Fourth-grade students' motivational changes in an elementary physical education running program

Expectancy-Value Motivation and Physical Activity- and Health-Related Outcomes among At-Risk Children and Adolescents

Despite a large amount of research having been done to examine and promote physical activity and health among adolescents and children, relatively little attention has been paid attention to underrepresented populations. In this study, we investigated the relationships between expectancy-value motivation and physical activity- and health-related outcomes among a group of at-risk boys at a summer sports camp. The total participants included 107 boys (Mage = 11.78 years, SD = 1.20). The boys' perceived expectancy beliefs (EXP), importance (IMP), interest (INT), usefulness (USE), effort (EFT), and intention for future participation (IFP) were assessed using established questions on a five-point Likert scale, and a PACER test was performed to estimate their cardiovascular fitness (CVF). Through a path analysis, we found that EXP positively predicted CVF (β = 0.19, p < 0.01), IMP positively predicted EFT (β = 0.26, p < 0.01), and INT positively predicted both EFT (β = 0.34, p < 0.01) and IFP (β = 0.28, p < 0.01), while USE had no statistically significant effect on either EFT, IFP, or CVF. We discussed the limitations and implications of the present study. We recommend including a diverse sample and employing the expectancy-value model in future research, and advocating expectancy beliefs and task values, especially importance and interest, among participants during physical activity promotion.

Longitudinal Stability and Change in Young Students’ Mastery-Approach Goals for Running

In the present study, we examined the longitudinal stability and change in mastery-approach goals for running as offered in regularly scheduled physical education (PE) and athletics classes in the United States. There were five waves of data collection from 806 students (431 boys; 375 girls) who were tracked from fourth to eighth grade while participating in running activities in PE or athletics classes. We assessed the participants’ mastery-approach goals using four items on a 5-point scale. We found acceptable longitudinal construct validity, measurement invariance, and scale reliability for the scores of mastery-approach goals, and we found these goals to have moderate stability across this 5-year period. Latent growth modeling revealed a linear decline in mean mastery-approach goal scores over the five school years. We concluded that the assessment of mastery-approach goals over time was both valid and reliable and that these running mastery-approach goals were stable in most respects but became less intense over time.

Satisfaction with Physical Activity among Students in the Last Cycle of Primary Education in Extremadura

Satisfaction with physical activity during Physical Education classes leads to improved health and adherence to future healthy lifestyle habits, in addition, higher levels of physical activity have also been widely associated with higher academic achievement in primary school. To find out how satisfied Extremadura students are with the physical activity they perform, a questionnaire was distributed with different items related to positive and negative feelings they may feel during the practice. The differences between the items of the questionnaire and the total median scores according to sex and center location were analyzed and found to be present in all the items that refer to positive feelings. Additionally, the relationship between age and the mean score obtained through the questionnaire was evaluated, without discovering any significant correlations. The results showed that students are generally satisfied with the physical activity they practice in their classes and that this has benefited their academic performance.

Motivation and Perceived Motivational Climate by Adolescents in Face-to-Face Physical Education during the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic impacted adolescents’ lives, leading to unprecedented changes in their routines, especially in education. Face-to-face physical education (PE) classes during COVID-19 were affected in organization, possibly conditioning students’ participation, motivation and learning. Based on the achievement goal and self-determination theories, the aim of this study was to analyze and compare the motivational indicators of adolescents in face-to-face PE classes during COVID-19, according to gender, educational level and physical activity (PA). A total of 1369 students participated in the study (621 boys and 748 girls; mean age: 14.4 years; SD: 1.74). Data were collected via an online questionnaire and analyzed using MANCOVAs adjusted for age, pre- and post-COVID-19 PA, socioeconomic status and BMI (Z-score). Differences in achievement goals, motivational climate and motivational regulation levels were found in different groups by gender, PA and educational level, favoring older and more active participants. A more positive motivational profile was found for girls in general and, specifically, for active boys, regarding more self-determined motivations and mastery goal orientations. Overall, this study’s findings suggest that the restrictions related to face-to-face PE classes during the COVID-19 pandemic had a negative impact on students’ motivation.

The Roles of Sex and Minority Status in Children's Motivation and Psychomotor Learning

In this study, we had two inter-related goals: (a) to examine sex and minority status differences on children's motivation for physical education (PE; i.e., their expectancy beliefs, subjective task values, and situational interest) and their psychomotor learning outcomes (i.e., motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, and in-class physical activity); and (b) to examine the relationships between children's motivation and their psychomotor learning outcomes while testing the moderation effects of sex and minority status. We recruited 195 fourth and fifth-grade students (101 boys; 94 girls; M_age = 10.7, SD = 0.7 years) from three elementary schools in North Texas. Using multivariate analysis of variance, we identified a significant sex difference that favored boys in motivation and psychomotor learning outcomes, with no significant minority status difference in relation to these variables. Regression analysis revealed that children's expectancy beliefs were significantly associated with both motor competence (R² = 11%) and cardiorespiratory fitness (R² = 16%), while both situational interest and sex were associated with in-class physical activity (R² = 18%). Thus, improving children's expectancy beliefs may be a means of enhancing psychomotor learning outcomes in PE, especially for girls. Enhancing children's beliefs in their own ability and offering diversified PE content so as to generate greater interest may facilitate psychomotor learning.

Amotivation and influence of teacher support dimensions: A self-determination theory approach

Based on self-determination theory the study seeks to examine influence of teacher autonomy support, structure and relatedness support on amotivation of middle school students. This correlational study based in Indian sub-continent establishes that all three dimensions of teacher support (i.e., teacher autonomy, teacher structure and teacher relatedness support) reduces amotivation however teacher structure have the strongest influence. No gender and age differences were reported for the study. Study highlights the importance of reverse side of motivation (amotivation) and predicates that teacher support is essential not only in increasing motivation but also in reducing amotivation. Training teachers is necessary to increase their ability of providing autonomy support, structure and relatedness support.

Students' individual interest in physical education: Development and validation of a questionnaire

Identifying the specificity of students' individual interest in physical education is necessary to capture the different facets of this construct. In contrast to existing questionnaires in education which assess the multidimensionality of individual interest, the current scale used in physical education consists of a single-item measurement which rates students' individual interest for multiple physical activities taught during lessons. Even if this single-item rating provides a basis for classifying interest relative to others, it does not provide information about the nature and internal components of individual interest. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable questionnaire measuring the multidimensionality of students' individual interest in physical education. Four stages were followed: (1) the development of a preliminary version based on the findings of a literature review on individual interest and a committee process validation; (2) a first study conducted on 481 secondary school students to establish the factor structure, and internal reliability of this questionnaire; (3) a second study based on 243 secondary school students to confirm its factor structure and to test its temporal stability; and finally, (4) a third study with 253 students to test its concurrent validity. The final form of the questionnaire consists of a three-factor structure based on 14 items that measure students' individual interest in physical education: positive affect and willingness to reengage (five items), stored utility value (four items), and stored attainment value and knowledge-seeking intentions (five items).

Effects of exergaming on motor skill competence, perceived competence, and physical activity in preschool children

BACKGROUND

Few school settings offer opportunities for preschool children to engage in structured physical activity, and only a few studies have been conducted examining exergaming's effectiveness on health outcomes in this age group. This study's purpose, therefore, was to examine a school-based exergaming intervention's effect on preschool children's perceived competence (PC), motor skill competence (MSC), and physical activity versus usual care (recess), as well as to examine gender differences for these outcomes.

METHODS

A total of 65 preschool children from 2 underserved urban schools were assigned to 1 of 2 conditions, with the school as the experimental unit: (1) usual care recess group (8 weeks of 100min of recess/week (5 days × 20 min)) and (2) exergaming intervention group (8 weeks of 100min of exergaming/week (5 days × 20 min) at school). All children underwent identical assessments of PC, MSC, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) at baseline and at the end of the 8th week.

RESULTS

A significant Group × Time effect was observed for MVPA, F(1, 52) = 4.37, p = 0.04, η p 2  = 0.04, but not for PC, F(1, 52) = 0.83, p = 0.37, η p 2  = 0.02, or MSC, F(1, 52) = 0.02, p = 0.88, η p 2  = 0.00. Specifically, the intervention children displayed significantly greater increased MVPA after 8weeks than the comparison children. Additionally, there was a significant time effect for MSC, F(1, 52) = 15.61, p < 0.01, η p 2  = 0.23, and gender effect for MVPA, F(1, 52) = 5.06, p = 0.02, η p 2  = 0.09. Although all preschoolers' MSC improved across time, boys demonstrated greater MVPA than girls at both time points.

CONCLUSION

Exergaming showed a positive effect in promoting preschool children's MVPA at school and has the potential to enhance PC and MSC. More research with larger sample sizes and longer study durations are warranted.

Effect of an Active Video Gaming Classroom Curriculum on Health-Related Fitness, School Day Step Counts, and Motivation in Sixth Graders

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to explore the effect of an active video gaming (AVG) classroom curriculum on health-related fitness, school day steps, and motivation in sixth graders.

METHODS

A convenience sample of 65 sixth graders were recruited from 2 classrooms from a school located in the Western United States. One classroom served as the comparison group (n = 32) that participated in active free play, and one classroom served as the intervention group (n = 33) that participated in an AVG curriculum for 30 minutes per day, 3 days per week, for 18 weeks. Cardiorespiratory endurance was assessed using Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run laps. School day steps were recorded, and motivational variables were collected using questionnaires. Measures were collected at baseline and an 18-week posttest time point.

RESULTS

There was a significant group × time interaction for Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run laps (b = 20.7 laps; 95% confidence interval, 14.6 to 26.8; P < .001). No statistically significant interactions were found for step counts or any of the motivational variables.

CONCLUSIONS

An 18-week AVG classroom curriculum improved cardiorespiratory endurance relative to the comparison group in sixth graders. This study supports the use of low-cost AVG curricula to improve the health-related fitness of youth.

Children's expectancy beliefs and subjective task values through two years of school-based program and associated links to physical education enjoyment and physical activity

PURPOSE

The present study examined the patterns of children's expectancy beliefs and subjective task values through the Physical Activity as Civil Skill Program and associated links to physical education enjoyment and total physical activity.

METHODS

The sample comprised 401 children aged 9-13 years from 3 small towns located in North-East Finland. All children received school-based activities across 2-year program from Grades 5 to 7. The present data were collected using questionnaires across 3 measurement phases during 2012-2014.

RESULTS

The levels of expectancy beliefs and subjective task values indicated to be relatively high and the development was stable through the program, especially in terms of expectancy beliefs, attainment value, and cost. In contrast, interest value and utility value decreased over the particular period of time. Boys believed they are physically more competent when compared to other students and valued physical education classes more important than girls. In addition, the higher the physical activity level the children reported, the higher the physical education enjoyment they perceived.

CONCLUSION

The current program including actions to increase physical activity through manipulation of psychological and physical school environment modifications indicated to be an effective strategy to prohibit declining levels of children's expectancy beliefs and task values.

Top 10 research questions related to children physical activity motivation

Physical activity is critical to healthy development of children. It is well documented that helping children develop and sustain a physically active lifestyle requires children to become motivated. Many studies have been conducted in the past 2.5 decades on determinants and correlates for children and adolescents' physical activity motivation. The findings have informed researchers and practitioners about motivation sources for children and effective strategies to motivate children in given physical activity settings. Built on the extensive knowledge base and theoretical platforms formed by these research studies, the purpose of this article is to take a look at the current research landscape and provide subjective thoughts about what we still need to know about children's physical activity motivation. The product of this subjective thinking process rendered 10 potential questions for future research on children's physical activity motivation in both in-school and out-of-school settings. These topics encompass those focusing on children's physical activity motivation as a mental dispositional process, those conceptualizing the motivation as an outcome of person-environment interactions, and those attempting to dissect the motivation as an outcome of social-cultural influences and educational policies. It is hoped that the topics can serve researchers interested in children's physical activity motivation as starting blocks from which they can extend their conceptual thinking and identify research questions that are personally meaningful. It is also hoped that the list of potential questions can be helpful to researchers in accomplishing the imperative and significant mission to motivate children to be physically active in the 21st century and beyond.

Future Intent to Run and Running Performance of Students Exposed to a Traditional versus an Autonomy Supportive Motivational Running Program

Background. The study's primary purpose was to investigate whether an autonomy supportive motivational climate in a running program would increase future running intent among high school students. A secondary purpose was to examine whether the program would increase individual performance in the Cooper 12-minute run. Methods. Students participated in a 4-month running intervention program which included four timed runs, one per month, and a future intent questionnaire prior to the start of the timed runs and following the last run. Results. Factorial repeated measures ANOVA revealed significance regarding future intent (P = .026) at both schools. Factorial repeated measures ANOVA indicated differences between the runs at both schools (P < .001). Paired samples t-tests were conducted to look at significance with paired runs. Results revealed significance in two of the six pairs at the treatment school, notably between the first and last timed runs (P = .004). Only one pair was found to be significant (P < .001) with the control school. Conclusion. At both schools, the overall number of laps increased as well as future intent to run scores. The results do not support evidence of a greater effect from the autonomy supportive environment over a traditional environment.

Examining elementary school children's level of enjoyment of traditional tag games vs. interactive dance games

Enjoyment has been implicated as a determinant of physical activity among children and adolescents. However, the effect of different sport activities on children's enjoyment remains largely unexplored. This study examined whether children's enjoyment in physical education (PE) varied as a function of learning activities. Participants were 210 third- through sixth-grade children who had a 30 min PE class every week. Participants responded to a standardized self-report enjoyment survey measuring their enjoyment level in a PE class during which they participated in tag games. Students completed the same questionnaire when involved in interactive dance games in PE. The results revealed that children reported significantly higher scores in enjoyment toward interactive dance games than they did toward traditional games (p < .01). Also, girls exhibited higher enjoyment toward interactive dance games than boys did (p < .05). However, no gender difference emerged on enjoyment toward traditional games. In conclusion, it is practical and meaningful to integrate interactive dance games into PE.

The impact of achievement goals on cardiorespiratory fitness: does self-efficacy make a difference?

PURPOSE

The relationships among students' self-efficacy, 2 x 2 achievement goals (mastery-approach [MAp], mastery-avoidance [MAv], performance-approach [PAp], and performance-avoidance goals), and achievement performance remain largely unanswered. We tested a model of the mediating role of self-efficacy on the relationship between 2 x 2 achievement goals and cardiorespiratory fitness

METHOD

A sample of 276 middle school students (115 boys and 161 girls; 91 sixth graders, 87 seventh graders, and 98 eighth graders), aged 12 to 15 years (Mage = 13.34, SD = 0.96), responded to the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Conroy, Elliot, & Hofer, 2003) and Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (Gao, Newton, & Carson, 2008) referenced to the fitness test. Their cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed via the Progressive Aerobic Cardiorespiratory Endurance Run (PACER) 3 days later.

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling demonstrated an acceptable model fit to the data, Chi2 (2, N = 105) = 1.66. Self-efficacy had a statistically significant direct effect on the PACER after controlling for the effects of the achievement goals (gamma(self-efficacy))-PACER = .21). MAv and PAp also had direct effects on PACER performance (gammaMAv-PACER = -.24, and gammaPAp-PACER = .24, respectively). MAp failed to exert direct effect on the PACER. However, the indirect effect of MAp on the PACER via self-efficacy was small although it was statistically significant. Additionally, the indirect effects of MAv and PAp on PACER through self-efficacy were not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Students' self-efficacy fully mediated the effect of MAp on fitness performance, as well as partially mediated the effects of MAv and PAp on cardiorespiratory fitness performance. Study implications are provided for educators and practitioners.

Children’s Perceived Cost for Exercise: Application of an Expectancy-Value Paradigm

Expectancy-value models of motivation have been applied to understanding children’s choices in areas such as academics and sports. Here, an expectancy-value paradigm is applied to exercising (defined as engaging in physical activity). The notion of perceived cost is highlighted in particular. Two hundred twenty children in third, fourth, and fifth grades were surveyed on their competence beliefs, perceived importance, interest, and perceived cost of being physically active. Results indicated that perceived cost is empirically distinct from competence beliefs and other types of value, that perceived cost is marginally related to children’s self-reported level of physical activity, and children’s beliefs and other values are related to their self-reported level of physical activity. Children’s perceptions of cost vary depending on grade and gender. Interventions based on these findings are proposed.

Changes in psychosocial factors and physical activity frequency among third- to eighth-grade girls who participated in a developmentally focused youth sport program: a preliminary study

BACKGROUND

Despite the numerous physiological, psychological, and academic benefits of physical activity (PA), declines in PA levels among girls have been observed over the last decade. The purpose of this preliminary study was to assess the short-term changes pertaining to Girls on the Run and Girls on Track developmentally focused youth sport programs (DYS) on global self-esteem, body image, commitment to PA, and PA frequency.

METHODS

This preliminary study employed a nonexperimental, one-group, pre- and postintervention study design using a 29-item paper-and-pencil assessment tool (n = 1034).

RESULTS

Paired sample t-tests from pre- to postintervention revealed statistically significant differences in self-esteem (p < .001), body size satisfaction (p < .001), and vigorous PA frequency (p < .001). Stratification by the number of times participating in the intervention revealed the greatest changes at first participation followed with continued improvements in self-esteem (p = .013) and body size satisfaction (p < .001) for those participating in a second time. Age differences were also observed between participants </=10 years old and 11-15 years; in that significant improvements in commitment to PA (p = .003) were observed for the older girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest DYS programs Girls on the Run and Girls on Track may produce beneficial changes in self-esteem, body size satisfaction, PA commitment, and PA frequency. Although the findings from the current report are preliminary, they suggest that DYS programs designed exclusively for girls may provide the necessary framework to promote PA to achieve the numerous associated benefits.

The influence of domain specificity on motivation in physical education

With the assumption that domain specificity would significantly influence students' motivation, our study was designed to investigate between- and within-domain relations of task value, perceived autonomy and competence, and achievement goal orientations across physical education and mathematics. Urban adolescents (N = 273, ages 12-14 years) completed questionnaires assessing these motivational constructs in both subjects. Based on our confirmatory factor analyses and fit indexes, all motivational constructs demonstrated strong subject specificity. Strengths of associations between physical education and mathematics differed by individual motivational constructs. Within-domain interrelations of these constructs were not consistent across physical education and mathematics. Our findings suggest that domain specificity in physical education plays a significant role in students' motivation.

Is in-class physical activity at risk in constructivist physical education?

Constructivist physical education emphasizes cognitive engagement. This study examined the impact of a constructivist curriculum on in-class physical activity. Caloric expenditure in metabolic equivalents (MET) and vector magnitude count (VM) data from a random sample of 41 constructivist lessons were compared with those from a random sample of 35 nonconstructivist lessons. Statistical analyses revealed that students in both curriculum conditions were active at a similarly low-moderate level (MET = 2.6 for experimental, 2.5 for comparison, p = .30). Differences (p < .05) were found between the three units within the constructivist curriculum. The findings suggest that the constructivist approach may facilitate knowledge learning with little risk of reducing in-class physical activity.