Plasticizers from printing inks in a selection of food packagings and their migration to food

Sub-chronic exposure to low concentration of dibutyl phthalate affects anthropometric parameters and markers of obesity in rats

Dibutyl phthalate is an important phthalate ester extensively used in various products like plastics, adhesives, inks, pharmaceuticals, lacquers, varnishes, paper coatings, safety glasses, and cosmetics. The exposure of DBP to "one's health" is therefore inevitable. The present study focuses on elucidating the effect of low doses of DBP on anthropometric parameters and markers of obesity in rats in a 13-week study. A total of 48 rats were divided into three treatment groups as mg DBP/kg body weight per day: (a) 0 mg/kg (control), (b) 10 mg/kg (DBP-10), and (c) 50 mg/kg (DBP-50). The rats in each treatment (n = 16) were further equally divided into male and female rats for studying treatment and gender interaction. Anthropometric parameters, nutritional determinants, and markers of obesity in rats were studied. Two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the data (p < 0.05). Tukey's post hoc test was used for pairwise comparisons. DBP increased body weight gain, feed efficiency, abdominal to thoracic circumference ratio, and body mass index in rats. Serum cholesterol and alkaline phosphatase concentrations decreased with DBP treatment. Serum albumin, glucose, creatinine, and alanine transaminase increased with DBP treatments. Serum lactate dehydrogenase increased in DBP-10 but was not affected by DBP-50. Further low-dose investigations are needed to assess non-monotonic dose responses.

Thermal, mechanical and drug release characteristics of an acrylic film using active pharmaceutical ingredient as non-traditional plasticizer

The objective of this study was to investigate thermal and mechanical properties as well as in vitro drug release of Eudragit® RL (ERL) film using chlorpheniramine maleate (CPM) as either active pharmaceutical ingredient or non-traditional plasticizer. Differential scanning calorimeter was used to measure the glass transition temperature (Tg) of 0-100% w/w CPM in ERL physical mixture. Instron testing machine was used to investigate Young's modulus, tensile stress and tensile strain (%) of ERL film containing 20-60% w/w CPM. Finally, a Franz diffusion cell was used to study drug release from ERL films obtained from four formulations, i.e. CRHP0/0, CRHP0/5, CRHP2/0 and CRHP2/5. The Tg of ERL was decreased when the weight percentage of CPM increased. The reduction of the Tg could be described by Kwei equation, indicating the interaction between CPM and ERL. Modulus and tensile stress decreased whereas tensile strain (%) increased when weight percentage of CPM increased. The change of mechanical properties was associated with the reduction of the Tg when weight percentage of CPM increased. ERL films obtained from four formulations could release the drug in no less than 10 h. Cumulative amount of drug release per unit area of ERL film containing only CPM (CRHP0/0) was lower than those obtained from the formulations containing traditional plasticizer (CRHP0/5), surfactant (CRHP2/0) or both of them (CRHP2/5). The increase of drug release was a result of the increase of drug permeability through ERL film and drug solubility based on traditional plasticizer and surfactant, respectively.

Contemporary carbon content of bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in butter

The fraction of naturally produced bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), a ubiquitous plasticizer known to contaminate packaged foods, was determined for each of five 1.10 kg samples of unsalted market butter by accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS). After extraction and concentration enrichment with liquid-liquid extraction, flash column chromatography, and preparative-scale high performance liquid chromatography, each sample provided ≈ 250 μg extracts of DEHP with carbon purity ranging from 92.5 ± 1.2% (n = 3, 1σ) to 97.1 ± 0.8% (n = 3, 1σ) as measured with gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). After corrections for method blank DEHP, co-eluting compounds, and unidentified carbon, the mean fraction of naturally produced DEHP in butter was determined to be 0.16 ± 0.12 (n = 5, 1σ). To our knowledge, this is the first report of the contemporary fraction of DEHP isolated from market butter in the U.S.

Analysis of phthalate migration to food simulants in plastic containers during microwave operations

Phthalates used as plasticizers in the manufacture of household containers can potentially be transferred to foods that are stored or heated in these plastic containers. Phthalates are endocrine disruptor compounds (EDC) and are found in very low concentrations in foods, thus, highly sensitive analytical techniques are required for their quantification. This study describes the application of a new method developed for analyzing the migration of dibutylphthalate (DBP) and benzylbutylphthalate (BBP) from plastic food containers into liquid food simulants. This new method employs the technique of solid phase microextraction cooled with liquid nitrogen. The analysis was conducted by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) using a polyacrylate fiber. Ultrapure water was used as a simulant for liquids foods, and both new and used plastic containers were placed in a domestic microwave oven for different periods of time at different power levels. The limits of detection for DBP and BBP were 0.08 µg/L and 0.31 µg/L, respectively. BBP was not found in the samples that were analyzed. DBP was found in concentrations ranging from <LOQ to 7.5 µg/L. In general, an increase in migration was observed in containers that were used for a prolonged time, which correlated with increasing heating time.

Chemometric tools to highlight possible migration of compounds from packaging to sunflower oils

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) could be considered for the packaging of vegetable oils taking into account the impact of its oxygen permeability on the oxidation of the oil and the migration of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from the polymer matrix. After accelerated aging tests at 40 °C for 10, 20, and 30 days, the headspace of three sunflower oils packed in PET with high density polyethylene caps was carried out using solid phase microextraction. VOCs such as benzene hydrocarbons, ethylbenzene, xylene isomers and diethyl phthalate were identified in vegetable oils by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Chemometric tools such as principal components analysis (PCA), independent components analysis (ICA), and a multiblocks analysis, common components and specific weight analysis (CCSWA) applied to analytical data were revealed to be very efficient to discriminate between samples according to oil oxidation products (hexanal, heptanal, 2-pentenal) and to the migration of packaging contaminants (xylene).

Effect of cooking at home on the levels of eight phthalates in foods

Food products can be contaminated with toxic compounds via the environment. Another possibility of food contamination is that toxicants are generated in foods or that chemicals migrate from food contact materials into foods during processing. In this study, the effect of cooking at home on the levels of phthalates - world's most used group of plasticisers - in various food types (starchy products, vegetables and meat and fish) was examined. Eight compounds were considered, namely dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP). Food products were analysed before as well as after cooking (boiling, steaming, (deep-)frying or grilling). In general, phthalate concentrations in foods declined after cooking, except in vegetables, where almost no effect was seen. Several factors influenced the degree of this decline (e.g. weight difference, fat uptake, etc.). Of all phthalates, DEHP, DiBP and BBP were affected the most. In conclusion, cooking at home definitely affected phthalate concentrations in foods and thus needs to be considered in order to correctly assess humans' dietary exposure to these contaminants.

Analysis of phthalates in food products and packaging materials sold on the Belgian market

Phthalates are organic lipophilic compounds that are principally used as plasticiser to increase the flexibility of plastic polymers. Other applications are a.o. the use of phthalates in printing inks and lacquers. Human exposure to phthalates mainly occurs via food ingestion and can induce adverse health effects. In this study, the presence of eight phthalate compounds--dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP), benzylbutyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), dicyclohexyl phthalate (DCHP) and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP)--was investigated in 400 food products, divided over eleven groups, and packages sold on the Belgian market. For this purpose, suitable extraction techniques were developed and validated for four different matrices, namely high-fat foods, low-fat food products, aqueous-based beverages and packaging materials. The instrumental analysis was performed by means of gas chromatography-low resolution-mass spectrometry with electron impact ionisation (GC-EI-MS). A wide variety of phthalate concentrations was observed in the different groups. DEHP was found in the highest concentration in almost every group. Moreover, DEHP was the most abundant phthalate compound, followed by DiBP, DnBP and BBP. This survey is part of the PHTAL project, which is the first project that discusses phthalate contamination on the Belgian food market.

Determination of 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene (DIPN) and n-dibutylphthalate (DBP) in food and paper packaging materials from US marketplaces

A gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry procedure was developed for the determination of 2,6-diisopropylnaphthalene (DIPN) and n-dibutylphthalate (DBP) in domestic and imported paper packages and food sold in US marketplaces. The procedure involved ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane, followed by analysis with the gas chromatography-ion-trap tandem mass spectrometry. Calibration curves for DIPN and DBP were achieved with concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 10 microg ml(-1) and the corresponding r(2) values were 0.9976 and 0.9956, respectively. In most of the fortified samples the recoveries were higher than 80% with a relative standard deviation (RSD) <10%. Using this procedure, it was found that less than 20% of the tested domestic packages and more than 60% of the tested imported food packages contained both DIPN and DBP. The concentrations of DIPN and DBP ranged from 0.09 to 20 mg kg(-1) and 0.14 to 55 mg kg(-1), respectively, with most of the DINP and DBP levels lower than 20 mg kg(-1). DIPN was not detected (<0.01 mg kg(-1)) in 41 food samples and DBP was only detected in two domestic and four imported food samples with concentrations ranging from <0.01 to 0.81 mg kg(-1).

Non-targeted multi-component analytical surveillance of plastic food contact materials: Identification of substances not included in EU positive lists and their risk assessment

A procedure used by the Norwegian Food Safety Authority for surveillance of contaminants from plastic food contact materials (polyolefin drinking bottles, water boilers, polyamide cooking utensils and plastic multi-layer materials) is described. It is based on gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric (GC/MS) analysis of food simulants exposed to plastic materials. Most migrants were substances not-intentionally added to the plastic (degradation products, impurities) or originated from non-plastic components, such as printing inks, adhesives, not-listed additives, solvents and coatings. Hence, the majority of the identified migrants were regulated by the general statements in the EU Framework Regulation, which neither specify limits nor requirements regarding risk assessment, rather than by specific migration controls. Risk assessment has been carried out for selected non-authorized substances. The analysis and the management of these substances and materials with respect to safety represents a challenge to the food authorities.

Migration studies to assess the safety in use of a new antioxidant active packaging

Both specific and overall migration tests have been applied to new experimental food packaging-active plastic films with antioxidant properties, including in its composition a natural rosemary extract. Determination of volatile and semivolatile compounds migrating from plastic to the four established simulants showed that both specific and overall migration was very low. The results obtained gave values 20 times lower than the established limits in the worst case. So, from the point of view of health risk, the new active packaging can be considered as safe. Analytical procedure used provided the necessary information about the migration behavior, with good analytical characteristics and detection limits in the sub mug kg(-1) range. Besides, no significant difference was found between laboratory and factory-made samples, which is an important issue for industrial production, the next step in the development of the new antioxidant active film.

Role of PPARα in mediating the effects of phthalates and metabolites in the liver

Phthalate esters belong to a large class of compounds known as peroxisome proliferators (PP). PP include chemicals that activate different subtypes of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) family. The ability of phthalate esters and their metabolites to activate responses through different PPAR subtypes is not fully characterized. We investigated the ability of two phthalate esters di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) and selected metabolites to activate PPAR (alpha, beta/delta, gamma) using a transient transfection assay. The monoester of DEHP, mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (MEHP) activated all three subtypes of PPAR, but preferentially activated PPARalpha. A second metabolite of DEHP, 2-ethylhexanoic acid (2-EHXA) was a weaker activator of all three subtypes. DBP, but not the primary metabolite mono-n-butyl phthalate weakly activated all three PPAR subtypes. MEHP and DBP but not DEHP and MBP interacted directly with human PPARalpha and PPARgamma as determined by scintillation proximity assays. Both DEHP and DBP activated expression of PP-inducible gene products in wild-type but not PPARalpha-null mice suggesting that both of these phthalates exert their effects by activation of PPARalpha in vivo. The preferential activation of PPARalpha by phthalate ester metabolites suggests that these phthalates mediate their toxic effects in rodent liver in a manner indistinguishable from other PP.

Migration of Substances from Food Packaging Materials to Foods

The employment of novel food packaging materials has increased the number of occurring hazards due to the migration from packaging material to the packaged food. Although polymers have mainly monopolized the interest of migration testing and experimentation, recent studies have revealed that migration also occurs from "traditional" materials generally considered to be safe, such as paper, carton, wood, ceramic, and metal. The regulations and the directives of the EU tend to become stricter in this respect. The emphasis is on reaching a consensus in terms of food simulants and testing conditions for migration studies. Furthermore, the list of hazardous monomers, oligomers, and additives continues to augment in order to ensure that the consumer safety is in current agreement with the HACCP, which is continuously gaining ground.

Simple and rapid analysis of endocrine disruptors in liquid medicines and intravenous injection solutions by automated in-tube solid-phase microextraction/high performance liquid chromatography

A simple and rapid method was developed for analyzing contamination of endocrine disruptors in liquid medicines and intravenous injection solutions. Endocrine disrupting compounds such as bisphenol A (BPA), alkylphenols and phthalates were quantitated by on-line in-tube solid-phase microextraction coupled with high performance liquid chromatography (in-tube SPME/HPLC) with UV detection. The liquid medicines and intravenous injection solutions could be used directly without any pretreatment, and the BPA, alkylphenols and phthalates in these solutions were automatically analyzed. The limits of quantification for these compounds were 1-10 ng/ml. Recoveries of these compounds spiked to the intravenous injection solutions was over 80%, except for some phthalates. Di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) was detected at a concentration of 7-60 ng/ml in most intravenous injection solutions in plastic containers, but it was not detected in solutions in glass bottles. Diethyl phthalate, di-n-propyl phthalate, DBP and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were also detected in syrup, lotion and eye drops in plastic containers. On the other hand, BPA and alkylphenols were not detected at all in these solutions. DEHP contamination from an administration set increased when total vitamin formulation was added to the infusion solution. DEHP was easily leached from polyvinyl chloride tubing by polysorbate 80. The in-tube SPME/HPLC method is simple, rapid and automatic, and it provides a useful tool for the screening and determination of endocrine disruptor contamination in liquid medicines and intravenous injection solutions.

Phthalates in paper and board packaging and their migration into Tenax and sugar

Packaging samples for many kinds of foodstuffs were received from manufacturers together with basic information about the materials used in their production. Half of the 29 samples studied contained phthalates in amounts exceeding 5 mg/kg. Two types of paper bag intended for sugar and exceptionally high phthalate contents although they were flexo printed. The maximum contents of di-isobutylphthalate (DIBP) and dibutylphthalate (DBP) were 450 and 200 mg/kg, respectively. The phthalates found originated from adhesives used in the joints of the packaging. In other packagings manufactured at the same time, DIBP concentrations varied from 92 to 193 mg/kg. Phthalates were also determined in sugar before and after packaging. Migration of phthalates ranged from 57 to 74% of the original content in the packaging after 4 months storage. Packed sugar contained DIBP 2.2-2.6 mg/kg and DBP 0.5-1 mg/kg. The sugar packagings were also tested using Tenax as a food stimulant. The results indicated that 69-91% of the original content of the phthalates migrated into Tenex after 10 days at 40 degrees C. The major drawback with migration testing using Tenax is its high cost; it is not practical to fill the whole 1 kg packaging with Tenax, and smaller samples of packaging must be used instead. However, the distribution of substances in the packaging might be non-uniform. In the sugar packagings studied here, the difference between phthalate concentrations in two samples taken from the same packaging was nearly 100-fold.