Antimicrobial activity of Plumbago indica and ligand screening of plumbagin against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus

Deciphering the Potential Therapeutic Effects of Hydnocarpus wightianus Seed Extracts using in vitro and in silico approaches

Phytocompounds possess the potential to treat a broad spectrum of disorders due to their remarkable bioactivity. Naturally occurring compounds possess lower toxicity profiles, which making them attractive targets for drug development. Hydnocarpus wightianus seeds were extracted using ethanol, acetone, and hexane solvents. The extracts were evaluated for phytochemicals screening and other therapeutic characteristics, such as free radicals scavenging, anti α-amylase, anti α-glucosidase, and anti-bacterial activities. The ethanolic extract exhibited noteworthy antibacterial characteristics and demonstrated considerable antioxidant, and anti-diabetic effects. The IC50 value of the ethanolic extract for Dpph, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase were found to be 77.299 ± 3.381 μg/mL, 165.56 2.56 μg/mL, and 136.58 ± 5.82 μg/mL, respectively. The ethanolic extract was effective against Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (26 mm zone of inhibition at 100 μL concentration). Molecular docking investigations revealed the phytoconstituent's inhibitory mechanisms against diabetic, free radicals, and bacterial activity. Docking score for phytocompounds against targeted protein varies from -7.2 to -5.1 kcal/mol. The bioactive compounds present in the ethanolic extract were identified by Gas chromatography/Mass spectrometry analysis, followed by molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation studies to further explore the phytoconstituent's inhibitory mechanism of α-glucosidase, ∝-amylase, radical scavenging, and bacterial activity. The electronic structure and possible pharmacological actions of the phytocompound were revealed through the use of Density Functional Theory (DFT) analysis. Computational and in vitro studies revealed that these identified compounds have anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, and anti-bacterial activities against antibiotic-resistant strain of Staphylococcus aureus.

Mechanism of antibacterial phytoconstituents: an updated review

The increase of multiple drug resistance bacteria significantly diminishes the effectiveness of antibiotic armory and subsequently exaggerates the level of therapeutic failure. Phytoconstituents are exceptional substitutes for resistance-modifying vehicles. The plants appear to be a deep well for the discovery of novel antibacterial compounds. This is owing to the numerous enticing characteristics of plants, they are easily accessible and inexpensive, extracts or chemicals derived from plants typically have significant levels of action against infections, and they rarely cause serious adverse effects. The enormous selection of phytochemicals offers very distinct chemical structures that may provide both novel mechanisms of antimicrobial activity and deliver us with different targets in the interior of the bacterial cell. They can directly affect bacteria or act together with the crucial events of pathogenicity, in this manner decreasing the aptitude of bacteria to create resistance. Abundant phytoconstituents demonstrate various mechanisms of action toward multi drug resistance bacteria. Overall, this comprehensive review will provide insights into the potential of phytoconstituents as alternative treatments for bacterial infections, particularly those caused by multi drug resistance strains. By examining the current state of research in this area, the review will shed light on potential future directions for the development of new antimicrobial therapies.

2,3-Dichloronaphthoquinone derivatives: Synthesis, antimicrobial activity, molecular modelling and ADMET studies

In the present study, an intermediate namely 2-(3-bromopropylamino)-3-chloronaphthalene-1,4-dione was initially synthesized via the nucleophilic addition-elimination reaction between 2,3-dichloro-1,4-naphthoquinone and 3-bromo-1-aminopropane. Then a coupling reaction between the intermediate and piperazine derivatives yielded a number of 1,4-naphthoquinone derivatives. Spectroscopic analysis successfully characterized the products that were obtained in good yields. In vitro antibacterial properties of the compounds were examined against different bacterial strains. In vitro antibacterial properties of the compounds were examined against the bacterial strains S. Aureus, E. Faecalis, E. Coli and P. Aeruginosa. While compound 9 was found to be effective against all bacterial strains used, compound 12 was active against three strains and compounds 10 and 11 were effective against the two. None of the compounds are effective against C. albicans strain. In silico molecular docking studies revealed that all compounds had docking scores comparable to the antibacterial drugs ciprofloxacin and gentamicin and might be considered as DNA gyrase B inhibitors. Molecular dynamics simulations were also conducted for a better understanding of the stability and the selected docked complexes. Additionally, the drug similarity of the synthesized compounds and ADMET characteristics were examined in conjunction with the antibiotic ciprofloxacin, and drug potentials were then evaluated. Compatible predictions were found with the drug similarity and ADMET parameters.

Phytochemical Screening, In Silico Molecular Docking, ADME Properties, and In Vitro Antioxidant, Anticancer, and Antidiabetic Activity of Marine Halophyte Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort

Medicinally valuable components derived from natural resources are highly desirable as prospective alternatives to synthetic drugs to treat fatal diseases, such as cancer and diabetes mellitus. Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort (Amaranthaceae) (S. maritima) is a halophyte plant that can thrive in saline environments and possesses excellent medicinal properties. Hence, for the present investigation, S. maritima has been chosen, and its phytochemical constituents have been extracted utilizing various solvents, including hexane, acetone, and methanol, and identified by GC-MS, LC-MS, and HPLC analyses. The antioxidant activity of the compounds using DPPH, ABTS, and reducing power assays demonstrated that all three extracts of S. maritima possessed significant radical scavenging activity comparable to standard ascorbic acid with lower IC50 values (69.20-95.58 μg/mL). In addition, the evaluation of antidiabetic activity by α-amylase inhibition and α-glucosidase inhibition methods revealed that the acetone extract of S. maritima (SMAE) displayed equipotent activity of standard acarbose with an IC50 of 32.6 μg/mL. Advantageously, SMAE also exhibited better inhibition activity against the growth of lung cancer cells with an IC50 of 78.19. μg/mL and less toxicity on the noncancerous HUVEC cells with a high IC50 of 300 μg/mL. In addition, the cancer cell death mechanism via the apoptotic pathway induced by SMAE was confirmed by DAPI staining and ROS analysis. The analysis of ADME properties, including absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, witnessed that the physicochemical and druglikeness factors were best catered by stigmasterol, γ-sitosterol, and vitamin E. Further, the key phytochemicals identified from SMAE were docked with CtBP1 and SOX2 bound to importin-α target proteins associated with carcinogenic pathways using Schrodinger software. The results showed that the phytochemicals, scilicet, stigmasterol, γ-sitosterol, octadecadienoic acid, and vitamin E, showed a good binding affinity with Glide scores in the range -2.845-4.018 kcal/mol. Overall, the findings support that the least investigated traditional edible medicinal mangrove-related S. maritima is high in pharmacologically active constituents and might be one of the finest sources of naturally derived molecules for drug development and delivery systems.

Comparative phytochemical study of methanolic and ethanolic extracts of Thymus linearis and their antibacterial and antioxidant potential

Thymus linearis (Thyme) is a medicinal plant widely distributed throughout Asia. Various parts of thyme are utilized for diverse medicinal purposes, including its use as a tonic and diuretic, for cough relief, as a flavoring agent, in treating dysentery, and for alleviating stomach disorders. Numerous studies have been conducted to explore the unexploited potential of thyme. Thyme was collected from the northern region of Pakistan, and sun-mediated extraction was conducted. Phytochemical analysis, utilizing GC-MS, revealed numerous bioactive phytochemical constituents with disease-preventing roles, including detoxifying agents, antioxidants, anticancer compounds, dietary fiber, neuropharmacological agents, and immunity-potentiating agents, in the methanolic and ethanolic (14 days) extracts of the flower, leaf, and stem. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay results indicated that the ethanolic and methanolic extracts of the stem exhibited the highest antioxidant activity, reaching up to 67.34% and 62.73%, respectively, while the values for the flower and leaf extracts (both methanol and ethanol) were around 60%. The IC50 (half maximal inhibitory concentration) values were also calculated for all the samples, ranging between 7 and 9 μg/mL. Positive antibacterial and antifungal effects against Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli, as well as Aspergillus niger (fungi), were observed only in the extracts of the flower (both methanol and ethanol). The sun-mediated technique was used for extraction for the first time in this study. Therefore, this study introduces a novel approach to the extraction of bioactive compounds from medicinal plants, ultimately contributing to the development of herbal drugs with more convenient and cost-effective methods.

Formulation and Evaluation of Herbal-Based Antiacne Gel Preparations

Acne vulgaris is an inflammatory skin condition that affects virtually everyone at some point. Papules, comedones, pustules, scarring, and nodules are standard features of the disease and can have a detrimental social and psychological impact on an individual. Although allopathic acne treatments are available, they have adverse side effects, are expensive, and are prone to cause antibiotic resistance. The present study is aimed at formulating and evaluating topical gels containing Aloe vera, Allium cepa, and Eucalyptus globulus extracts as potential antiacne drugs. Six formulations containing the herbal extracts were prepared using 1% Carbopol 940 as a gelling agent. The phytochemical composition of the plant extracts was determined. The extracts and gels' minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) was assessed using the microbroth dilution method. The physicochemical properties of the formulated gels, such as homogeneity, colour, texture, odour, grittiness, spreadability, extrudability, viscosity, pH, and drug content, were evaluated. All the plant extracts contained alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, triterpenoids, and coumarins. The gel formulations showed varying activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa at various concentrations. The phytochemical components of the plant extracts are probably responsible for the antimicrobial activity of the gel formulations. The 5% Aloe vera-Allium cepa (1 : 1) combination gel formulation showed excellent activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Candida albicans, with MICs of 12.50, 25.00, 6.25, 25.00, and 12.50 mg/mL, respectively. The gels generally had good physicochemical and antimicrobial properties and could be used as antiacne remedies.

Plumbagin, a Natural Compound with Several Biological Effects and Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Phytochemicals from various medicinal plants are well known for their antioxidant properties and anti-cancer effects. Many of these bioactive compounds or natural products have demonstrated effects against inflammation, while some showed a role that is only approximately described as anti-inflammatory. In particular, naphthoquinones are naturally-occurring compounds with different pharmacological activities and allow easy scaffold modification for drug design approaches. Among this class of compounds, Plumbagin, a plant-derived product, has shown interesting counteracting effects in many inflammation models. However, scientific knowledge about the beneficial effect of Plumbagin should be comprehensively reported before candidating this natural molecule into a future drug against specific human diseases. In this review, the most relevant mechanisms in which Plumbagin plays a role in the process of inflammation were summarized. Other relevant bioactive effects were reviewed to provide a complete and compact scenario of Plumbagin's potential therapeutic significance.

Antiparasitic Activity of Plumbago auriculata Extracts and Its Naphthoquinone Plumbagin against Trypanosoma cruzi

Chagas disease (CD) caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi affects more than six million people worldwide. Treatment is restricted to benznidazole (Bz) and nifurtimox (Nf) that display low activity in the later chronic stage besides triggering toxic events that result in treatment abandonment. Therefore, new therapeutic options are necessary. In this scenario, natural products emerge as promising alternatives to treat CD. In the family Plumbaginaceae, Plumbago sp. exhibits a broad spectrum of biological and pharmacological activities. Thus, our main objective was to evaluate, in vitro and in silico, the biological effect of crude extracts of root and of aerial parts of P. auriculata, as well as its naphthoquinone Plumbagin (Pb) against T. cruzi. The phenotypic assays revealed potent activity of the root extract against different forms (trypomastigote and intracellular forms) and strains (Y and Tulahuen), with a compound concentration that reduced 50% of the number of the parasite (EC₅₀) values ranging from 1.9 to 3.9 µg/mL. In silico analysis showed that Pb is predicted to have good oral absorption and permeability in Caco2 cells, besides excellent probability of absorption by human intestinal cells, without toxic or mutagenic potential effects, not being predicted as a substrate or inhibitor of P-glycoprotein. Pb was as potent as Bz against intracellular forms and displayed a superior trypanosomicidal effect (about 10-fold) in bloodstream forms (EC₅₀ = 0.8 µM) as compared to the reference drug (8.5 µM). The cellular targets of Pb on T. cruzi were evaluated using electron microscopy assays and the findings on bloodstream trypomastigotes showed several cellular insults related to the autophagic process. Regarding toxicity in mammalian cells, the root extracts and the naphthoquinone present a moderate toxic profile on fibroblasts and cardiac cell lines. Then, aiming to reduce host toxicity, the root extract and Pb were tested in combination with Bz, and the data showed additive profiles with the sum of the fractional inhibitory concentration indexes (ΣFICIs) being 1.45 and 0.87, respectively. Thus, our work reveals the promising antiparasitic activity of Plumbago auriculata crude extracts and its purified naphthoquinone Plumbagin against different forms and strains of Trypanosoma cruzi in vitro.

Approaches for in vitro propagation and production of plumbagin in Plumbago spp

The genus Plumbago (family Plumbaginaceae), commonly known as leadwort, is a sub-tropical shrub that produces secondary metabolite plumbagin, which is employed by pharmaceutical companies and in clinical research. Plumbagin is a potent pharmaceutical because of its anti-microbial, anti-malarial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-fertility, anti-plasmodium, antioxidant, anti-diabetic, and other effects. This review documents the biotechnological innovations used to produce plumbagin. The use of modern biotechnological techniques can lead to a variety of benefits, including better yield, increased extraction efficiency, mass production of plantlets, genetic stability, increased biomass, and more. Large-scale in vitro propagation is necessary to minimize over-exploitation of the natural population and allow the use of various biotechnological techniques to improve the plant species and secondary metabolite production. During in vitro culture, optimum conditions are requisites for explant inoculation and plant regeneration. In this review, we provide information on various aspects of plumbagin, depicting its structure, biosynthesis, and biotechnological aspects (both conventional and advanced) along with the future prospects. KEY POINTS: • Critical assessment on in vitro biotechnology in Plumbago species • In vitro propagation of Plumbago and elicitation of plumbagin • Biosynthesis and sustainable production of plumbagin.

Antibacterial Activity of Juglone Revealed in a Wound Model of Staphylococcus aureus Infection

A serious problem currently facing the field of wound healing is bacterial infection, especially Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) infection. Although the application of antibiotics has achieved good effects, their irregular use has resulted in the emergence of drug-resistant strains. It is thus the purpose of this study to analyze whether the naturally extracted phenolic compound, juglone, can inhibit S. aureus in wound infection. The results show that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of juglone against S. aureus was 1000 μg/mL. Juglone inhibited the growth of S. aureus by inhibiting membrane integrity and causing protein leakage. At sub-inhibitory concentrations, juglone inhibited biofilm formation, the expression of α-hemolysin, the hemolytic activity, and the production of proteases and lipases of S. aureus. When applied to infected wounds in Kunming mice, juglone (50 μL juglone with a concentration of 1000 μg/mL) significantly inhibited the number of S. aureus and had a significant inhibitory effect on the expression of inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β). Moreover, the juglone-treated group promoted wound healing. At the same time, in animal toxicity experiments, juglone had no obvious toxic effects on the main tissues and organs of mice, indicating that juglone has good biocompatibility and has the potential to be used in the treatment of wounds infected with S. aureus.

Luteolin-Rich Extract of Thespesia garckeana F. Hoffm. (Snot Apple) Contains Potential Drug-Like Candidates and Modulates Glycemic and Oxidoinflammatory Aberrations in Experimental Animals

The present study evaluated the polyphenolic contents and hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory effects of the diethyl ether fraction of Thespesia garckeana using various in vitro and in vivo models. Total phenol and flavonoid contents of the extract were $613.65\pm 2.38$ and $152.83\pm 1.56$  mg/100 g dry weight, respectively. The extract exhibited in vitro antioxidant activities against DPPH, FRAP, LPO, and ABTS with respective half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of $30.91\pm 0.23$ , $16.81\pm 0.51$ , $41.29\pm 1.82$ , and $42.39\pm 2.24$  μg/mL. In vitro anti-inflammatory studies using membrane stabilization, protein denaturation, and proteinase activities revealed the effectiveness of the extract with respective IC50 values of $54.45\pm 2.89$ , $93.62\pm 3.04$ , and $56.60\pm 2.34$  μg/mL, while in vitro hypoglycemic analysis of the extract revealed inhibition of α-amylase (IC50 $64.59\pm 3.29$  μg/mL) and enhancement of glucose uptake by yeast cells. Interestingly, the extract demonstrated in vivo hypoglycemic and anti-inflammatory effects in streptozotocin- (STZ-) induced diabetic and xylene-induced ear swelling models, respectively. In addition, the extract improved insulin secretion, attenuated pancreatic tissue distortion and oxidative stress, and increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and reduced glutathione (GSH), while reducing the concentration of LPO in the diabetic rats. A high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis identified the presence of catechin ( $6.81e-1$  ppm), rutin ( $8.46e-1$  ppm), myricetin, apigenin ( $4.019e-1$  ppm), and luteolin (15.09 ppm) with respective retention times (RTs) of 13.64, 24.269, 27.781, 29.58, and 32.23 min, and these were subjected to a pharmacoinformatics analysis, which revealed their drug-likeness and good pharmacokinetic properties. A docking analysis hinted at the potential of luteolin, the most abundant compound in the extract, for targeting glucose-metabolizing enzymes. Thus, the present study provides preclinical insights into the bioactive constituents of T. garckeana, its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and its potential for the treatment of diabetes.

Flavonoids Extraction Kinetics, Antimicrobial Activity and Radical Scavenging Potential of Bulgarian Woundwort (Solidago virgaurea L.)

The medicinal plant woundwort (Solidago virgaurea L.) characterizes by diuretic, antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory activity and it has been applied for urinary tract, nephrolithiasis and prostate disorders treatment. The aim of the present study was to analyze the extraction kinetics of catechin, epigallocatechin and quercetin from Bulgarian woundwort extracts, to assess the antibacterial potential of the medicinal plant extracts against four bacterial strains (Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923, Escherichia coli ATCC 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 and Bacillus cereus), their antioxidant capacity and radical scavenging potential. The concentrations of the flavonoids in the extracts obtained at different extraction conditions (solvent, temperature, extraction time) were determined by newly-developed by the scientific team RP-HPLC-PDA methodologies. The agar well diffusion method was applied to evaluate the antibacterial activity of the plant extracts. The 70% EtOH extracts at 20 °C displayed significantly higher antibacterial activity against the foodborne pathogenic bacteria S. aureus and P. aeruginosa as compared to the 70% and 98% EtOH extracts at 30 °C and 20 °C, respectively. The medicinal plant exhibited satisfactory antioxidant potential and radical-scavenging activity.

Ethnomedicinal Studies, Chemical Composition, and Antibacterial Activity of the Mammea americana L. Bark in the Municipality of Cértegui, Chocó, Colombia

Mammea americana L. is a plant with diverse medicinal uses in the municipality of Cértegui, Chocó, Colombia. This research characterized the ethnomedicinal, chemical, and antibacterial activities of the bark of Mammea americana. Through interviews and semistructured surveys with the community, its ethnomedicinal uses were determined. Compounds present in the bark extract were identified and quantified by gas chromatography-coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and a qualitative analysis was performed by preliminary phytochemistry. Antibacterial activity and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) were carried out by agar diffusion and dilution methods, respectively, using ethanolic and aqueous extracts. Ethnomedical data showed that the bark is used to treat 14 conditions, the most representative being gallstones, prostate inflammation, and malaria. Preliminary phytochemical analyses showed the existence of several secondary metabolites such as tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, triterpenes and/or steroids, quinones, and saponins. A total of 29 compounds were identified; the most abundant were ethyl 5-oxo-4-(p-toluidine)-2,5-dihydro-3-furancarboxylate, phenol, 4,4′,4″-ethylidynetris, nerolidol, 19-hydroxy-13-epimanoyl oxide, α-elemene, and δ-cadinene. The results showed remarkable antibacterial activity of the ethanolic extract (20 mg/ml) against Staphylococcus aureus (22.6 mm) and Escherichia coli (19.6 mm) and of the crude water extract (20 mg/ml) against Staphylococcus aureus (18.5 mm) and Escherichia coli (12.4 mm). The strongest MIC was for the ethanolic extract with values of 0.357 and 0.897 mg/ml against S. aureus and E. coli strains, respectively, while in the aqueous extract, S. aureus (3.99 mg/ml) and E. coli (4.3 mg/ml) were recorded. It is assumed that the compounds identified in this study could be responsible for the antibacterial activity of the species, as well as the relationship of the identified compounds and metabolites with the ethnomedical uses given by the community, providing a scientific and traditional basis for its different traditional medical uses.

Promises of phytochemical based nano drug delivery systems in the management of cancer

Cancer is the leading cause of human disease and death worldwide, accounting for 7.6 million deaths per year and projected to reach 13.1 million by 2030. Many phytochemicals included in traditional medicine have been utilized in the management of cancer. Conventional chemotherapy is generally known to be the most effective treatment of metastatic cancer but these cancerous cells might grow resistant to numerous anticancer drugs over time that resulting in treatment failure. This review tried to portray the advancement in the anticancer and chemopreventive effects of several phytochemicals and some of its members encapsulated in the nano-based delivery system of the drug. It comprises the issue associated with limited use of each phytoconstituents in human cancer treatment are discussed, and the benefits of entrapment into nanocarriers are evaluated in terms of drug loading efficiency, nanocarrier size, release profile of the drug, and in vitro and/or in vivo research and treatment testing, such as cytotoxicity assays and cell inhibition/viability.

Phytochemical Analysis and Investigation of the Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Activities of Croton dichogamus Pax Crude Root Extracts

Background

Increasing antimicrobial resistance has led to an arduous search for new potent drugs from nature. In this search, plants have proved to be rich reservoirs of efficacious medicinal components that manage ailments. The current study is designed to investigate the phytochemical composition, antimicrobial activity, and the cytotoxicity of the crude root extracts of Croton dichogamus, a shrub that is commonly used in the eastern Africa for the management of infectious diseases.

Methods

The roots of Croton dichogamus were obtained, dried, ground, and extracted using three solvents (acetone, distilled water, and 50% ethanol). The antimicrobial activity was tested using agar well diffusion and microbroth dilution techniques against five human pathogens. The brine shrimp lethality assay was used to assess the toxic effect.

Results

The phytochemical screening indicated the presence of terpenoids, flavonoids, tannins, phenols, polyuronides, saponins, and anthracenes. The brine shrimp lethality assay indicated that all the extracts were highly cytotoxic with LC₅₀ values below 100 μg/ml. Acetonic extract had an LC₅₀ value of 4.148 μg/ml, hydroethanolic extract had 76.09 μg/ml, and aqueous extract had 42.61 μg/ml. All extracts showed the antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria (B. cereus and S. aureus) and a fungal organism, C. albicans. The extracts showed no antibacterial effect on the Gram-negative bacterial strains (P. aeruginosa and E. coli) at a concentration of 250 mg/ml. The highest antimicrobial activity was demonstrated by the acetonic extract on B. cereus which had an MIC of 10.42 mg/ml and a zone of inhibition of 17.33 ± 0.58 at a concentration of 250 mg/ml.

Conclusion

In this research work, we report that C. dichogamus had the antimicrobial activity confirming the folklore claim. The results made a strong case for isolation of novel anticancer lead compounds.

Comparative Study of Phytochemical, Antioxidant, and Cytotoxic Activities and Phenolic Content of Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f. Alston f.) Extracts Growing in West Sumatera Indonesia

Syzygium aqueum, consisting of various fruit colors, is one of the plants that have been used as traditional medicine. This study aims to evaluate and compare phytochemical, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities and total phenolic content of leaves and stem bark extracts of S. aqueum with pink and red fruits, in order to identify the best extract that can be used as a natural antioxidant. Phytochemical constituents were evaluated qualitatively using chemicals, while cytotoxic activities were identified using the brine shrimp lethality test. Total phenolic content was determined via the Folin-Ciocalteu method. Leaves and stem bark of S. aqueum contained flavonoids, phenolics, and triterpenoids, but the stem bark also contained saponins and alkaloids. Methanol and ethyl acetate extracts of leaves and stem bark were categorized as very powerful antioxidants to DPPH (IC50 9.71-38.69 μg/mL) and hydrogen peroxide (IC50 16.44-44.02 μg/mL), while hexane extracts were inactive. Methanol, ethyl acetate, and hexane extracts of leaves and stem bark were categorized as moderately cytotoxic to A. salina larvae (LC50 104.04-440.65 μg/mL). Comparing leaves and stem barks, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of stem bark extracts were higher than those of leaves extracts. Total phenolic content of leaves extracts was higher than that of stem bark extracts where the order of total phenolic content progressed from methanol extracts > ethyl acetate extracts > hexane extracts. Therefore, the stem bark of S. aqueum was identified as the better source of natural antioxidant compared with the leaves.