards teammates. As far as adolescents’ antisocial behavior towards opponents was concerned, performance motivational climate and mothers’ status values were the most relevant predictors: the more adolescents perceived their coaches and mothers as giving importance to performance and status, the higher was the frequency of their antisocial behavior in sport. Implications and further developments of the study are discussed.

A Comparison of the Energetic Cost of Running in Marathon Racing Shoes

Background

Reducing the energetic cost of running seems the most feasible path to a sub-2-hour marathon. Footwear mass, cushioning, and bending stiffness each affect the energetic cost of running. Recently, prototype running shoes were developed that combine a new highly compliant and resilient midsole material with a stiff embedded plate.

Objective

The aim of this study was to determine if, and to what extent, these newly developed running shoes reduce the energetic cost of running compared with established marathon racing shoes.

Methods

18 high-caliber athletes ran six 5-min trials (three shoes × two replicates) in prototype shoes (NP), and two established marathon shoes (NS and AB) during three separate sessions: 14, 16, and 18 km/h. We measured submaximal oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production during minutes 3–5 and averaged energetic cost (W/kg) for the two trials in each shoe model.

Results

Compared with the established racing shoes, the new shoes reduced the energetic cost of running in all 18 subjects tested. Averaged across all three velocities, the energetic cost for running in the NP shoes (16.45 ± 0.89 W/kg; mean ± SD) was 4.16 and 4.01% lower than in the NS and AB shoes, when shoe mass was matched (17.16 ± 0.92 and 17.14 ± 0.97 W/kg, respectively, both p < 0.001). The observed percent changes were independent of running velocity (14–18 km/h).

Conclusion

The prototype shoes lowered the energetic cost of running by 4% on average. We predict that with these shoes, top athletes could run substantially faster and achieve the first sub-2-hour marathon.

Positive youth development and observed athlete behavior in recreational sport

Objectives

Competence, confidence, connection, and character are regarded as outcomes of positive youth development (PYD) in sport. However, the specific athlete behaviors associated with different PYD profiles are not well understood. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between athletes’ observed behavior during sport competitions and their perceptions of PYD outcomes.

Design

Cross-sectional study with systematic behavioral observation.

Method

Sixty-seven youth athletes were observed during basketball games near the end of their season, and the content of their behavior was systematically coded. Athletes also completed measures of the 4 Cs (competence, confidence connection, and character). A person-centered analysis approach was used to examine the relationship between PYD profiles and observed behavior.

Results

A cluster analysis identified two homogenous groups of athletes characterized by relatively high and low perceptions of confidence, connection, and character. A MANCOVA revealed that after controlling for gender and years of playing experience, the high Cs group engaged in more frequent sport communication with their coaches.

Conclusions

Results re-affirm the critical role that coaches play in the developmental experiences of young athletes, and highlight the importance of contextual factors of the youth sport environment.

Promoting Physical Activity Through Youth Sports Programs: It's Social

Youth sport is a key physical activity opportunity for children and adolescents. Several factors influence youth sport participation, including social factors, but this has not to date been clearly delineated. This study is a scoping review to survey the literature on the influence of family and peers on youth sports participation. The review identified 111 articles of which the majority were cross-sectional, included boys and girls, and were conducted primarily in the United States, Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom. The articles were grouped into 8 research themes: (1) reasons for participation, (2) social norms, (3) achievement goal theory, 4) family structure, (5) sports participation by family members, (6) parental support and barriers, (7) value of friendship, and (8) influence of teammates. Friendships were key to both initiation and maintenance of participation, parents facilitated participation, and children with more active parents were more likely to participate in sport. Less is known on how family structure, sibling participation, extended family, and other theoretical frameworks may influence youth sport. The review suggests that social influences are important factors for ensuring participation, maximizing the quality of the experience, and capitalizing on the benefits of youth sport. Future research studies, programs, and policies promoting and developing evidence-based youth sporting experiences should consider social influences on youth sport participation.

A Comparison of Players' and Coaches' Perceptions of the Coach-Created Motivational Climate within Youth Soccer Teams

The coach-created motivational climate within youth sports teams has been shown to be of great importance for the quality of youths' sports experiences as well as their motivation for continuing or discontinuing sport participation. While the player's perspective on motivational climates has been studied extensively, the coach's perspective has received considerably less attention. Thus, little is known about the concordance of perceptions of the motivational climate between coaches and their players, or the lack thereof. The purpose of the present study was to directly compare players' and coaches' perceptions of the motivational climate within their respective teams. To this end, 256 male and female soccer players (15-17 years of age) from 17 different teams and their coaches (n = 29) responded to the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sports Questionnaire-2 (PMCSQ-2). The study design included responses from both coaches and players to the same questionnaire, and both groups were aware of the other part's participation. Statistical analyses revealed significant differences between players' and coaches' perceptions of the motivational climate. Specifically, players of both sexes perceived the motivational climate to be significantly more performance-oriented and significantly less mastery-oriented compared with the coaches. These findings may advance our understanding of the coach-athlete relationship, and may be of importance for understanding players' motivation for persistence or discontinuation of the sport.