Children and young adults in a prolonged unconscious state due to severe brain injury: outcome after an early intensive neurorehabilitation programme

Predicting Long-Term Outcome of Prolonged Disorder of Consciousness in Children Through Machine Learning Based on Conventional Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging

BACKGROUND

The prognosis of prolonged disorders of consciousness (pDoC) in children has consistently posed a formidable challenge in clinical decision-making.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop a machine learning (ML) model based on conventional structural magnetic resonance imaging (csMRI) to predict outcomes in children with pDoC.

METHODS

A total of 196 children with pDoC were included in this study. Based on the consciousness states 1 year after brain injury, the children were categorized into either the favorable prognosis group or the poor prognosis group. They were then randomly assigned to the training set (n = 138) or the test set (n = 58). Semi-quantitative visual assessments of brain csMRI were conducted and Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator regression was used to identify significant features predicting outcomes. Based on the selected features, support vector machine (SVM), random forests (RF), and logistic regression (LR) were used to develop csMRI, clinical, and csMRI-clinical-merge models, respectively. Finally, the performances of all models were evaluated.

RESULTS

Seven csMRI features and 4 clinical features were identified as important predictors of consciousness recovery. All models achieved satisfactory prognostic performances (all areas under the curve [AUCs] >0.70). Notably, the csMRI model developed using the SVM exhibited the best performance, with an AUC, accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of 0.851, 0.845, 0.844, and 0.846, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

A csMRI-based prediction model for the prognosis of children with pDoC was developed, showing potential to predict recovery of consciousness 1 year after brain injury and is worth popularizing in clinical practice.

Natural course and predictors of consciousness recovery in children with prolonged disorder of consciousness

Prolonged disorder of consciousness (DoC) is a rising challenge. Pediatric data on diagnosis and prognosis of prolonged DoC were too limited and heterogeneous, making it difficult to define the natural course and evaluate the prognosis. The present study explored the emergence from the Minimally Conscious State (eMCS) incidence at different months postinjury drawing the natural course, and detected the predictors of the incidence in children with prolonged DoC. A hospital-based prospective cohort study was conducted. Kaplan-Meier curves, as well as univariate and multivariate COX regression analysis, were performed. The study enrolled 383 pediatric DoC individuals, including 220 males (57.4%), with an average age of 3.9 (1.9-7.3) years. The median duration between onset and rehabilitation is 30.0 (21.0-46.0) days. At enrollment, the ratio of vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/WUS) to MCS is 78.9%-21.1%. Traumatic brain injury and infection are the major etiologies (36.8% and 37.1%, respectively), followed by hypoxia cerebral injury (12.3%). For children with prolonged DoC, the cumulative incidence of eMCS at months 3, 6, 12, and 24 was 0.510, 0.652, 0.731, 0.784 VS 0.290, 0.418, 0.539, 0.603 in the traumatic VS non-traumatic subgroup, respectively. For children in a persistent vegetative state (PVS), the cumulative incidence of emergence at months in 3, 6, 12, 24, 36 and 48 was testified as 0.439, 0.591, 0.683, 0.724, 0.743 and 0.743 in the traumatic subgroup, and 0.204, 0.349, 0.469, 0.534, 0.589 and 0.620 in the non-traumatic subgroup. Participants who exhibit any of the following four demographical and/or clinical characteristics-namely, older than 4 years at onset, accepted rehabilitation within 28 days of onset, remained MCS at enrollment, or with etiology of traumatic brain injuries-had a significantly positive outcome of consciousness recovery (eMCS). Moreover, both prolongation of the central somatosensory conductive time (CCT) (level 2) and absence of N20 (level 3) independently predict a negative outcome. In children with prolonged DoC, we found that 12 months postinjury was critical to eMCS, and a preferred timepoint to define chronic vegetative state (VS). The characteristics including age, etiology, time before rehabilitation, consciousness state, and SEP results were useful predictors of conscious recovery.Trial registration Registered 06/11/2018, the registration number is chiCTR1800019330 (chictr.org.cn). Registered prospectively.

Factors influencing recovery in a pediatric sample with disorders of consciousness: insights from an observational study

OBJECTIVE

To estimate rates and time to reach emergence of consciousness from vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS), and explore factors associated with improved recovery in children and adolescents with disorders of consciousness (DoC) following severe traumatic and non-traumatic brain injury.

METHODS

Analytical, retrospective, cohort study. Clinical records of consecutively referred patients admitted in VS/UWS to a neurological rehabilitation institute in Argentina, between 2005 and 2021 were reviewed. Seventy children and adolescents were included in the analysis. A specialized 12-week rehabilitation program was administered, and emergence was defined by scores ≥44 points on the Western Neuro Sensory Stimulation Profile (WNSSP), sustained for at least 3 weeks on consecutive weekly evaluations.

RESULTS

Emergence from VS/UWS to consciousness occurred within 5.4 (SD 2.6) weeks in almost one-third of patients. Multivariate Cox regression analysis showed emergence was significantly lower in patients with hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy compared to patients with other non-traumatic etiologies [HRadj 0.23 (95% CI 0.06-0.89); p = 0.03)].

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings reinforce growing evidence on the impact of etiology on DoC recovery in pediatric populations, ultimately influencing treatment and family-related decisions in child neurorehabilitation.

Neurobehavioral Progress and Signs of Transition in Children With Prolonged Disorders of Consciousness: A Retrospective Longitudinal Study With the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised

BACKGROUND

Research on disorders of consciousness in children is scarce and includes disparate and barely comparable participants and assessment instruments and therefore provides inconclusive information on the clinical progress and recovery in this population. This study retrospectively investigated the neurobehavioral progress and the signs of transition between states of consciousness in a group of children admitted to a rehabilitation program either with an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) or in a minimally conscious state (MCS).

METHODS

Systematic weekly assessments were conducted with the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R) until emergence from MCS, discharge, or death.

RESULTS

Twenty-one children, nine admitted with a UWS and 12 admitted in an MCS, were included in the study. Four children with a UWS transitioned to an MCS with a CRS-R of 10 (9.2 to 12.2) by showing visual pursuit, visual fixation, or localization to noxious stimulation. Twelve children emerged from the MCS with a CRS-R of 20.5 (19 to 21.7). Children who emerged from the MCS had had a shorter time postinjury and higher CRS-R at admission, compared with those who did not emerge.

CONCLUSIONS

Almost half of the children who were admitted with a UWS transitioned to an MCS, and almost all who were admitted in an MCS emerged from this state. Children who emerged had shorter times since injury and higher scores on the CRS-R at admission, compared with those who did not emerge.

Disorders of Consciousness in Children: Assessment, Treatment, and Prognosis

Children with acquired brain injury may experience prolonged disorders of consciousness (DoC); research on children with DoC lags behind adult literature. Rigorous evaluation of assessment tools used in children with DoC is lacking, though recent developments may contribute to improvements in care, particularly for assessment of young children and those without overt command following. Literature on prognosis continues to grow, reinforcing that early signs of consciousness suggest better long-term outcome. Although large clinical trials for children with DoC are lacking, single-site and multisite programmatic data inform standards of care and treatment options for children with DoC.

Head Control Contributes to Prediction of Emergence From the Minimally Conscious State in Children Admitted to Inpatient Rehabilitation

OBJECTIVE

To examine the utility of head and trunk control, assessed using the Physical Abilities and Mobility Scale, for predicting emergence from a minimally conscious state (eMCS) among children with acquired brain injury admitted to inpatient rehabilitation in a disorder of consciousness (DoC).

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

Pediatric inpatient rehabilitation hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

Forty patients (2-21 years-old) directly admitted from acute care to pediatric inpatient brain injury rehabilitation in a DoC (average length of stay=85 days; N=40).

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

State of consciousness (eMCS vs not) at discharge from inpatient rehabilitation.

RESULTS

Forty-five percent of patients emerged from a minimally conscious state during inpatient rehabilitation. Admission state of consciousness and head control (but not trunk control) were significantly associated with eMCS and provided complementary prognostic information. Admission state of consciousness (ie, admitting in a vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome) afforded the greatest negative predictive value (93.8%), whereas admission head control ability afforded the greatest positive predictive value (81.8% for any independent head control; 100% for maintaining head-up position for >30 seconds). Fifty percent of patients who emerged during the inpatient stay did not have independent head control at admission, highlighting the importance of exploring head control as a prognostic marker in conjunction with indicators with greater sensitivity (eg, state of consciousness at admission).

CONCLUSIONS

A brief measure of head control at admission may contribute to identification of a subgroup of patients who are likely to emerge.

Prevalence of the Minimally Conscious State Among Institutionalized Patients in the Netherlands: A Nationwide Study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The minimally conscious state (MCS) is a prolonged disorder of consciousness (pDoC) and one of the most severe outcomes of acquired brain injury. Prevalence data are scarce. The aim of this study was to establish the nationwide point prevalence of institutionalized patients in MCS in the Netherlands.

METHODS

This was a descriptive cross-sectional study in which all 86 Dutch hospitals, all 5 specialized pDoC rehabilitation facilities, and all 274 nursing homes were asked whether they were treating patients with a pDoC on the point prevalence date of September 15, 2021. Each patient's legal representative provided informed consent for their inclusion. Patient level of consciousness was verified using the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R) in a single assessment session performed in the facility of residence by an experienced physician. Data on patient demographics, etiology, level of consciousness, facility of residence, and clinical status were collected from a questionnaire by the treating physician. The prevalence of institutionalized patients in MCS of per 100,000 members of the Dutch population was calculated, based on actual census data.

RESULTS

Seventy patients were reported to have a pDoC, of whom 6 were excluded. The level of consciousness was verified for 49 patients while for 15, it could not be verified. Of the patients verified, 38 had a pDoC, of whom 32 were in MCS (mean age 44.8 years, 68.8% male). The prevalence of institutionalized patients in MCS is 0.2-0.3 per 100,000 Dutch inhabitants. Traumatic brain injury was present in 21 of 32 patients (65.6%). Specialized pDoC rehabilitation was received by 17 of 32 patients (53%), with the rest admitted to nursing homes. The most frequent signs of consciousness on the CRS-R were visual pursuit, reproducible movement to command, and automatic motor response.

DISCUSSION

This nationwide study revealed a low prevalence of institutionalized patients in MCS in the Netherlands. These findings are now being used to organize pDoC care in this country.

Prognostication in Prolonged and Chronic Disorders of Consciousness

Patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness (DOCs) longer than 28 days may continue to make significant gains and achieve functional recovery. Occasionally, this recovery trajectory may extend past 3 (for nontraumatic etiologies) and 12 months (for traumatic etiologies) into the chronic period. Prognosis is influenced by several factors including state of DOC, etiology, and demographics. There are several testing modalities that may aid prognostication under active investigation including electroencephalography, functional and anatomic magnetic resonance imaging, and event-related potentials. At this time, only one treatment (amantadine) has been routinely recommended to improve functional recovery in prolonged DOC. Given that some patients with prolonged or chronic DOC have the potential to recover both consciousness and functional status, it is important for neurologists experienced in prognostication to remain involved in their care.

Post-Acute Level Of Consciousness scale revised (PALOC-sr): adaptation of a scale for classifying the level of consciousness in patients with a prolonged disorder of consciousness

OBJECTIVE

To present an updated version of the 'Post-acute Level Of Consciousness scale' (PALOC-s), in accordance with the latest scientific insights.

METHODS

Within the context of a research project, 20 years ago, the PALOC-s was developed for the purpose of following the development of the level of consciousness of young unconscious patients participating in a rehabilitation program. Meanwhile, the understanding of the behavior related to different levels of consciousness has developed and terminology has changed, resulting in the need to revise the PALOC-s. With the preservation of the original description of the eight hierarchical levels of PALOC-s, adaptations are made in the terminology and grouping of these levels.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

This manuscript presents the revised version of PALOC-sr, which is suitable for use in clinical practice. The validation of this scale is recommended for its optimal use in future (international) research projects.

Long-Term Vocational Outcome at 15 Years from Severe Traumatic and Non-Traumatic Brain Injury in Pediatric Age

BACKGROUND

Recent studies suggest that acquired brain injury with impaired consciousness in infancy is related to more severe and persistent effects and may have a cumulative effect on ongoing development. In this work, we aim to describe vocational outcome in a group of patients at 15 years from a severe brain lesion they suffered in developmental age.

METHODS

This study included a total of 147 patients aged 1.5 to 14 years with acquired brain lesion. Clinical and functional details ("Glasgow Outcome Scale", "Functional Independent Measure" and Intelligence Quotient) were collected at the time of their first hospitalization and vocational outcome was determined after 15 years.

RESULTS

94 patients (63.9%) presented with traumatic brain injury, while 53 patients (36.1%) presented with a brain lesion of other origin. Traumatic patients had a higher probability of being partly or fully productive than non-traumatic ones: 75.5% of traumatic subjects were working-taking into account limitations due to the traumatic event-versus 62.3% of non-traumatic ones. A relationship between some clinical variables and the vocational outcome was found.

CONCLUSIONS

Rehabilitation should adequately emphasize "vocational rehabilitation" because a significant proportion of people experiencing a disorder of consciousness in childhood may show good social integration in adult age.

Neuropsychological assessment through Coma Recovery Scale-Revised and Coma/Near Coma Scale in a sample of pediatric patients with disorder of consciousness

BACKGROUND

The Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R) has become a standard tool in assessing Disorders of consciousness (DoC) in adults. However, its measurement validity in pediatrics has only been ascertained in healthy cases. Increasing use of CRS-R in children with DoC imposes appropriate comparison against previously validated tools. The aims of the study were to describe the emergence to a conscious state (eMCS) in pediatric acquired brain injury (ABI); to explore the agreement between the CRS-R and Coma Near Coma Scale (CNCS) and to discuss the advantage of administering the CRS-R in pediatric age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this observational prospective study, 40 patients were recruited. Inclusion criteria were age 5 to 18 years, Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score ≤ 8 at the insult, and unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) or minimally conscious state (MCS) at admission. Patients were assessed with CRS-R, and CNCS was used as standard.

RESULTS

The agreement between scales was moderate (r = - 0.71). The analysis of the CRS-R domain scores also confirmed that decreasing CNCS levels (from a coma to eMCS) corresponded to concurrent increas of CRS-R scores in all domains. Moreover, CRS-R better defined patients' status in the emergency phase from MCS. Conversely, CRS-R had lower DoC scoring ability in the presence of severe motor impairment.

CONCLUSION

We show that CRS-R can track changes in DoC in children as young as 5 years old, and we provide evidence that the agreement with CNCS scores is good.

Long-Term Outcomes among Patients with Prolonged Disorders of Consciousness

PURPOSE

To evaluate the long-term survival and functional outcomes of patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness (pDoC) 1-8 years after brain injuries.

METHODS

Retrospective study to assess the long-term survival and functional outcomes of patients with pDoC was conducted. We performed Cox regression and multivariate logistic regression to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) for the outcome of survival and to identify risk factors of the functional outcome.

RESULTS

We recruited 154 patients with pDoC. The duration of follow-up from disease onset was 1-8 years. The median age was 46 years (IQR, 32-59), and 65.6% (n = 101) of them were men. During the follow-up period, one hundred and ten patients (71.4%) survived; among them, 52 patients had a good outcome. From the overall survival curve, the 1-, 3-, and 8-year survival rates of patients were about 80.5%, 72.0%, and 69.7%, respectively. Cox regression analysis revealed a significant association between the lower APACHE II score (p = 0.005) (cut-off score ≥ 18) and the presence of sleep spindles (p = 0.001) with survival. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated a higher CRS-R score (cut-off score ≥ 7), and presence of sleep spindles were related to a favorable outcome among patients with pDoC.

CONCLUSIONS

Sleep spindles are correlated with both long-term survival and long-term functional outcome in pDoC patients.

Predicting outcome of patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness using machine learning models based on medical complexity

Patients with severe acquired brain injury and prolonged disorders of consciousness (pDoC) are characterized by high clinical complexity and high risk to develop medical complications. The present multi-center longitudinal study aimed at investigating the impact of medical complications on the prediction of clinical outcome by means of machine learning models. Patients with pDoC were consecutively enrolled at admission in 23 intensive neurorehabilitation units (IRU) and followed-up at 6 months from onset via the Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE). Demographic and clinical data at study entry and medical complications developed within 3 months from admission were collected. Machine learning models were developed, targeting neurological outcomes at 6 months from brain injury using data collected at admission. Then, after concatenating predictions of such models to the medical complications collected within 3 months, a cascade model was developed. One hundred seventy six patients with pDoC (M: 123, median age 60.2 years) were included in the analysis. At admission, the best performing solution (k-Nearest Neighbors regression, KNN) resulted in a median validation error of 0.59 points [IQR 0.14] and a classification accuracy of dichotomized GOS-E of 88.6%. Coherently, at 3 months, the best model resulted in a median validation error of 0.49 points [IQR 0.11] and a classification accuracy of 92.6%. Interpreting the admission KNN showed how the negative effect of older age is strengthened when patients' communication levels are high and ameliorated when no communication is present. The model trained at 3 months showed appropriate adaptation of the admission prediction according to the severity of the developed medical complexity in the first 3 months. In this work, we developed and cross-validated an interpretable decision support tool capable of distinguishing patients which will reach sufficient independence levels at 6 months (GOS-E > 4). Furthermore, we provide an updated prediction at 3 months, keeping in consideration the rehabilitative path and the risen medical complexity.

The Association Between Early Versus Late Physical Therapy Initiation and Outcomes of Trauma Patients With and Without Traumatic Brain Injuries

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of literature regarding the most effective timing to initiate physical therapy (PT) among traumatically injured patients. We aim to evaluate the association between early PT/mobilization versus delayed or late PT/mobilization and clinical outcomes of trauma patients.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort analysis of an urban level-I trauma center from 2014 to 2019 was performed. Univariate analyses and multivariable logistic regression were performed with significance defined as P < 0.05.

RESULTS

A total of 11,937 patients were analyzed. Among patients without a traumatic brain injury (TBI), late PT initiation times were associated with 60% lower odds of being discharged home without services (P < 0.05), significantly increased hospital and ICU length of stay (H-LOS, ICU-LOS) (P < 0.05), and significantly higher odds of complications (VTE, pneumonia, pressure ulcers, ARDS) (P < 0.001). Among patients with a TBI, late PT initiation time had 76% lower odds of being discharged home without services (P < 0.05) and significantly longer H-LOS and ICU-LOS (P < 0.05) however did not experience significantly higher odds of complications (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Among traumatically injured patients, early PT is associated with decreased odds of complications, shorter H-LOS and ICU-LOS, and a favorable discharge disposition to home without services. Adoption of early PT initiation/mobilization protocols and establishment of prophylactic measures against complications associated with delayed PT is critical to maximize quality of care and trauma patient outcomes. Multi-center prospective studies are needed to ascertain the impact of PT initiation times in greater detail and to minimize trauma patient morbidity.

Towards consensus on visual pursuit and visual fixation in patients with disorders of consciousness. A Delphi study

BACKGROUND

The aim of this Delphi study was to reach consensus about definition, operationalization and assessment of visual pursuit (VP) and visual fixation (VF).

METHODS

In a three-round international Delphi study, clinical and research experts on disorders of consciousness indicated their level of agreement on 87 statements using a 5-point Likert scale. Consensus for agreement was defined by a median of 5, an interquartile range (IQR) ≤ 1, and ≥ 80% indicating moderate or strong agreement.

RESULTS

Forty-three experts from three continents participated, 32 completed all three rounds. For VP, the consensus statements with the highest levels of agreement were on the term 'pursuit of a visual stimulus', the description 'ability to follow visually in horizontal and/or vertical plane', a duration > 2 s, tracking in horizontal and vertical planes, and a frequency of more than 2 times per assessment. For VF, consensus statements with the highest levels of agreement were on the term 'sustained VF', the description 'sustained fixation in response to a salient stimulus', a duration of > 2 s and a frequency of 2 or more times per assessment. The assessment factors with the highest levels of agreement were personalized stimuli, the use of eye tracking technology, a patient dependent time of assessment, sufficient environmental light, upright posture, and the necessity to exclude ocular/oculomotor problems.

CONCLUSION

This first international Delphi study on VP and VF in patients with disorders of consciousness provides provisional operational definitions and an overview of the most relevant assessment factors.

An exploratory assessment of the management of pediatric traumatic brain injury in three centers in Africa

PURPOSE

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). Hospital care practices of pediatric TBI patients in LMICs are unknown. Our objective was to report on hospital management and outcomes of children with TBI in three centers in LMICs.

METHODS

We completed a secondary analysis of a prospective observational study in children (<18 years) over a 4-week period. Outcome was determined by Pediatric Cerebral Performance Category (PCPC) score; an unfavorable score was defined as PCPC > 2 or an increase of two points from baseline. Data were compared using Chi-square and Wilcoxon rank sum tests.

RESULTS

Fifty-six children presented with TBI (age 0-17 y), most commonly due to falls (43%, n = 24). Emergency department Glasgow Coma Scale scores were ≤ 8 in 21% (n = 12). Head computed tomography was performed in 79% (n = 44) of patients. Forty (71%) children were admitted to the hospital, 25 (63%) of whom were treated for suspected intracranial hypertension. Intracranial pressure monitoring was unavailable. Five (9%, n = 5) children died and 10 (28%, n = 36) inpatient survivors had a newly diagnosed unfavorable outcome on discharge.

CONCLUSION

Inpatient management and monitoring capability of pediatric TBI patients in 3 LMIC-based tertiary hospitals was varied. Results support the need for prospective studies to inform development of evidence-based TBI management guidelines tailored to the unique needs and resources in LMICs.

Factors Influencing Functional Recovery during Rehabilitation after Severe Acquired Brain Injuries: A Retrospective Analysis

Severe acquired brain injuries (sABI) represent one of the main causes of disability and limitation in social life participation that need an intensive rehabilitation approach. The purpose of this study was to identify a possible correlation between different supposed conditioning factors and the efficiency of rehabilitation interventions. In this retrospective study, data were processed regarding 44 patients admitted to a neurorehabilitation department after sABI. A significant correlation with the efficiency of the rehabilitation intervention (expressed as the variation of the Barthel score between discharge and admittance in relation to the duration of the rehabilitative hospitalization) was found for both the etiology of the brain injury (p = 0.023), the precocity of the rehabilitation treatment (p = 0.0475), the presence of a tracheal cannula (p = 0.0084) and forms of nutrition other than oral (p < 0.0001). The results of this study suggest that improving the management of the respiratory system, swallowing and nutritional aspects, and favoring an early and personalized rehabilitation treatment, can help to optimize the overall care of patients suffering from sABI, thus allowing a reduction in complications, improvement in functional recovery and ensuring a better management of economic, social and health resources.

One-Year Demographical and Clinical Indices of Patients with Chronic Disorders of Consciousness

This work aims to evaluate the prognostic value of the demographical and clinical data on long-term outcomes (up to 12 months) in patients with severe acquired brain injury with vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS/UWS) or a minimally conscious state (MCS). Patients (n = 211) with VS/UWS/UWS (n = 123) and MCS (n = 88) were admitted to the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology after anoxic brain injury (n = 53), vascular lesions (n = 59), traumatic brain injury (n = 93), and other causes (n = 6). At the beginning of the 12-month study, younger age and a higher score by the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised (CRS-R) predicted a survival. However, no reliable markers of significant positive dynamics of consciousness were found. Based on the etiology, anoxic brain injury has the most unfavorable prognosis. For patients with vascular lesions, the first three months after injury have the most important prognostic value. No correlations were found between survival, increased consciousness, and gender. The demographic and clinical characteristics of patients with chronic DOC can be used to predict long-term mortality in patients with chronic disorders of consciousness. Further research should be devoted to finding reliable predictors of recovery of consciousness.

Factors affecting functional outcomes of traumatic brain injury rehabilitation at a rehabilitation facility in Saudi Arabia

Objectives:

To identify the factors that affect disability after inpatient rehabilitation (IPR) in persons with traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Methods:

This retrospective study identified 140 patients aged ≥16 years who were admitted to the TBI rehabilitation unit at King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between 2015 and 2017. The collected data included demographic variables, TBI cause, coma duration, time from injury to IPR, LOS, and Functional Independence Measure (FIM) scores at IPR admission and discharge.

Results:

Majority of the patients were young males. The TBI was caused by motor vehicle accidents (MVA) in 95% of patients. The mean coma duration, time from injury to IPR admission, and LOS were 47±38, 264±357, and 75±52 days, respectively. The factors that were found to have an association with FIM change were time from injury to IPR admission (p=0.003, r=-0.250), admission FIM score (p=0.003, r=-0.253), and discharge FIM score (p<0.001, r=0.390). Employed patients had high FIM scores at admission (p=0.029, r=0.184) and discharge (p=0.003, r=0.252).

Conclusion:

Reduction in disability at discharge was positively associated with the severity of disability at admission and negatively with the time duration from injury to IPR admission, indicating a need to reduce time before admittance to an IPR setup. The high incidence of MVA causing TBI in a young male population strongly points to a need for appropriate measures of prevention.

Very Long-Term Outcomes in Children Admitted in a Disorder of Consciousness After Severe Traumatic Brain Injury

OBJECTIVES

To investigate functional outcomes and state of consciousness at 1 year and ≥2 years postinjury in children who sustained a traumatic brain injury and were in a disorder of consciousness (DOC), either vegetative state (VS) or minimally conscious state (MCS), upon admission to inpatient rehabilitation.

DESIGN

Retrospective chart review.

SETTING

Pediatric inpatient rehabilitation unit.

PARTICIPANTS

Children aged 2-18 years (N=37) who were admitted to inpatient rehabilitation with admission scores <30 on the Cognitive and Linguistic Scale (CALS).

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Glasgow Outcome Scale- Extended, Pediatric Revision (GOS-E Peds), and state of consciousness based on previously established guidelines.

RESULTS

At admission, 16 children were in VS (43.2%) and 21 (56.8%) were in MCS. Children admitted in VS had a significantly longer time from injury to inpatient rehabilitation admission, lower CALS admission scores, were more likely to be in a DOC ≥28 days, and had greater disability at both follow-up time points. At the 1-year follow-up, 3 patients were in VS, 7 were in MCS, and 27 had emerged from MCS. By the time of the most recent follow-up (≥2y), 2 more patients had emerged from MCS. Across the cohort, GOS-E Peds scores at 1 year ranged from VS (GOS-E Peds, 7) to upper moderate disability (GOS-E Peds, 3). Most patients were functioning in the lower severe disability category (GOS-E Peds, 6) at 1 year (43.2%) and at the time of the most recent follow-up (43.2%). Twenty-seven patients (73.0%) showed stable GOS-E Peds scores between the 2 time points, 6 (16.2%) improved, and 4 (10.8%) were deceased.

CONCLUSIONS

Although a majority of patients emerged from a DOC by 1 year postinjury, most continued to demonstrate notable functional impairment at the 1-year follow-up that persisted to the most recent follow-up. A small subset demonstrated important improvements between 1 year and the most recent follow-up (2 patients emerged, 6 patients showed improvement in GOS-E Peds scores).

Outcome registry of early intensive neurorehabilitation in patients with disorders of consciousness: study protocol of a prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Prolonged disorders of consciousness (PDOC) may occur after severe brain injury. Two diagnostic entities are distinguished within PDOC: unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS, previously known as vegetative state) and minimally conscious state (MCS). Patients with PDOC may benefit from early intensive neurorehabilitation (EIN). In the Netherlands, the EIN programme is provided by one designated expert rehabilitation centre and forms the starting point of a dedicated chain of specialised rehabilitation and care for this group. This study project, called DOCTOR: Disorders of Consciousness; Treatment and Outcomes Registry, sets up a registry and systematically investigates multiple short- and long-term outcomes of patients with PDOC who receive EIN.

METHODS

Single-centre prospective cohort study with a 2-year follow-up period. Patients with PDOC due to acute brain injury who receive EIN, aged 16 years and older are included. Measurements will take place at start EIN, in week 5, 10, and at discharge from the EIN programme (duration = max 14 weeks) and at week 28, 40, 52, and 104 after admission to the EIN programme, following patients through the health-care chain. Outcome measures are the changes over time in level of consciousness, using the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised; the frequency and type of medical complications; the mortality rate; level of disability, including the level of motor, cognitive, behavioural and emotional functioning; participation; and quality of life. Secondary outcomes include self-efficacy of caregivers, caregivers' strain and cost-effectiveness of the programme.

DISCUSSION

The DOCTOR study will provide insight in the recovery patterns and predictors of recovery for multiple outcomes in PDOC patients after following EIN. The results of the study will enable us to benchmark and improve EIN and the organisation of the health-care chain, both for patients with PDOC and for their families.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Netherlands Trial Register, NL 8138 . Retrospectively registered 6 November 2019.

Consciousness recovery after various periods in vegetative state

BACKGROUND

Recent studies suggest that late recovery from vegetative state (VS) is more prevalent today than previously thought. This study examined the decline in the rate of recovery from VS with time after admission to rehabilitation, and established a new time frame, in which the odds of recovery from VS remain substantial.

METHODS

Data of 206 patients with VS after traumatic and non-traumatic brain injuries (TBI and NTBI), who were treated at the Loewenstein Rehabilitation Hospital (LRH), in Raanana, Israel, between 2003 and 2015, and described in a previous publication, were further analysed. Rate of recovery from VS was monitored at several time points after admission to intensive care and consciousness rehabilitation (ICCR).

RESULTS

The odds of consciousness recovery were at least 54% at admission to ICCR, and 48%, 33%, 19%, and 7% at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after admission, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The rate of recovery from VS decreases significantly with time, but contrary to previous consensus, 6-12 months after admission to ICCR, the odds of recovery from VS after TBI and NTBI remain substantial.

Multicenter prospective study on predictors of short-term outcome in disorders of consciousness

OBJECTIVE

This international multicenter, prospective, observational study aimed at identifying predictors of short-term clinical outcome in patients with prolonged disorders of consciousness (DoC) due to acquired severe brain injury.

METHODS

Patients in vegetative state/unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (VS/UWS) or in minimally conscious state (MCS) were enrolled within 3 months from their brain injury in 12 specialized medical institutions. Demographic, anamnestic, clinical, and neurophysiologic data were collected at study entry. Patients were then followed up for assessing the primary outcome, that is, clinical diagnosis according to standardized criteria at 6 months postinjury.

RESULTS

We enrolled 147 patients (44 women; mean age 49.4 [95% confidence interval 46.1-52.6] years; VS/UWS 71, MCS 76; traumatic 55, vascular 56, anoxic 36; mean time postinjury 59.6 [55.4-63.6] days). The 6-month follow-up was complete for 143 patients (VS/UWS 70; MCS 73). With respect to study entry, the clinical diagnosis improved in 72 patients (VS/UWS 27; MCS 45). Younger age, shorter time postinjury, higher Coma Recovery Scale-Revised total score, and presence of EEG reactivity to eye opening at study entry predicted better outcome, whereas etiology, clinical diagnosis, Disability Rating Scale score, EEG background activity, acoustic reactivity, and P300 on event-related potentials were not associated with outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Multimodal assessment could identify patients with higher likelihood of clinical improvement in order to help clinicians, families, and funding sources with various aspects of decision-making. This multicenter, international study aims to stimulate further research that drives international consensus regarding standardization of prognostic procedures for patients with DoC.

Joint Neuropsychological Assessment through Coma/Near Coma and Level of Cognitive Functioning Assessment Scales Reduces Negative Findings in Pediatric Disorders of Consciousness

The present study aimed to: (a) characterize the emergence to a conscious state (CS) in a sample of children and adolescents with severe brain injury during the post-acute rehabilitation and through two different neuropsychological assessment tools: the Rappaport Coma/Near Coma Scale (CNCS) and Level of Cognitive Functioning Assessment Scale (LOCFAS); (b) compare the evolution in patients with brain lesions due to traumatic and non-traumatic etiologies; and (c) describe the relationship between the emergence to a CS and some relevant clinical variables. In this observational prospective longitudinal study, 92 consecutive patients were recruited. Inclusion criteria were severe disorders of consciousness (DOC), Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score ≤8 at insult, age 0 to 18 years, and direct admission to inpatient rehabilitation from acute care. The main outcome measures were CNCS and LOCFAS, both administered three and six months after injury. The cohort globally shifted towards milder DOC over time, moving from overall 'moderate/near coma' at three months to 'near/no coma' at six months post-injury. The shift was captured by both CNCS and LOCFAS. CNCS differentiated levels of coma at best, while LOCFAS was superior in characterizing the emergence from coma. Agreement between scales was fair, and reduced negative findings at less than 10%. Patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) vs. non-traumatic brain injury (NTBI) were older and had neurosurgical intervention more frequently. No relation between age and the level of consciousness was found overall. Concurrent administration of CNCS and LOCFAS reduced the rate of false negatives and better detected signs of arousal and awareness. This provides indication to administer both tools to increase measurement precision.

Interventions to improve outcomes in children and young people with unresponsive wakefulness syndrome following acquired brain injury: A systematic review

Unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) is a disorder of consciousness (DoC) which describes a state of wakefulness without evidence of self or environmental awareness, or interaction. There is currently no universally accepted evidence-based intervention for the treatment of UWS. This systematic review aimed to identify interventions to improve functioning in children and young people (0-25 years) with UWS following acquired brain injury (ABI). A systematic review of electronic databases was conducted, consisting of CINAHL, EMBASE, Medline, PsycINFO, PubMed, Cochrane Library, Scopus and Google Scholar. Eight studies met inclusion criteria. In these studies, the outcomes of interventions which aimed to improve quality of life, functional outcomes and/or increases in level of consciousness of paediatric patients in UWS were reported. Retrieved studies presented some evidence for improved consciousness and functional outcomes, following multi-component neurorehabilitation programmes, sensory stimulation or pharmacological interventions. Quality appraisal, using a modified version of the Downs and Black (1998) checklist, revealed risk of bias in a number of sources, including insufficient control over confounding variables, the use of inadequately validated outcome measures and concerns regarding diagnostic accuracy. More robust research is needed to adequately determine which interventions are most valuable at improving outcomes in paediatric UWS and to provide an improved evidence base for clinicians to draw upon when selecting treatment for patients.

Which behaviours are first to emerge during recovery of consciousness after severe brain injury?

BACKGROUND

Early detection of consciousness after severe brain injury is critical for establishing an accurate prognosis and planning appropriate treatment.

OBJECTIVES

To determine which behavioural signs of consciousness emerge first and to estimate the time course to recovery of consciousness in patients with severe acquired brain injury.

METHODS

Retrospective observational study using the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised and days to recovery of consciousness in 79 patients (51 males; 34 with traumatic brain injury; median [IQR] age 48 [26-61] years; median time since injury 26 [20-36] days) who transitioned from coma or unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS)/vegetative state (VS) to the minimally conscious state (MCS) or emerged from MCS during inpatient rehabilitation.

RESULTS

Visual pursuit was the most common initial sign of MCS (41% of patients; 95% CI [30-52]), followed by reproducible command-following (25% [16-35]) and automatic movements (24% [15-33]). Ten other behaviours emerged first in less than 16% of cases. Median [IQR] time to recovery of consciousness was 44 [33-59] days. Etiology did not significantly affect time to recovered consciousness.

CONCLUSION

Recovery of consciousness after severe brain injury is most often signalled by reemergence of visual pursuit, reproducible command-following and automatic movements. Clinicians should use assessment measures that are sensitive to these behaviours because early detection of consciousness is critical for accurate prognostication and treatment planning.

Pediatric Post–Cardiac Arrest Care: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association

Successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest results in a post–cardiac arrest syndrome, which can evolve in the days to weeks after return of sustained circulation. The components of post–cardiac arrest syndrome are brain injury, myocardial dysfunction, systemic ischemia/reperfusion response, and persistent precipitating pathophysiology. Pediatric post–cardiac arrest care focuses on anticipating, identifying, and treating this complex physiology to improve survival and neurological outcomes. This scientific statement on post–cardiac arrest care is the result of a consensus process that included pediatric and adult emergency medicine, critical care, cardiac critical care, cardiology, neurology, and nursing specialists who analyzed the past 20 years of pediatric cardiac arrest, adult cardiac arrest, and pediatric critical illness peer-reviewed published literature. The statement summarizes the epidemiology, pathophysiology, management, and prognostication after return of sustained circulation after cardiac arrest, and it provides consensus on the current evidence supporting elements of pediatric post–cardiac arrest care.

Early Protocolized Versus Usual Care Rehabilitation for Pediatric Neurocritical Care Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

s: Few feasibility, safety, and efficacy data exist regarding ICU-based rehabilitative services for children. We hypothesized that early protocolized assessment and therapy would be feasible and safe versus usual care in pediatric neurocritical care patients.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

SETTING

Three tertiary care PICUs in the United States.

PATIENTS

Fifty-eight children between the ages of 3-17 years with new traumatic or nontraumatic brain insult and expected ICU admission greater than 48 hours.

INTERVENTIONS

Early protocolized (consultation of physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech and language therapy within 72 hr ICU admission, n = 26) or usual care (consultation per treating team, n = 32).

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Primary outcomes were consultation timing, treatment type, and frequency of deferrals and safety events. Secondary outcomes included patient and family functional and quality of life outcomes at 6 months. Comparing early protocolized (n = 26) and usual care groups (n = 32), physical therapy was consulted during the hospital admission in 26 of 26 versus 28 of 32 subjects (p = 0.062) on day 2.4 ± 0.8 versus 7.7 ± 4.8 (p = 0.001); occupational therapy in 26 of 26 versus 23 of 32 (p = 0.003), on day 2.3 ± 0.6 versus 6.9 ± 4.8 (p = 0.001); and speech and language therapy in 26 of 26 versus 17 of 32 (p = 0.011) on day 2.3 ± 0.7 versus 13.0 ± 10.8 (p = 0.026). More children in the early protocolized group had consults and treatments occur in the ICU versus ward for all three services (all p < 0.001). Eleven sessions were discontinued early: nine during physical therapy and two during occupational therapy, none impacting patient outcome. There were no group differences in functional or quality of life outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

A protocol for early personalized rehabilitation by physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech and language therapy in pediatric neurocritical care patients could be safely implemented and led to more ICU-based treatment sessions, accelerating the temporal profile and changing composition of interventions versus usual care, but not altering the total dose of rehabilitation.

Outcome prediction in disorders of consciousness: the role of coma recovery scale revised

Background

To evaluate the utility of the revised coma remission scale (CRS-r), together with other clinical variables, in predicting emergence from disorders of consciousness (DoC) during intensive rehabilitation care.

Methods

Data were retrospectively extracted from the medical records of patients enrolled in a specialized intensive rehabilitation unit. 123 patients in a vegetative state (VS) and 57 in a minimally conscious state (MCS) were included and followed for a period of 8 weeks. Demographical and clinical factors were used as outcome measures. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression models were employed for examining potential predictors for clinical outcome along the time.

Results

VS and MCS groups were matched for demographical and clinical variables (i.e., age, aetiology, tracheostomy and route of feeding). Within 2 months after admission in intensive neurorehabilitation unit, 3.9% were dead, 35.5% had a full recovery of consciousness and 66.7% remained in VS or MCS. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that the best predictor of functional improvement was the CRS-r scores. In particular, patients with values greater than 12 at admission were those with a favourable likelihood of emergence from DoC.

Conclusions

Our study highlights the role of the CRS-r scores for predicting a short-term favorable outcome.

Clinical Features of Disorders of Consciousness in Young Children

OBJECTIVES

To investigate behavioral and demographic features of levels of consciousness in young children with brain injury, including the classifications of consciousness: conscious state (CS), minimally conscious state (MCS), and vegetative state (VS), and to investigate the course of recovery in children with disorders of consciousness (DOC).

DESIGN

Retrospective chart review and post hoc analysis.

SETTING

Pediatric inpatient rehabilitation unit.

PARTICIPANTS

Children aged 6 months to 5 years (N=54) admitted for inpatient rehabilitation directly from an acute care hospital following new neurologic injury from 2011 to 2016.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Clinically abstracted behavioral features of DOC and levels of consciousness at admission and discharge, based on established guidelines from the Aspen Neurobehavioral Conference Workgroup.

RESULTS

Children in MCS were younger than children in CS. Commonly observed behaviors in children in VS were mouth movements or vocalizations, flexion withdrawal or motor posturing, visual or auditory startle, and localization to sound. Common features of MCS were contingent affect, visual fixation or pursuit, automatic motor behavior, and contingent communicative intent. No children in MCS showed command following or intelligible verbalizations. All children in CS showed functional object use, while functional communication was observed in a subset. By discharge, more than half of children in VS emerged to MCS, and a third emerged from MCS to CS. No child emerged from VS to CS.

CONCLUSIONS

Visual and motor skills may be most applicable, and language-based skills may be least applicable for the assessment of DOC in very young children. Accurate classifications of consciousness may have important prognostic implications, and additional research is needed to develop clear guidelines for assessment of DOC in this population.

Evidence-based position paper on Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine professional practice for Adults with Acquired Brain Injury. The European PRM position (UEMS PRM Section)

BACKGROUND

Acquired brain injury (ABI) is damage to the brain that occurs after birth caused either by a traumatic or by a nontraumatic injury. The rehabilitation process following ABI should be performed by a multi-professional team, working in an interdisciplinary way, with the aim of organizing a comprehensive and holistic approach to persons with every severity of ABI. This Evidence Based Position Paper represents the official position of the European Union through the UEMS Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine (PRM) Section and designates the professional role of PRM physicians for people with ABI. The aim was to formulate recommendations on the PRM physician's professional practice for persons with ABI in order to promote their functioning and enhance quality of life.

METHODS

This paper has been developed according to the methodology defined by the Professional Practice Committee of the UEMS-PRM Section: a systematic literature search has been performed in PubMed and Core Clinical Journals. On the basis of the selected papers, recommendations have been made as a result of five Delphi rounds.

RESULTS

The literature review as well as thirty-one recommendations are presented.

CONCLUSIONS

The expert consensus is that structured, comprehensive and holistic rehabilitation program delivered by the multi-professional team, working in an interdisciplinary way, with the leadership and coordination of the PRM physician, is likely to be effective, especially for those with severe disability after brain injury.

Recovery from vegetative state of patients with a severe brain injury: a 4-year real-practice prospective cohort study

Patients who have suffered severe traumatic or nontraumatic brain injuries can show a progressive recovery, transitioning through a range of clinical conditions. They may progress from coma to a vegetative state (VS) and/or a minimally conscious state (MCS). A longer duration of the VS is known to be related to a lower probability of emergence from it; furthermore, the literature seems to lack evidence of late improvements in these patients. This real-practice prospective cohort study was conducted in inpatients in a VS following a severe brain injury, consecutively admitted to a vegetative state unit (VSU). The aim of the study was to assess their recovery in order to identify variables that might increase the probability of a VS patient transitioning to MCS. Rehabilitation treatment included passive joint mobilisation and helping/placing patients into an upright sitting position on a tilt table. All the patients underwent a specific assessment protocol every month to identify any emergence, however late, from the VS. Over a 4-year period, 194 patients suffering sequelae of a severe brain injury, consecutively seen, had an initial Glasgow Coma Scale score ≤ 8. Of these, 63 (32.5%) were in a VS, 84 (43.3%) in a MCS, and 47 (24.2%) in a coma; of the 63 patients admitted in a VS, 49 (57.1% males and 42.9% females, mean age 25.34 ± 19.12 years) were transferred to a specialist VSU and put on a slow-to-recover brain injury programme. Ten of these 49 patients were still in a VS after 36 months; of these 10, 3 recovered consciousness, transitioning to a MCS, 2 died, and 5 remained in a VS during the last 12 months of the observation. Univariate analysis identified male sex, youth, a shorter time from onset of the VS, diffuse brain injury, and the presence of status epilepticus as variables increasing the likelihood of transition to a MCS. Long-term monitoring of patients with chronic disorders of consciousness should be adequately implemented in order to optimise their access to rehabilitation services.

Task-free spectral EEG dynamics track and predict patient recovery from severe acquired brain injury

For some patients, coma is followed by a state of unresponsiveness, while other patients develop signs of awareness. In practice, detecting signs of awareness may be hindered by possible impairments in the patient's motoric, sensory, or cognitive abilities, resulting in a substantial proportion of misdiagnosed disorders of consciousness. Task-free paradigms that are independent of the patient's sensorimotor and neurocognitive abilities may offer a solution to this challenge. A limitation of previous research is that the large majority of studies on the pathophysiological processes underlying disorders of consciousness have been conducted using cross-sectional designs. Here, we present a study in which we acquired a total of 74 longitudinal task-free EEG measurements from 16 patients (aged 6–22 years, 12 male) suffering from severe acquired brain injury, and an additional 16 age- and education-matched control participants. We examined changes in amplitude and connectivity metrics of oscillatory brain activity within patients across their recovery. Moreover, we applied multi-class linear discriminant analysis to assess the potential diagnostic and prognostic utility of amplitude and connectivity metrics at the individual-patient level. We found that over the course of their recovery, patients exhibited nonlinear frequency band-specific changes in spectral amplitude and connectivity metrics, changes that aligned well with the metrics' frequency band-specific diagnostic value. Strikingly, connectivity during a single task-free EEG measurement predicted the level of patient recovery approximately 3 months later with 75% accuracy. Our findings show that spectral amplitude and connectivity track patient recovery in a longitudinal fashion, and these metrics are robust pathophysiological markers that can be used for the automated diagnosis and prognosis of disorders of consciousness. These metrics can be acquired inexpensively at bedside, and are fully independent of the patient's neurocognitive abilities. Lastly, our findings tentatively suggest that the relative preservation of thalamo-cortico-thalamic interactions may predict the later reemergence of awareness, and could thus shed new light on the pathophysiological processes that underlie disorders of consciousness.

•

Using behavioral criteria, disorders of consciousness are often misdiagnosed

•

We probed the diagnostic and prognostic value of task-free spectral EEG metrics

•

Metrics changed non-linearly across recovery and predicted level of consciousness

•

EEG connectivity predicted the level of patient recovery with 75% accuracy

•

These metrics are fully independent of the patient's neurocognitive abilities

Traumatic brain injury rehabilitation in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Time to rehabilitation admission, length of stay and functional outcome

OBJECTIVES

(1) Describe trends in time to rehabilitation admission and rehabilitation length of stay (LOS), (2) compare functional independence at discharge from rehabilitation between patients who arrived directly from acute care versus those from elsewhere and (3) identify independent predictors of functional outcomes following rehabilitation.

SETTING

Traumatic brain injuries rehabilitation unit of King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

We collected information on time from injury to rehabilitation admission, rehabilitation LOS, functional independence measure (FIM) score (admission and discharge) and demographic variables for 66 patients who arrived to rehabilitation from acute care and 142 patients who arrived from elsewhere. A mixed model analysis of variance measured change in FIM score between groups. Hierarchical regression was employed to investigate variables associated with FIM score at rehabilitation discharge.

RESULTS

Patients arriving directly from acute care had a time from injury to rehabilitation admission 1/3 that of, and a higher discharge FIM score than, patients arriving from elsewhere. For the latter group, increasing time from injury to rehabilitation admission was associated with lower rehabilitation discharge FIM score.

CONCLUSIONS

Reducing time from injury to rehabilitation admission and promoting enrolment to inpatient traumatic brain injury rehabilitation directly from acute care may improve functional outcome at discharge from rehabilitation.

Ten-to-twelve years after specialized neurorehabilitation of young patients with severe disorders of consciousness: A follow-up study

OBJECTIVE

To explore the long-term outcome of young patients with disorders of consciousness who had received intensive neurorehabilitation.

METHODS

A cross-sectional cohort study, in which the survival, level of consciousness, functional independence, mobility, communication and living situation were determined by means of a structured questionnaire. The cohort consisted of 44 children and young adults, originally either in a prolonged Vegetative State/Unresponsive Wakefulness Syndrome (VS/UWS, n = 33) or a Minimally Conscious State (MCS, n = 11) who had received a specialized neurorehabilitation programme 10-12 years earlier.

RESULTS

Response rate was 72% (34/44). Eleven patients were deceased, 10 of whom were in VS/UWS or MCS at discharge from the programme. Of the remaining 23 patients, 19 were conscious. Twelve lived independently, of whom six required some household support. One conscious patient lived permanently in a long-term care facility. All other patients lived either independently or with their parents. None of the VS/UWS or MCS patients showed any functional recovery.

CONCLUSION

Two main long-term outcome scenarios can be recognized. Two-thirds of the participating patients who were conscious at programme discharge were able to live independently, whereas almost two-thirds of the participating patients who were in VS/UWS or MCS at discharge subsequently died.

Will time heal? A long-term follow-up of severe disorders of consciousness

Objective

Little is known about the long-term outcome of patients with disorders of consciousness (DOCs) such as unresponsive wakefulness syndrome (UWS) or minimally conscious state (MCS). We describe the disease course of a large group of DOC patients 2–14 years after brain damage.

Methods

In 102 patients (59 UWS, 43 MCS), clinical and demographic variables from disorder onset were related to the patients' outcomes 2–14 years after discharge. Etiology, age at event, time since onset, gender, and home care versus institutional care were assessed as predictors and similarities and differences between UWS and MCS determined.

Results

Seventy-one percent of the patients had passed away or showed no improvement in condition. Twenty-nine percent regained consciousness and developed some communicative capacities. The time a syndrome persisted did not predict clinical outcome in either condition. Six patients regained consciousness after more than 3 years. Of these, five had been UWS (42% of recovered UWS, three traumatic origins, one tumor, one hypoxia) and one MCS (5% of recovered MCS, traumatic origin). In UWS, younger patients, those cared for at home, and in tendency those with traumatic origins, were more likely to recover. In MCS, no reliable outcome predictors were found.

Interpretation

Current predictors are too vague for single patient predictions. This study identifies a subgroup of late-recovering patients, casting doubt on the 12-month boundary, after which UWS is stated to be permanent. Routine reexamination, use of more reliable outcome predictors and research determining optimal care settings are needed to inform the crucial decisions made for these patients.

Clinical and neuropsychological long-term outcomes after late recovery of responsiveness: a case series

OBJECTIVE

To report clinical conditions and neuropsychological functioning of patients with late recovery of responsiveness at least 5 years after injury.

DESIGN

Patient series.

SETTING

Patients discharged from an inpatient rehabilitation unit.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients (N=13) who recovered from a vegetative state 1 year after severe traumatic brain injury or 6 months after nontraumatic brain injury.

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Coma Recovery Scale-Revised, Disability Rating Scale, and FIM. For patients who recovered full consciousness, neuropsychological tests specifically adapted for patients with very severe disabilities were used.

RESULTS

After regaining responsiveness, 2 patients died because of severe clinical complications. Among the remaining 11 patients, 5 were still in a minimally conscious state at their last assessment, but 4 of them had recovered some complex behavioral responses to the environment (eg, they could follow simple commands, albeit inconsistently). Six patients had emerged from a minimally conscious state at the last evaluation. Severe functional disability was present in both patients who were conscious and patients who were minimally conscious. No patient was autonomous in common daily life activities or in transfers. All patients who were conscious showed variable cognitive impairments, and some of them also developed behavioral and psychological symptoms. However, such disturbances did not impede the patients' interaction with relatives and caregivers.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides systematic data about the course of the disease in a cohort of patients that was previously considered as exceptional. Patients with late recovery show a variable degree of functional recovery, although they experience marked residual motor and cognitive disabilities. The present findings contribute to enhance the understanding of the course of the disease in patients with late recovery and might help clinicians optimize the levels of care and provide the patients' families with correct information.

Physiotherapy Models of Service Delivery, Staffing, and Caseloads: A Profile of Level I Trauma Centres across Canada

PURPOSE

To examine and describe physiotherapy models of service delivery, staffing, and caseloads in Level I trauma centres across Canada.

METHODS

A telephone questionnaire was administered to one experienced trauma physiotherapist at each of the 19 Level I trauma centres in Canada. Quantitative data were analyzed descriptively for national trends.

RESULTS

Data were collected from all 19 centres (100%), 89% of which provided physiotherapy services 5 days per week with priority weekend coverage. Physiotherapist assistants (PTAs) were employed by 89% of centres and were used across the continuum of care. Centres with PTAs appear to be more likely to provide patients with additional daily treatment. Departmental organizational structures were the most common (41%) and were associated with higher caseloads. Higher caseloads also appear to be linked with having less than 10 years of experience as a physiotherapist.

CONCLUSIONS

Variations exist between centres with respect to the delivery of physiotherapy services. These variations may result from differences in province-specific legislation, differences in funding structure, and the lack of evidence-informed guidelines. Future research is needed to establish optimal models of physiotherapy services that are cost-effective and provide best patient care.

Physical rehabilitation of the critically ill trauma patient in the ICU

OBJECTIVES

To 1) review the existing evidence for early mobilization of the critically ill patients in the ICU with polytrauma; 2) provide intensivists with an introduction to the biomechanics, physiology, and nomenclature of injuries; 3) summarize the evidence for early mobilization in each anatomic area; and 4) provide recommendations for the mobilization of these patients.

DATA SOURCES

A literature search of the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases for articles published in English between 1980 and 2011.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies pertaining to physical therapy and rehabilitation in trauma patients were selected. Articles were excluded if they dealt with pediatrics, geriatrics, burn injuries, isolated hand injuries, chronic (i.e., not acute) injuries, nontraumatic conditions, and pressure/decubitus ulcers, were in a language other than English, were published only in abstract form, were letters to the editor, were case reports, or were published prior to 1980.

DATA EXTRACTION

Reviewers extracted data and summarized results according to anatomical areas.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Of 1,411 titles and abstracts, 103 met inclusion criteria. We found no articles specifically addressing the rehabilitation of polytrauma patients in the ICU setting or patients with polytrauma in general. We summarized the articles addressing the role of mobilization for specific injuries and treatments. We used this evidence, in combination with biologic rationale and physician and surgeon experience and expertise, to summarize the important considerations when providing physical therapy to these patients in the ICU setting.

CONCLUSIONS

There is a paucity of evidence addressing the role of early mobilization of ICU patients with polytrauma and patients with polytrauma in general. Evidence for the beneficial role of early mobilization of specific injuries exists. Important considerations when applying a strategy of early physical therapy and mobilization to this distinctive patient group are summarized.

Descriptive characteristics and rehabilitation outcomes in active duty military personnel and veterans with disorders of consciousness with combat- and noncombat-related brain injury

OBJECTIVE

To report the injury and demographic characteristics, medical course, and rehabilitation outcome for a consecutive series of veterans and active duty military personnel with combat- and noncombat-related brain injury and disorder of consciousness (DOC) at the time of rehabilitation admission.

DESIGN

Retrospective study.

SETTING

Rehabilitation center.

PARTICIPANTS

From January 2004 to October 2009, persons (N=1654) were admitted to the Polytrauma Rehabilitation System of Care. This study focused on the N=122 persons admitted with a DOC. Participants with a DOC were primarily men (96%), on active duty (82%), ≥12 years of education, and a median age of 25. Brain injury etiologies included mixed blast trauma (24%), penetrating (8%), other trauma (56%), and nontrauma (13%). Median initial Glasgow Coma Scale score was 3, and rehabilitation admission Glasgow Coma Scale score was 8. Individuals were admitted for acute neurorehabilitation approximately 51 days postinjury with a median rehabilitation length of stay of 132 days.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Recovery of consciousness and the FIM instrument.

RESULTS

Most participants emerged to regain consciousness during neurorehabilitation (64%). Average gains ± SD on the FIM cognitive and motor subscales were 19 ± 25 and 7 ± 8, respectively. Common medical complications included spasticity (70%), dysautonomia (34%), seizure occurrence (30%), and intracranial infection (22%). Differential outcomes were observed across etiologies, particularly for those with blast-related brain injury etiology.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite complex comorbidities, optimistic outcomes were observed. Individuals with severe head injury because of blast-related etiologies have different outcomes and comorbidities observed. Health-services research with a focus on prevention of comorbidities is needed to inform optimal models of care, particularly for combat injured soldiers with blast-related injuries.

Do rehospitalization rates differ among injury severity levels in the NIDRR Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems program?

OBJECTIVE

To compare the rate and nature of rehospitalization in a cohort of patients enrolled in the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research Traumatic Brain Injury Model Systems (TBIMS) who have disorders of consciousness (DOC) at the time of rehabilitation admission with those in persons with moderate or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) but without DOC at rehabilitation admission.

DESIGN

Prospective observational study.

SETTING

Inpatient rehabilitation within TBIMS with annual follow-up.

PARTICIPANTS

Of 9028 persons enrolled from 1988 to 2009 (N=9028), 366 from 20 centers met criteria for DOC at rehabilitation admission and follow-up data, and another 5132 individuals met criteria for moderate (n=769) or severe TBI (n=4363).

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Participants and/or their family members completed follow-up data collection including questions about frequency and nature of rehospitalizations at 1 year postinjury. For the subset of participants with DOC, additional follow-up was conducted at 2 and 5 years postinjury.

RESULTS

The DOC group demonstrated an overall 2-fold increase in rehospitalization in the first year postinjury relative to those with moderate or severe TBI without DOC. Persons with DOC at rehabilitation admission have a higher rate of rehospitalization across several categories than persons with moderate or severe TBI.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the specific details of rehospitalization are unknown, greater injury severity resulting in DOC status on rehabilitation admission has long-term implications. Data highlight the need for a longitudinal approach to patient management.

Specialized early treatment for persons with disorders of consciousness: program components and outcomes

OBJECTIVES

To describe a specialized early treatment program for persons with disorders of consciousness (DOC) that includes family education; to identify rates of secondary conditions, imaging used, and selected interventions; and to evaluate outcomes.

DESIGN

A single-center, retrospective, pre-post design using electronic medical record data.

SETTING

A Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities-accredited, long-term acute care hospital that provides acute medical and inpatient rehabilitation levels of care for people with catastrophic injuries.

PARTICIPANTS

Persons (N=210) aged 14 to 69 years with DOC of primarily traumatic etiology admitted at a mean ± SD of 41.0 ± 27.2 days postinjury; 2% were in coma, 41% were in the vegetative state, and 57% were in the minimally conscious state.

INTERVENTIONS

An acute medical level of care with ≥90 minutes of daily interdisciplinary rehabilitation and didactic and hands-on caretaking education for families.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Coma Recovery Scale-Revised, Modified Ashworth Scale, and discharge disposition.

RESULTS

Program admission medical acuity included dysautonomia (15%), airway modifications (79%), infections (eg, pneumonia, 16%; urinary tract infection, 14%; blood, 11%), deep vein thrombosis (17%), pressure ulcers (14%), and marked hypertonia (30% in each limb). There were 168 program interruptions (ie, 139 surgeries, 29 nonsurgical intensive care unit transfers). Mean length of stay ± SD was 39.1 ± 29.4 days (range, 6-204d). Patients showed improved consciousness and respiratory function and reduced presence or severity of pressure ulcers and upper extremity hypertonia. At discharge, 54% showed sufficient emergence from a minimally conscious state to transition to mainstream inpatient rehabilitation, and 29% did not emerge but were discharged home to family with ongoing programmatic support; only 13% did not emerge and were institutionalized.

CONCLUSIONS

Persons with DOC resulting primarily from a traumatic etiology who receive specialized early treatment that includes acute medical care and ≥90 minutes of daily rehabilitation are likely to show improved consciousness and body function; more than half may transition to mainstream inpatient rehabilitation. Families who receive comprehensive education and hands-on training with ongoing follow-up support may be twice as likely to provide care for medically stable persons with DOC in their homes versus nursing facility placement.

Life expectancy of brain impaired, chronically ventilated children

We present a 5-year survival profile of 42 children and adolescents between 1 to 21 years of age in an immobile minimally conscious state, chronically dependent on supportive ventilation. Data were collected from a 22-bed pediatric unit dedicated to this unique population, within a 350-bed geriatric hospital, between May 2006 and May 2011. The practice of ventilating children even in minimally conscious state stems from the unique cultural, religious, and ethnic background of the population in Israel. The 5-year survival probability was 48% (52% probability of death within 5 years, 26.5% within 2 years). No significant difference was found in the survival profile of patients admitted following hypoxic accidents (20 children) and those admitted with other problems such as genetic/metabolic diseases or brain anomalies (22). The mortality rate of male patients was higher than that of female patients, but the difference was not statistically significant. No difference in 5-year mortality rates was found between children of different ethnic backgrounds.

Disorders of consciousness: responding to requests for novel diagnostic and therapeutic interventions

Severe brain injury can leave patients with chronic disorders of consciousness. Because of impaired responsiveness, many of these patients have traditionally been regarded as unaware. However, findings from recent clinical studies herald a potential paradigm shift: functional imaging and neurophysiological studies have identified ways to assess awareness and have revealed astounding cases of awareness despite clinical unresponsiveness. Hence, diagnostic classifications have been rewritten, prognostic knowledge is improving, and therapeutic studies have regained momentum, showing for the first time some therapeutic effects on responsiveness. Clinicians must increasingly respond to requests by patients' families and surrogate decision makers to use novel techniques for diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, and in doing so several ethical and social issues need to be considered. Such requests provide an opportunity for clinicians to learn about patients' values and preferences and to maintain clinical acumen for changes in patient status with the patients' best interests in mind.