The balancing act between skiing and shooting - the determinants of success in biathlon pursuit and mass start events

Pacing Demands in Competitive Nordic Skiing

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cross-country skiing, biathlon, and Nordic combined are Winter Olympics sports that involve cross-country skiing in undulating terrain, characterized by various subtechniques and repeated intensity fluctuations. The stochastic interval profile of these sports necessitates the continuous regulation of work and energy expenditure throughout training sessions and competitions, a concept known as pacing. With the advent of technological advancements that allow for the measurement of these features during training and competitions, scientific studies have broadened our understanding of the associated racing and pacing demands. We provide the current scientific overview of pacing demands in competitive cross-country skiing, biathlon, and Nordic combined and propose guidelines for how performance can be enhanced by adjusting pacing behavior.

CONCLUSIONS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

The study of pacing in skiing has evolved from basic lap-to-lap, or segment, analyses to detailed insights into micropacing strategies. This includes analysis of speed, internal and external power, subtechnique distribution, and associated temporal patterns, combined with subjective ratings of effort. While several objective tools such as heart rate, blood lactate concentration, and speed measurements are widely used in practice, current understanding suggests that these measures should supplement, rather than replace, the use of perceived effort (eg, rating of perceived exertion) to regulate intensity during training and competition in undulating terrain. Therefore, the ability to self-regulate effort appears to be an important performance characteristic and should be developed in adolescents and systematically used to optimize and evaluate the training process and race performance throughout athletes' careers.

School's out for summer-Differences in training characteristics between adolescent biathletes of different performance levels

The purpose of this study was to retrospectively describe the longitudinal changes of training variables in adolescent biathletes based on performance level. Thirty biathletes (15 men and 15 women) were included in the study and categorized as either national level biathletes (NLB, n = 21) or national team biathletes (NTB, n = 9). Retrospective training data was collected from training diary covering the biathletes' four years (Y1-Y4) as student-athletes at upper secondary school. Training data was divided into physical and shooting training variables. A linear mixed-effect model was used for comparing the difference of the performance group and year of upper secondary school on training characteristics. The NTB group achieved a greater annual training volume than the NLB group, especially during Y4 (594±71 h·y-1 vs 461±127 h·y-1, p < 0.001), through an increase in duration of each session and by completing more weekly training volume during the general phase (13.7±4.6 vs 10.0±4.9 h·w-1, p = 0.004). No difference was observed in relative training intensity distribution between the groups. The total number of shots fired was also greater for the NTB (9971±4716 vs 7355±2812 shots·y-1, p = 0.003). There was an equal frequency in illness and injury for both the NLB and NTB. Accordingly, the results of the present study describe longitudinal changes of biathlon training in adolescent biathletes that also may affect performance development.

Performance and micro-pacing strategies in sit para-biathlon

This study investigated micro-pacing strategies during sit para-biathlon. Six elite sit para-biathletes wore a positioning system device during the world-championships in three different competition formats (Sprint, Middle-distance, and Long-distance). Total Skiing Time (TST), penalty-time, shooting-time, and Total Race Time (TRT) were analysed. One-way analyses of variance were used to compare the relative contributions of TST, penalty-time, and shooting-time to TRT across the three race formats. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) was used to determine the course positions (clusters) where instantaneous skiing speed was significantly associated with TST. The contribution of TST to TRT was lower for the Long-distance (80 ± 6%) compared to the Sprint (86 ± 5%) and Middle-distance (86 ± 3%) races, however this difference was not statistically significant (p > 0.05). The proportional contribution of penalty-time to TRT was significantly greater (p < 0.05) for the Long-distance (13 ± 6%) compared to the Sprint (5 ± 4%) and Middle-distance (4 ± 3%) races. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) revealed specific clusters where instantaneous skiing speed was significantly associated with TST. For example, over all laps during the Long-distance race, the fastest athlete gained 6.5 s over the slowest athlete in the section with the steepest uphill. Overall, these findings can provide insights into pacing strategies and help para-biathlon coaches and athletes optimise training programmes to improve performance.

Long-term development of performance, physiological, and training characteristics in a world-class female biathlete

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to investigate the long-term development of performance, physiological, and training characteristics in a world-class female biathlete, with emphasis on differences between junior and senior athlete seasons.

Methods

The participant is a highly decorated female biathlete with 22 (10 gold) medals from international championships and 28 individual World Cup wins. Performance development (ages 17-33), physiological tests (ages 22-33), and day-to-day physical and shooting training (ages 17-33) were analyzed. Training data were systemized by endurance [low-intensity training (LIT), moderate-intensity training (MIT), and high-intensity training (HIT)], exercise mode, and strength training. Shooting training recorded for each session included the number of shots fired during rest, LIT, MIT, HIT, or competitions and time spent on dry fire training.

Results

The annual volume of physical training (409-792 h·season^-1) and number of shots fired (1,163-17,328 shots·season^-1) increased from the age of 17 to 28 followed by a subsequent reduction in physical training (range 657-763 h·season^-1) and shots fired (13,275-15,355 shots·season^-1) during the seasons of peak performance at ages 31-33. Maximal oxygen uptake in roller ski skating increased by 10% (62.9-69.2 ml·kg^-1·min^-1) from the age of 22 to 27. The physical training volume was 48% higher (694 ± 60 vs. 468 ± 23 h·season^-1, P = .030), with 175% more shots fired (14,537 ± 1,109 vs. 5,295 ± 3,425 shots·season^-1, P = .016) as a senior athlete than a junior athlete. In the physical training, these differences were mainly explained by higher volumes of LIT (602 ± 56 vs. 392 ± 22 h·season^-1, P = .032) and MIT (34 ± 1 vs. 7 ± 2 h·season^-1, P = .001) but less HIT (27 ± 1 vs. 42 ± 3 h·season^-1, P = .006) as a senior than a junior. In line with this, shooting training as a senior included more shots fired both at rest (5,035 ± 321 vs. 1,197 ± 518 shots·season^-1, P = .011) and during LIT (7,440 ± 619 vs. 2,663 ± 1,975 shots·season^-1, P = .031), while a smaller insignificant difference was observed in the number of shots fired in connection with MIT, HIT, and competitions (2,061 ± 174 vs. 1,435 ± 893 shots·season^-1, P = .149).

Conclusions

This study provides unique insights into the long-term development of physical and shooting training from junior to senior in a world-class female biathlete. The major differences in training characteristics between junior and senior athlete seasons were higher sport-specific volumes of LIT and MIT and less HIT. These differences were accompanied by more shooting training, particularly at rest, and in connection with LIT.

Using Multivariate Data Analysis to Project Performance in Biathletes and Cross-Country Skiers

PURPOSE

To determine whether competitive performance, as defined by International Biathlon Union (IBU) and International Ski Federation (FIS) points in biathlon and cross-country (XC) skiing, respectively, can be projected using a combination of anthropometric and physiological metrics. Shooting accuracy was also included in the biathlon models.

METHODS

Data were analyzed using multivariate methods from 45 (23 female and 22 male) biathletes and 202 (86 female and 116 male) XC skiers who were all members of senior national teams, national development teams, or ski-university or high school invite-only programs (age range: 16-36 y). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Shooting accuracy was assessed via an outdoor standardized testing protocol.

RESULTS

Valid projective models were identified for female biathletes' IBU points (R2 = .80/Q2 = .65) and female XC skiers' FIS distance (R2 = .81/Q2 = .74) and sprint (R2 = .81/Q2 = .70) points. No valid models were identified for the men. The most important variables for the projection of IBU points were shooting accuracy, speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1, peak aerobic power, and lean mass. The most important variables for the projection of FIS distance and sprint points were speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1 and peak aerobic power.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the relative importance of specific anthropometric, physiological, and shooting-accuracy metrics in female biathletes and XC skiers. The data can help to identify the specific metrics that should be targeted when monitoring athletes' progression and designing training plans.

Kinematical effects of rifle carriage on roller skiing in well-trained female and male biathletes

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate how rifle carriage and skiing speed during biathlon roller skiing affect range of motion (ROM) in joint angles and equipment (skis and poles), the vertical distance between shoulders and treadmill (vert_dist ), as well as possible sex differences associated with rifle carriage.

METHODS

Fourteen biathletes (6 women, 8 men) roller-skied on a treadmill at submaximal and simulated race speeds, with (WR) and without (NR) a rifle, using gears 3 and 2. Kinematical data for the whole body, poles, roller-skis, rifle, and treadmill were monitored using a 3D motion capture system. Movements determined as flexion/extension (x), abduction/adduction (y), and/or internal/external rotation (z) were analyzed for the hip, shoulder, thorax, knee, ankle, elbow, poles, and roller skis. ROM (the difference between maximal and minimal angles) in joints and equipment, and vert_dist were analyzed over six skiing cycles during each condition (WR and NR) and speed.

RESULTS

The maximal vert_dist was lower for WR compared with NR (gear 3: 1.53 ± 0.06 vs 1.54 ± 0.06 m; gear 2: 1.49 ± 0.06 vs 1.51 ± 0.06 m; both p < 0.001). ROM in the upper body was altered when roller skiing WR (movements decreased in thorax and shoulder (x) and increased in elbow (only gear 3) (x), thorax (only gear 2), and shoulder (y) and (z); all p < 0.05) and increased with speed, without differences between sexes (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Since rifle carriage and speed appear to affect the kinematics of roller skiing, coaches, and biathletes are advised to perform skiing technique training under competition-like conditions (i.e., at race speeds while carrying the rifle).

The impact of co-acting competitors on shooting performance in elite biathletes

Grounded in social facilitation theory, this study examined the impact of co-acting competitors (i.e., opponents) on elite biathletes' shooting performance based on World Cup competition data. To this end, the impact of the number as well as the mean overlapping time with co-acting competitors at the shooting range on both shooting time and shooting accuracy was assessed. Competition data of World Cup races from 2005 to 2020 were analysed. This included 115 mass start and 195 pursuit events of a total of 758 elite biathletes amounting to 57.251 shooting bouts equivalent to a total of 286.255 shots. Data was analysed using a fixed effects model. Results revealed two main findings: First, the more co-acting opponents were present at the shooting range, the shorter (i.e., better) was shooting time. However, more co-acting opponents were also associated with decreased shooting accuracy in mass start, but not in pursuit. Second, a longer temporal overlap with co-acting opponents negatively affected biathletes' shooting time. There was no effect on shooting accuracy. To conclude, the present study provides first evidence for a link between co-acting competitors and shooting performance in elite biathletes by analysing ecologically valid, real world data.

The Determinants of Performance in Biathlon World Cup Sprint and Individual Competitions

Purpose

The present study aimed to determine the association of skiing speed (SS), range time (RT), and the number of missed targets (MT) with rank in sprint and individual biathlon competitions.

Methods

Data were collected from the International Biathlon Union's database for 17 seasons (2002/2003–2018/2019). Furthermore, the biathletes were divided into three rank groups (G3, rank 1–3; G10, rank 4–10; and G20, rank 11–20). Multinominal regression was used to detect odds ratios associated with group rank for both sexes, separately.

Results

MT was the only variable that was constantly related to G3 (OR 1.90–6.35, all p &lt; 0.001) for both women and men. SS was associated with G3 in the last lap in the sprint for both sexes (OR 0.46–0.66, all p &lt; 0.001) and RT for standing shooting (OR 1.04–1.14, all p &lt; 0.05).

Conclusion

These results show that shooting is the fundamental factor for performance in both competitions, but that SS is increasingly important for the last lap in the sprint for both sexes. Further, a fast RT in the standing shooting for women in individual and men in the sprint seems important for improving final rank.