The relationship between metal composition, phenolic acid and flavonoid content in Imleria badia from non-polluted and polluted areas

Fungi and Algae as Sources of Medicinal and Other Biologically Active Compounds: A Review

Many species of fungi including lichenized fungi (lichens) and algae have the ability to biosynthesize biologically active compounds. They produce, among others, polysaccharides with anticancer and immunostimulatory properties: (1) Background: This paper presents the characteristics of the most important bioactive compounds produced by fungi and algae; (2) Methods: Based on the example of the selected species of mushrooms, lichens and algae, the therapeutic properties of the secondary metabolites that they produce and the possibilities of their use are presented; (3) Results: The importance of fungi, especially large-fruited mushrooms, lichens and algae, in nature and human life is discussed, in particular, with regard to their use in the pharmaceutical industry and their nutritional value; (4) Conclusions: The natural organisms, such as fungi, lichenized fungi and algae, could be used as supplementary medicine, in the form of pharmaceutical preparations and food sources. Further advanced studies are required on the pharmacological properties and bioactive compounds of these organisms.

Distribution and bioconcentration of some elements in the edible mushroom Leccinum scabrum from locations in Poland

The element concentrations in the fruitbodies of Leccinum scabrum from two forested upland sites and one lowland site of different geochemical background were compared to topsoil concentrations. The aim of the study was to establish baseline concentration datasets, gain insight into the species' bioconcentration potential and to assess the impact of anthropogenic factors. The validated methods for analysis include inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES) and cold-vapor atomic absorption spectroscopy (CV-AAS). Bioinclusion (bioconcentration factor > 1) by L. scabrum was observed for the elements Ag, Cd, Cu, K, Hg, Mn, Na, Mg, P, Rb, and Zn. In contrast, the elements Al, Ba, Ca, Fe, Ni, and Sr as well as the toxic Pb were bioexcluded. Among these elements, the toxic elements Cd and Pb are noteworthy regarding the aspect of human mushroom consumption. The medians of Cd in caps of L. scabrum from the upland sites were in the range of 5.6-6.6 mg kg^-1dm, with a maximum in an individual sample of 14 mg kg^-1dm, which is in the range of concentrations reported previously for polluted soils. Lead concentrations were much lower, with medians in the range of 0.79-1.3 mg kg^-1dm in caps and 0.48-0.59 mg kg^-1dm in stipes. Mineral contents of L. scabrum appear to be the result of a complex interaction of a species' characteristic physiology with local mineral soil geochemistry and with anthropogenic pollution factors.

Phenol Removal Capacity of the Common Duckweed (Lemna minor L.) and Six Phenol-Resistant Bacterial Strains From Its Rhizosphere: In Vitro Evaluation at High Phenol Concentrations

The main topic of this study is the bioremediation potential of the common duckweed, Lemna minor L., and selected rhizospheric bacterial strains in removing phenol from aqueous environments at extremely high initial phenol concentrations. To that end, fluorescence microscopy, MIC tests, biofilm formation, the phenol removal test (4-AAP method), the Salkowski essay, and studies of multiplication rates of sterile and inoculated duckweed in MS medium with phenol (200, 500, 750, and 1000 mg L⁻¹) were conducted. Out of seven bacterial strains, six were identified as epiphytes or endophytes that efficiently removed phenol. The phenol removal experiment showed that the bacteria/duckweed system was more efficient during the first 24 h compared to the sterile duckweed control group. At the end of this experiment, almost 90% of the initial phenol concentration was removed by both groups, respectively. The bacteria stimulated the duckweed multiplication even at a high bacterial population density (>10⁵ CFU mL⁻¹) over a prolonged period of time (14 days). All bacterial strains were sensitive to all the applied antibiotics and formed biofilms in vitro. The dual bacteria/duckweed system, especially the one containing strain 43-Hafnia paralvei C32-106/3, Accession No. MF526939, had a number of characteristics that are advantageous in bioremediation, such as high phenol removal efficiency, biofilm formation, safety (antibiotic sensitivity), and stimulation of duckweed multiplication.

The Effect of Mushroom Extracts on Human Platelet and Blood Coagulation: In vitro Screening of Eight Edible Species

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading global cause of mortality indicating the need to identify all possible factors reducing primary and secondary risk. This study screened the in vitro antiplatelet and anticoagulant activities of hot water extracts of eight edible mushroom species (Agaricus bisporus, Auricularia auricularia-judae, Coprinuscomatus, Ganodermalucidum, Hericium erinaceus, Lentinulaedodes, Pleurotuseryngii, and Pleurotusostreatus) increasingly cultivated for human consumption, and compared them to those evoked by acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). The antioxidant capacity and concentration of polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, organic acids, ergosterol, macro elements, and trace elements were also characterized. The most promising antiplatelet effect was exhibited by A. auricularia-judae and P. eryngii extracts as demonstrated by the highest rate of inhibition of adenosine-5′-diphosphate (ADP)-induced and arachidonic acid (AA)-induced aggregation. The response to both extracts exceeded the one evoked by 140 µmol/L of ASA in the ADP test and was comparable to it in the case of the AA test. Such a dual effect was also observed for G. lucidum extract, even though it was proven to be cytotoxic in platelets and leukocytes. The extract of P. ostreatus revealed an additive effect on AA-induced platelet aggregation. None of the mushroom extracts altered the monitored coagulation parameters (prothrombin time, prothrombin ratio, and International Normalized Ratio). The effect of mushroom extracts on platelet function was positively related to their antioxidative properties and concentration of polysaccharides and ergosterol, and inversely related to zinc concentration. The study suggests that selected mushrooms may exert favorable antiplatelet effects, highlighting the need for further experimental and clinical research in this regard.

An additional data fusion strategy for the discrimination of porcini mushrooms from different species and origins in combination with four mathematical algorithms

Porcini are a source of popular food products with many beneficial functions and the internal quality of these mushrooms is largely determined by many factors. An additional data fusion strategy based on low-level data fusion for two portions (cap and stipe) and mid-level data fusion for two spectroscopic techniques (UV and FTIR) was developed to discriminate porcini mushrooms from different species and origins. Based on a finally obtained data array, four mathematical algorithms including PLS-DA, k-NN, SVM and RF were comparatively applied to build classification models. Each calibrated model was developed after selecting the best debug parameters and then a test set was used to validate the established model. The results showed that the SVM algorithm based on a GA procedure searching for parameters had the best performance for discriminating different porcini samples with the highest cross-validation, specificity, sensitivity and accuracy of 100.00%. Our study proved the feasibility of two spectroscopic techniques for the discrimination of porcini mushrooms originated from different species and origins. This proposed method can be used as an alternative strategy for the quality detection of porcini mushrooms.

Element distribution in fruiting bodies of Lactarius pubescens with focus on rare earth elements

During growth and senescence, fungal fruiting bodies accumulate essential and non-essential elements to different extent in their compartments. This study bases on a dataset of 32 basidiocarps of the ectomycorrhizal Lactarius pubescens sampled in a former U mining area. Statistical analyses were combined with rare earth element (REE, La-Lu) patterns to study the element distribution within sporocarp compartments and between three different age classes. For this purpose, fruiting bodies were separated into stipe, pileus trama, pileipelles and lamellae, dried and digested with HNO₃. While macronutrient (e.g. K, Mg, P, S) contents resemble those of a non-mining affected site, several elements (e.g. Co, Mn) were site-specifically taken up relative to elevated soil contents. With statistics, two main element distribution groups for L. pubescens were revealed: mainly essential (Cu, Mg, Mn, P, S, Zn, Cd, Co, Ni) and mainly non-essential elements (Al, Ca, Fe, Sr, U, REE). The highest REE contents were found in pileipelles and lamellae, corresponding to relatively small cell sizes. Stipes and pileus trama had low REE contents due to their function as transport systems. During growth, light REE (La-Nd) were strongly enriched in lamellae and pileipelles. Middle REE (Sm-Dy) enrichment was found both in soil and fungal biomass. Contents of nutrients decrease with age, while non-essential elements are enriched especially in pileipelles and lamellae. A weak positive Ce anomaly appeared in the bioavailable soil fraction and in the pileipelles of younger individuals. Substrate dependent uptake thus gets reduced with sporocarp senescence, possibly due to redistribution.

The Role of Heavy Metals in Plant Response to Biotic Stress

The present review discusses the impact of heavy metals on the growth of plants at different concentrations, paying particular attention to the hormesis effect. Within the past decade, study of the hormesis phenomenon has generated considerable interest because it was considered not only in the framework of plant growth stimulation but also as an adaptive response of plants to a low level of stress which in turn can play an important role in their responses to other stress factors. In this review, we focused on the defence mechanisms of plants as a response to different metal ion doses and during the crosstalk between metal ions and biotic stressors such as insects and pathogenic fungi. Issues relating to metal ion acquisition and ion homeostasis that may be essential for the survival of plants, pathogens and herbivores competing in the same environment were highlighted. Besides, the influence of heavy metals on insects, especially aphids and pathogenic fungi, was shown. Our intention was also to shed light on the relationship between heavy metals deposition in the environment and ecological communities formed under a strong selective pressure.

Arsenic forms and their combinations induce differences in phenolic accumulation in Ulmus laevis Pall

Total phenolics and the profile of phenolic acids and flavonoids were investigated in the roots and leaves of Ulmus laevis cultured on the medium with inorganic and organic arsenic - As(III), As(V) and DMA(V) at 0.06mM and their equimolar combinations. Further, the accumulation of salicylic acid (free and glucoside-bound) and lipid oxidation were assayed following a three-month long experiment. As treatment caused elevated production of phenolics, which was higher in photosynthetic tissue than in roots for all As forms and their combinations, and their overall content was correlated with the accumulation of organic As in roots and As(III) in leaves. The accumulation of organic As strongly induced shikimate-derived protocatechiuc acid in roots. Contrary to this, shikimate-derived phenolics (protocatechuic, gallic acids and 4-HBA) were suppressed in leaves, while the accumulation of C6C3 acids (caffeic, p-coumaric and chlorogenic) was stimulated by As(V) application. Surprisingly, these acids were not detected in the leaves of As(III)-treated plants, and mutually applied As(III) and DMA(V) reduced their content. DMA(V) negatively influenced the level of salicylic acid and its storage mechanism and this effect correlated with elevated MDA content in leaves. Quercetin accumulation was observed in both organs (mainly leaves) of DMA(V)-treated plants thereby proving its function in defensive response of Ulmus laevis to organic forms of As.

Artificial 137Cs and natural 40K in mushrooms from the subalpine region of the Minya Konka summit and Yunnan Province in China

A study on ¹³⁷Cs pollution and activity concentrations of ⁴⁰K in mushrooms of the genera Cortinarius, Leccinum, Russula, Tricholoma, Tylopilus, and Xerocomus from two neighboring regions in southwest China in 2010-2013 revealed different patterns of pollution with ¹³⁷Cs, which seemed to be highly dependent on climate conditions. Tricholoma matsutake was collected in Yunnan before and after the Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear accident and showed similar contamination with ¹³⁷Cs. Mushrooms from the elevation of 2800-3480 m above sea level on the east slope of Minya Konka and forest topsoil showed higher contamination with ¹³⁷Cs than mushrooms from the highlands of Yunnan. In detail, the activity concentration of ¹³⁷Cs in caps of mushrooms from Minya Konka were in the range 62 ± 6-280 ± 150 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass and from Yunnan at < 4.4-83 ± 3 Bq kg^-1 dry biomass. The climate in the region of the Minya Konka is much colder than in Yunnan, which seems to favor deposition of ¹³⁷Cs at higher altitudes from global atmospheric circulation. The activity concentration of ⁴⁰K in mushrooms and soils highly exceeded that of ¹³⁷Cs. The assessed annual effective doses for ¹³⁷Cs in 1 kg of consumed mushrooms of the genera Leccinum and Xerocomus in Yunnan were low, i.e., in the range < 0.0043-0.049 ± 0.004 μSv, while those for ⁴⁰K were 0.26 ± 0.02-0.81 ± 0.09 μSv.

Relation between polyphenols, malondialdehyde, antioxidant capacity, lactate dehydrogenase and toxic elements in human colostrum milk

The present study investigated the interrelationships between the concentration of total polyphenols (TP), malondialdehyde (MDA), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), lactate dehydrogenase activity (LDH) and content of toxic elements (Al, As, Cd, Ni, Pb) in human colostrum milk (n = 75), and further assessed their potential association with maternal lifestyle characteristics. As and Cd were always below detection limits while Al, Ni and Pb were found at the level of 89.7, 6.2 and 1.3 μg L^-1, respectively. Concentrations of TP and MDA, in the studied group were 46.91 ± 21.25 mg GAE L^-1 and 0.66 ± 0.27 nmol mL^-1, respectively, and were inversely correlated (Rs = -0.32; p < 0.01). TP and TAC increased significantly with maternal consumption of vegetables (Rs = 0.25 and Rs = 0.37, respectively; p < 0.05). Concentration of Al was positively correlated with MDA (Rs = 0.21; p < 0.01) and negatively with TP (Rs = -0.28; p < 0.01). Positive correlation was also found between Pb and MDA (Rs = 0.32; p < 0.01). No association with place of living (urban/rural), women's age and former smoking were found for any studied milk parameter. The results add to the general understanding of factors influencing redox balance in milk and potentially affecting its quality.

Analysis of some metallic elements and metalloids composition and relationships in parasol mushroom Macrolepiota procera

The aim of the study was to characterise the multi-elemental composition and associations between a group of 32 elements and 16 rare earth elements collected by mycelium from growing substrates and accumulated in fruiting bodies of Macrolepiota procera from 16 sites from the lowland areas of Poland. The elements were quantified by inductively coupled plasma quadrupole mass spectrometry using validated method. The correlation matrix obtained from a possible 48 × 16 data matrix has been used to examine if any association exits between 48 elements in mushrooms foraged from 16 sampling localizations by multivariate approach using principal component (PC) analysis. The model could explain up to 93% variability by eight factors for which an eigenvalue value was ≥1. Absolute values of the correlation coefficient were above 0.72 (significance at p < 0.05) for 43 elements. From a point of view by consumer, the absolute content of Cd, Hg, Pb in caps of M. procera collected from background (unpolluted) areas could be considered elevated while sporadic/occasional ingestion of this mushroom is considered safe. The multivariate functional analysis revealed on associated accumulation of many elements in this mushroom. M. procera seem to possess some features of a bio-indicative species for anthropogenic Pb but also for some geogenic metals.

Toxic elements and bio-metals in Cantharellus mushrooms from Poland and China

Data on multi-trace element composition and content relationships have been obtained for Cantharellus cibarius, C. tubaeformis, and C. minor mushrooms from Poland and China by inductive coupled plasma-dynamic reaction cell-mass spectroscopy. There is no previous data published on As, Li, V, Tl, and U in chanterelles from Poland and on Ba, Co, Cr, Ni, Rb, and Sr in chanterelles from China. The results implied a role of the soil background geochemistry at the collection site with the occurrence of Ag, As, Ba, Cr, Cs, Li, Mn, Pb, Rb, Sr, U, and V in the fruiting bodies. Both geogenic Cd and anthropogenic Cd can contribute in load of this element in chanterelles from the Świetokrzyskie Mts. region in Poland, while geogenic source can be highly dominant in the background areas of Yunnan. An essentiality of Cu and Zn and effort by mushroom to maintain their physiological regulation could be reflected by data for Cantharellus mushrooms from both regions of the world, but its geogenic source (and possibly anthropogenic) can matter also in the region of the Świetokrzyskie Mountains in Poland. The elements Co, Ni, and Tl were at the same order of magnitude in contents in C. cibarius in Poland and Yunnan, China. C. tubaeformis differed from C. cibarius by a lower content of correlated Co, Ni, and Zn. Soil which is polymetallic and highly weathered in Yunnan can be suggested as a natural geogenic source of greater concentrations of As, Ba, Cr, Li, Pb, Sr, U, and V in the chanterelles there while lower of Mn and Rb, when related to chanterelles in Poland. A difference in Cs content between the sites can be attributed as an effect of the ¹³⁷Cs release from the Chernobyl accident, in which Poland was much more affected than Yunnan, where deposition was negligible.