1
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Troisi R, Sica F. Structural overview of DNA and RNA G-quadruplexes in their interaction with proteins. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2024; 87:102846. [PMID: 38848656 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2024.102846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Since the discovery of G-quadruplex (G4) participation in vital cellular processes, the regulation of the interaction of naturally occurring G4s with the relative target proteins has emerged as a promising approach for therapeutic development. Additionally, a synthetic strategy has produced several oligonucleotide aptamers, embodying a G4 module, which exhibit relevant biological activity by binding selectively to a target protein. In this context, the G4-protein structures available in the Protein Data Bank represent a valuable molecular view of the different G4 topologies involved in protein interaction. Interestingly, recent results have showed the co-existence of G4s with other structural domains such as duplexes. Overall, these findings allow a better understanding of the mechanisms that regulate intricate biological functions and suggest new design for innovative medical treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romualdo Troisi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant'Angelo, via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy; Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, via Pietro Castellino 111, 80131 Naples, Italy. https://twitter.com/TroRom
| | - Filomena Sica
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant'Angelo, via Cintia, 80126 Naples, Italy.
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2
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Kirsch ZJ, Vachet RW. Proteins Can Withstand More Extensive Labeling while Providing Accurate Structural Information in Covalent Labeling-Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:1030-1039. [PMID: 38581471 PMCID: PMC11167616 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.4c00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Diethylpyrocarbonate (DEPC) covalent labeling-mass spectrometry (CL-MS) has been extensively utilized to study protein structure and interactions owing to its ease of use, commercial availability, and broad labeling of nucleophilic residues. During typical CL-MS experiments with DEPC, the extent of labeling is kept low to avoid any structural perturbations resulting from covalent modification of the protein. In this study, we demonstrate that proteins can be labeled more extensively via DEPC and still provide accurate structural information. To show this, we modeled labeling kinetics over a range of DEPC concentrations and used molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the molecular-level effects of extensive labeling on the protein structure. Our results indicate that higher extents of DEPC labeling do not significantly perturb the protein structure and can lead to improved precision, detectability of labeled peptides, and protein structural resolution. Furthermore, higher extents of labeling enable better identification of protein-ligand binding sites where lower extents of modification provide ambiguous results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary J. Kirsch
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
| | - Richard W. Vachet
- Department of Chemistry, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, United States
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3
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Wu D, Prem A, Xiao J, Salsbury FR. Thrombin - A Molecular Dynamics Perspective. Mini Rev Med Chem 2024; 24:1112-1124. [PMID: 37605420 DOI: 10.2174/1389557523666230821102655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Thrombin is a crucial enzyme involved in blood coagulation, essential for maintaining circulatory system integrity and preventing excessive bleeding. However, thrombin is also implicated in pathological conditions such as thrombosis and cancer. Despite the application of various experimental techniques, including X-ray crystallography, NMR spectroscopy, and HDXMS, none of these methods can precisely detect thrombin's dynamics and conformational ensembles at high spatial and temporal resolution. Fortunately, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, a computational technique that allows the investigation of molecular functions and dynamics in atomic detail, can be used to explore thrombin behavior. This review summarizes recent MD simulation studies on thrombin and its interactions with other biomolecules. Specifically, the 17 studies discussed here provide insights into thrombin's switch between 'slow' and 'fast' forms, active and inactive forms, the role of Na+ binding, the effects of light chain mutation, and thrombin's interactions with other biomolecules. The findings of these studies have significant implications for developing new therapies for thrombosis and cancer. By understanding thrombin's complex behavior, researchers can design more effective drugs and treatments that target thrombin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dizhou Wu
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
| | - Athul Prem
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
| | - Jiajie Xiao
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
- Freenome, South San Francisco, CA, 94080, USA
| | - Freddie R Salsbury
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, NC, 27106, USA
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4
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Ji C, Wei J, Zhang L, Hou X, Tan J, Yuan Q, Tan W. Aptamer-Protein Interactions: From Regulation to Biomolecular Detection. Chem Rev 2023; 123:12471-12506. [PMID: 37931070 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
Serving as the basis of cell life, interactions between nucleic acids and proteins play essential roles in fundamental cellular processes. Aptamers are unique single-stranded oligonucleotides generated by in vitro evolution methods, possessing the ability to interact with proteins specifically. Altering the structure of aptamers will largely modulate their interactions with proteins and further affect related cellular behaviors. Recently, with the in-depth research of aptamer-protein interactions, the analytical assays based on their interactions have been widely developed and become a powerful tool for biomolecular detection. There are some insightful reviews on aptamers applied in protein detection, while few systematic discussions are from the perspective of regulating aptamer-protein interactions. Herein, we comprehensively introduce the methods for regulating aptamer-protein interactions and elaborate on the detection techniques for analyzing aptamer-protein interactions. Additionally, this review provides a broad summary of analytical assays based on the regulation of aptamer-protein interactions for detecting biomolecules. Finally, we present our perspectives regarding the opportunities and challenges of analytical assays for biological analysis, aiming to provide guidance for disease mechanism research and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cailing Ji
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Junyuan Wei
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Xinru Hou
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Jie Tan
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Quan Yuan
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Weihong Tan
- Molecular Science and Biomedicine Laboratory (MBL), State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Biosensing and Chemometrics, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
- The Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310022, China
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5
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Troisi R, Balasco N, Autiero I, Vitagliano L, Sica F. Structural Insights into Protein-Aptamer Recognitions Emerged from Experimental and Computational Studies. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:16318. [PMID: 38003510 PMCID: PMC10671752 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242216318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/12/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aptamers are synthetic nucleic acids that are developed to target with high affinity and specificity chemical entities ranging from single ions to macromolecules and present a wide range of chemical and physical properties. Their ability to selectively bind proteins has made these compounds very attractive and versatile tools, in both basic and applied sciences, to such an extent that they are considered an appealing alternative to antibodies. Here, by exhaustively surveying the content of the Protein Data Bank (PDB), we review the structural aspects of the protein-aptamer recognition process. As a result of three decades of structural studies, we identified 144 PDB entries containing atomic-level information on protein-aptamer complexes. Interestingly, we found a remarkable increase in the number of determined structures in the last two years as a consequence of the effective application of the cryo-electron microscopy technique to these systems. In the present paper, particular attention is devoted to the articulated architectures that protein-aptamer complexes may exhibit. Moreover, the molecular mechanism of the binding process was analyzed by collecting all available information on the structural transitions that aptamers undergo, from their protein-unbound to the protein-bound state. The contribution of computational approaches in this area is also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romualdo Troisi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Nicole Balasco
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, CNR c/o Department of Chemistry, University of Rome Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy;
| | - Ida Autiero
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Luigi Vitagliano
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, 80131 Naples, Italy;
| | - Filomena Sica
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, 80126 Naples, Italy;
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Troisi R, Napolitano V, Rossitto E, Osman W, Nagano M, Wakui K, Popowicz G, Yoshimoto K, Sica F. Steric hindrance and structural flexibility shape the functional properties of a guanine-rich oligonucleotide. Nucleic Acids Res 2023; 51:8880-8890. [PMID: 37503836 PMCID: PMC10484730 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Ligand/protein molecular recognition involves a dynamic process, whereby both partners require a degree of structural plasticity to regulate the binding/unbinding event. Here, we present the characterization of the interaction between a highly dynamic G-rich oligonucleotide, M08s-1, and its target protein, human α-thrombin. M08s-1 is the most active anticoagulant aptamer selected thus far. Circular dichroism and gel electrophoresis analyses indicate that both intramolecular and intermolecular G-quadruplex structures are populated in solution. The presence of thrombin stabilises the antiparallel intramolecular chair-like G-quadruplex conformation, that provides by far the main contribution to the biological activity of the aptamer. The crystal structure of the thrombin-oligonucleotide complex reveals that M08s-1 adopts a kinked structural organization formed by a G-quadruplex domain and a long duplex module, linked by a stretch of five purine bases. The quadruplex motif hooks the exosite I region of thrombin and the duplex region is folded towards the surface of the protein. This structural feature, which has never been observed in other anti-exosite I aptamers with a shorter duplex motif, hinders the approach of a protein substrate to the active site region and may well explain the significant increase in the anticoagulant activity of M08s-1 compared to the other anti-exosite I aptamers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romualdo Troisi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80126, Italy
| | - Valeria Napolitano
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- Biomolecular NMR and Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich at Department Chemie, Technical University of Munich, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747, Garching, Germany
| | - Emanuele Rossitto
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80126, Italy
| | - Waleed Osman
- Research and Development Division, LinkBIO Co., Ltd., The ICI Center, 5270 Terada, Toride-shi, Ibaraki 302-0021, Japan
| | - Masanobu Nagano
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
| | - Koji Wakui
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
| | - Grzegorz M Popowicz
- Institute of Structural Biology, Helmholtz Zentrum München, Ingolstädter Landstraße 1, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- Biomolecular NMR and Center for Integrated Protein Science Munich at Department Chemie, Technical University of Munich, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85747, Garching, Germany
| | - Keitaro Yoshimoto
- Research and Development Division, LinkBIO Co., Ltd., The ICI Center, 5270 Terada, Toride-shi, Ibaraki 302-0021, Japan
- Department of Life Sciences, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 153-8902, Japan
| | - Filomena Sica
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples 80126, Italy
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Troisi R, Balasco N, Autiero I, Sica F, Vitagliano L. New insight into the traditional model of the coagulation cascade and its regulation: illustrated review of a three-dimensional view. Res Pract Thromb Haemost 2023; 7:102160. [PMID: 37727847 PMCID: PMC10506138 DOI: 10.1016/j.rpth.2023.102160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The coagulation process relies on an intricate network of three-dimensional structural interactions and subtle biological regulations. In the present review, we illustrate the state of the art of the structural biology of the coagulation cascade by surveying the Protein Data Bank and the EBI AlphaFold databases. Investigations performed in the last decade have provided structural information on essentially all players involved in the process. Indeed, the initial characterization of specific and rather canonical domains has been progressively extended to complicated multidomain proteins. Recently, the application of cryogenic electron microscopy techniques has unraveled the structural features of highly complex coagulation factors, which has led to enhanced understanding. This review initially focuses on the structure of the individual factors as a function of their involvement in intrinsic, extrinsic, and common pathways. A specific emphasis is given to what is known or unknown on the structural basis of each step of the cascade. Available data providing clues on the structural recognition of the factors involved in the functional partnerships of the pathways are illustrated. Recent structures of important complexes formed by these proteins with regulators are described, focusing on the drugs used as anticoagulants and on their reversal agents. Finally, we highlight the different roles that innovative biomolecules such as aptamers may have in the regulation of the cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romualdo Troisi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo, Naples, Italy
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Nicole Balasco
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, CNR c/o Department of Chemistry, University of Rome Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Ida Autiero
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Naples, Italy
| | - Filomena Sica
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Complesso Universitario di Monte Sant’Angelo, Naples, Italy
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8
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Wu D, Salsbury FR. Unraveling the Role of Hydrogen Bonds in Thrombin via Two Machine Learning Methods. J Chem Inf Model 2023; 63:3705-3718. [PMID: 37285464 PMCID: PMC11164249 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen bonds play a critical role in the folding and stability of proteins, such as proteins and nucleic acids, by providing strong and directional interactions. They help to maintain the secondary and 3D structure of proteins, and structural changes in these molecules often result from the formation or breaking of hydrogen bonds. To gain insights into these hydrogen bonding networks, we applied two machine learning models - a logistic regression model and a decision tree model - to study four variants of thrombin: wild-type, ΔK9, E8K, and R4A. Our results showed that both models have their unique advantages. The logistic regression model highlighted potential key residues (GLU295) in thrombin's allosteric pathways, while the decision tree model identified important hydrogen bonding motifs. This information can aid in understanding the mechanisms of folding in proteins and has potential applications in drug design and other therapies. The use of these two models highlights their usefulness in studying hydrogen bonding networks in proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dizhou Wu
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27106, United States
| | - Freddie R Salsbury
- Department of Physics, Wake Forest University, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27106, United States
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9
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Exosite Binding in Thrombin: A Global Structural/Dynamic Overview of Complexes with Aptamers and Other Ligands. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910803. [PMID: 34639143 PMCID: PMC8509272 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Thrombin is the key enzyme of the entire hemostatic process since it is able to exert both procoagulant and anticoagulant functions; therefore, it represents an attractive target for the developments of biomolecules with therapeutic potential. Thrombin can perform its many functional activities because of its ability to recognize a wide variety of substrates, inhibitors, and cofactors. These molecules frequently are bound to positively charged regions on the surface of protein called exosites. In this review, we carried out extensive analyses of the structural determinants of thrombin partnerships by surveying literature data as well as the structural content of the Protein Data Bank (PDB). In particular, we used the information collected on functional, natural, and synthetic molecular ligands to define the anatomy of the exosites and to quantify the interface area between thrombin and exosite ligands. In this framework, we reviewed in detail the specificity of thrombin binding to aptamers, a class of compounds with intriguing pharmaceutical properties. Although these compounds anchor to protein using conservative patterns on its surface, the present analysis highlights some interesting peculiarities. Moreover, the impact of thrombin binding aptamers in the elucidation of the cross-talk between the two distant exosites is illustrated. Collectively, the data and the work here reviewed may provide insights into the design of novel thrombin inhibitors.
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Structural and functional analysis of the simultaneous binding of two duplex/quadruplex aptamers to human α-thrombin. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 181:858-867. [PMID: 33864869 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.04.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The long-range communication between the two exosites of human α-thrombin (thrombin) tightly modulates the protein-effector interactions. Duplex/quadruplex aptamers represent an emerging class of very effective binders of thrombin. Among them, NU172 and HD22 aptamers are at the forefront of exosite I and II recognition, respectively. The present study investigates the simultaneous binding of these two aptamers by combining a structural and dynamics approach. The crystal structure of the ternary complex formed by the thrombin with NU172 and HD22_27mer provides a detailed view of the simultaneous binding of these aptamers to the protein, inspiring the design of novel bivalent thrombin inhibitors. The crystal structure represents the starting model for molecular dynamics studies, which point out the cooperation between the binding at the two exosites. In particular, the binding of an aptamer to its exosite reduces the intrinsic flexibility of the other exosite, that preferentially assumes conformations similar to those observed in the bound state, suggesting a predisposition to interact with the other aptamer. This behaviour is reflected in a significant increase of the anticoagulant activity of NU172 when the inactive HD22_27mer is bound to exosite II, providing a clear evidence of the synergic action of the two aptamers.
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Chen Z, Hu L, Zhang BT, Lu A, Wang Y, Yu Y, Zhang G. Artificial Intelligence in Aptamer-Target Binding Prediction. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:3605. [PMID: 33808496 PMCID: PMC8038094 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aptamers are short single-stranded DNA, RNA, or synthetic Xeno nucleic acids (XNA) molecules that can interact with corresponding targets with high affinity. Owing to their unique features, including low cost of production, easy chemical modification, high thermal stability, reproducibility, as well as low levels of immunogenicity and toxicity, aptamers can be used as an alternative to antibodies in diagnostics and therapeutics. Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX), an experimental approach for aptamer screening, allows the selection and identification of in vitro aptamers with high affinity and specificity. However, the SELEX process is time consuming and characterization of the representative aptamer candidates from SELEX is rather laborious. Artificial intelligence (AI) could help to rapidly identify the potential aptamer candidates from a vast number of sequences. This review discusses the advancements of AI pipelines/methods, including structure-based and machine/deep learning-based methods, for predicting the binding ability of aptamers to targets. Structure-based methods are the most used in computer-aided drug design. For this part, we review the secondary and tertiary structure prediction methods for aptamers, molecular docking, as well as molecular dynamic simulation methods for aptamer-target binding. We also performed analysis to compare the accuracy of different secondary and tertiary structure prediction methods for aptamers. On the other hand, advanced machine-/deep-learning models have witnessed successes in predicting the binding abilities between targets and ligands in drug discovery and thus potentially offer a robust and accurate approach to predict the binding between aptamers and targets. The research utilizing machine-/deep-learning techniques for prediction of aptamer-target binding is limited currently. Therefore, perspectives for models, algorithms, and implementation strategies of machine/deep learning-based methods are discussed. This review could facilitate the development and application of high-throughput and less laborious in silico methods in aptamer selection and characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihao Chen
- School of Chinese Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; (Z.C.); (B.-T.Z.)
| | - Long Hu
- Law Sau Fai Institute for Advancing Translational Medicine in Bone & Joint Diseases, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China;
| | - Bao-Ting Zhang
- School of Chinese Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; (Z.C.); (B.-T.Z.)
| | - Aiping Lu
- Institute of Integrated Bioinformedicine and Translational Science, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China;
- Guangdong-Hong Kong Macao Greater Bay Area International Research Platform for Aptamer-Based Translational Medicine and Drug Discovery, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yaofeng Wang
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine and Health, Hong Kong Institute of Science & Innovation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yuanyuan Yu
- Law Sau Fai Institute for Advancing Translational Medicine in Bone & Joint Diseases, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China;
- Guangdong-Hong Kong Macao Greater Bay Area International Research Platform for Aptamer-Based Translational Medicine and Drug Discovery, Hong Kong, China
| | - Ge Zhang
- Law Sau Fai Institute for Advancing Translational Medicine in Bone & Joint Diseases, School of Chinese Medicine, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China;
- Guangdong-Hong Kong Macao Greater Bay Area International Research Platform for Aptamer-Based Translational Medicine and Drug Discovery, Hong Kong, China
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