Intimate partner violence, trauma, and mental health need among female community college students

Associations Between PTSD and Depressive Symptoms and Victimization Among Female College Students: A Latent Class Analysis

Research on subgroups of female college students who share similar experiences of childhood maltreatment (CM) and intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization is sparse. The primary aims of the current study are: (a) to identify subgroups of victims related to experience of psychological, physical, and sexual CM and IPV and (b) to test the association between subgroups and depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptom severity. Survey data was collected from 327 female students at a public university in the Northeast. Three distinct subgroups, that is, victimization classes, were found using Latent Class Analysis: A lifetime victimization class, comprised of females reporting high rates of CM and IPV across types (19.0% of the sample), a childhood victimization class (26.9%); and a low victimization class (54.1%). Depressive symptom severity was positively associated with lifetime and childhood, relative to low, victimization class membership. PTSD symptom severity was associated with the childhood victimization class relative to both lifetime and low victimization class. Subgroups of institutions of higher education (IHE) females who share CM and IPV victimization experiences are discernable. The co-occurrence of IPV and CM in female college students is not uncommon. PTSD symptom severity may be more related to CM than IPV in IHE female students.

Intimate Partner Violence and Help-seeking Behavior Among College Students Attending A Historically Black College and University

This study provides critical evidence of the diversity of college students' experiences with intimate partner violence (IPV) and their informal and formal help-seeking behaviors at a historically Black college and university (HBCU). The study collected data on college students (N = 266) in fall 2021 using a one-site cross-sectional survey data. Findings revealed that many students at the HBCU reported IPV victimization (68.4%), IPV perpetration (68.0%), and coexperience of IPV victimization and perpetration (61.3%) in the past 12 months, but a few student survivors of IPV sought help from formal or informal support systems. Further, we found that IPV victimization types (e.g., physical, psychological, sexual abuse, and injury) with different severity levels (e.g., less severe or more severe) were differently related to the student survivor's help-seeking behaviors from formal and informal support systems. The findings of this study highlight the importance of supporting students attending HBCUs by addressing their perceptions of IPV help-seeking and coping with different types of IPV victimization via culturally tailored IPV prevention programs. HBCU campuses should promote physical health and mental health services for Black/African American survivors in HBCUs.

Campus climate impacts on sexual violence: a Bayesian comparison of undergraduate and community colleges

OBJECTIVE

Sexual violence is endemic on college campuses. Four-year campuses present high-risk environments for sexual violence and heavy episodic drinking is a robust risk factor for victimization. However, limited literature exists on sexual violence at two-year institutions, with most research focused on four-year campuses. We examined whether campus climates affect sexual violence prevalence rates.

PARTICIPANTS

Sexual misconduct campus climate data from two-year and four-year campus students.

METHODS

We used Bayesian logistic regressions to compare sexual victimization odds between two- and four-year campuses.

RESULTS

Four-year students were twice as likely to have experienced sexual victimization and 2.5 times more likely to engage in heavy episodic drinking compared to two-year students. The risk of sexual victimization associated with heavy episodic drinking was reliably similar across campus types.

CONCLUSIONS

Campus climates reliably impact student's risk of sexual victimization. Based on these findings, two- and four-year campuses may need to implement distinct prevention services.

Scoping Review of Intimate Partner Violence Prevention Programs for Undergraduate College Students

Recognizing that intimate partner violence (IPV) negatively affects college students' health and well-being, colleges offer preventive interventions to address these effects. However, scholarly evidence on this effort has been limited, such that we know little about the risk factors addressed, theoretical approaches, target outcomes, and other essential intervention characteristics. To address this gap, this study reviewed evidence-based IPV preventive interventions conducted in U.S. colleges reported in 25 peer-reviewed articles and dissertations published between 2010 and 2020. Findings showed that IPV preventive interventions for college students were designed to address multilevel risk factors of IPV, typically via bystander interventions and emerging skill-building interventions. Most IPV preventive interventions were theoretically driven primary preventions or a combination of primary and secondary preventions. Most studies of program outcomes focus on awareness of IPV and bystander roles, but 44% of the included articles measured participants' behavioral outcomes (e.g., actual bystander behavior, reaction to IPV disclosure, IPV screening behavior, social emotional skill use, or decreased rates of IPV perpetration) based on participants' use of skill-building components (e.g., bystander strategies, healthy relationship skills, conflict resolution, communication skills, empathy, and self-regulation). Student participants in the included studies were predominantly white (>60%) and only two studies included any Latinx students or students at historically Black colleges and universities. This review indicates that future IPV prevention practice, policy, and research must further define and explore how multilevel IPV prevention approaches can address the various systems level of needs among diverse student subpopulations.

Correlates of Sexual Victimization Among Community College Women

The current study documents the correlates associated with the severity of sexual victimization among women enrolled in a 2-year community college. Comparisons between women with a history of severe sexual victimization (i.e., rape and attempted rape), moderate sexual victimization (i.e., unwanted contact and sexual coercion), and no history of sexual victimization revealed that women with a history of severe sexual victimization endorsed more drinks per week, increased problem drinking behavior, and more use of drug before sex and higher levels of self-protective dating behaviors compared with women with no history of sexual victimization. These findings suggest that programs should target the intersection of alcohol and drug use as correlates of sexual victimization among community college women.

The Role of Minority Stress in Psychological Distress and Hazardous Drinking Among Sexual Minority College Student Victims of Intimate Partner Violence

Sexual minority, individuals who are not heterosexual, college students experience high rates of intimate partner violence (IPV), which is linked to a myriad of deleterious outcomes. However, little work has evaluated whether there are differences in IPV outcomes among sexual minority college students as compared to heterosexual college students. Further, the extent to which minority stress at the institutional and individual level relates to IPV outcomes among sexual minority students is understudied. As such, the purpose of the current study was to evaluate IPV outcomes in a large sample of undergraduate students attending 18 medium- to large-sized universities across the contiguous U.S. Results supported that sexual minority victims of IPV had more anxious and depressive symptoms than heterosexual victims of IPV but were not more likely to engage in hazardous drinking. Further, analyses supported that several campus-level (but not individual-level) indicators of minority stress moderated the relation between IPV victimization and negative outcomes among sexual minority students, such that the association between IPV and negative outcomes was stronger among students embedded in campuses with higher levels of minority stressors. Results support the critical importance of interventions addressing campus-level minority stressors to reduce deleterious IPV outcomes among sexual minority college student victims.

Social Reactions to Disclosures of Intimate Partner Stalking and Unwanted Pursuit Behaviors: Associations With PTSD, Academic Outcomes, and Empowerment

Among college survivors of unwanted pursuit behaviors (UPBs; 40.1%, n = 189) or intimate partner stalking (IPS, i.e., UPBs causing emotional distress; 32.1%, n = 151), the present study examined effects of social reactions to disclosures on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptomatology, academic outcomes, and personal empowerment. Compared to UPB survivors, IPS survivors were more likely to disclose and reported higher positive and negative reactions to disclosure as well as greater frequency of UPBs/IPS, IPV, and PTSD symptoms. Among both groups, only negative social reactions were positively associated with PTSD symptoms. However, among IPS (but not UPB) survivors, only positive social reactions were related to academic outcomes and empowerment when controlling for PTSD and IPS frequency. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

The influence of family and culture on South Asian student dating violence survivors' college experiences

Objective: This paper discusses the influence of family and cultural backgrounds on South Asian student survivors' understandings of dating relationships and help-seeking after experiencing dating violence. Methods: Six South Asian undergraduate women dating violence survivors participated in two thé talks (similar to semi structured interviews) and a photo-elicitation activity to share their experiences of dating violence and how they make meaning of these experiences. Findings: Through analysis guided by the tenets of Bhattacharya's Par/Des(i) framework, this paper highlights two key findings: 1) the powerful role of cultural values in students' conceptualizations of healthy and unhealthy relationships; and 2) the effect of familial and intergenerational experiences on students' help-seeking behaviors. Conclusion: Findings highlight the need to incorporate considerations of family and culture in efforts to address and prevent dating violence in higher education.

Risk for dating violence and sexual assault over time: The role of college and prior experiences with violence

Objective: Despite increased research on emerging adults and interpersonal violence, evidence on the role of college attendance in risk for dating violence and sexual assault is mixed. We examined the role of college attendance on victimization risk in emerging adulthood. Participants: Participants were a diverse longitudinal sample of 630 emerging adults. Methods: We conducted regression analyses to examine the association of college attendance by type (community and public/private four year) with subsequent victimization, controlling for prior victimization and other factors. Results: Participants who attended public and private four-year colleges had significantly less risk for physical dating violence (OR = 0.35, p < 0.001), but not prior sexual or psychological dating violence or other sexual assault. Prior victimization was the most significant predictor of victimization in emerging adulthood. Conclusions: The context of higher education and prior victimization experience should be considered for addressing dating violence and sexual assault in emerging adulthood.

Emotion Regulation and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration in Undergraduate Samples: A Review of the Literature

Intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration increases throughout young adulthood and is particularly widespread among college students, resulting in mental health and academic consequences. Deficits in emotion regulation (ER) are an important factor associated with IPV perpetration; the developmental tasks and challenges associated with college, including relationship stressors and hazardous alcohol use, implicate ER as a particularly relevant risk factor for IPV perpetration. Thus, college presents an important opportunity for intervention in order to change the trajectories of IPV perpetration across young adulthood. The purpose of this review was to synthesize findings regarding ER and psychological, physical, and sexual IPV perpetration among college students. Twenty-one articles met inclusion criteria. Studies were organized into five categories: (a) direct associations of ER with IPV perpetration, (b) qualitative assessment of ER and IPV, (c) ER in indirect effects models, (d) ER in moderation models, and (e) experiments with ER instructional sets. Overall, ER emerged as an important inhibiting factor for IPV perpetration, particularly impulse control and access to ER strategies. ER deficits in the context of impelling (e.g., negative affect, trauma history) and instigating (e.g., provocation) factors emerged as consistent predictors of psychological and physical IPV perpetration for both male and female students. Deficits in ER were associated with sexual IPV perpetration among men; however, very few studies examined sexual IPV. Experimental paradigms suggest cognitive reappraisal may reduce IPV perpetration, while suppression may, in some contexts, increase perpetration. Methodological strengths and weaknesses and implications for IPV prevention and interventions programming for college students are discussed.

Sexual assault and harassment victimization and post-assault help-seeking among undergraduate students: Comparing residential and nonresidential campuses

In the United States, campus sexual violence research has mostly focused on 4-year residential campuses. The experiences of students on nonresidential campuses are less well understood. Using data from a Web-based campus climate survey, this study explores sexual assault and sexual harassment victimization rates, victimization characteristics, and post-assault help-seeking across nonresidential and residential students in a campus system that contains both residential and nonresidential campuses. Our analyses highlight that sexual victimization rates, characteristics, and post-assault help-seeking patterns vary by campus type. Interestingly, while nonresidential students on nonresidential campuses reported lower rates of victimization, they accessed formal support resources at higher rates than students on a residential campus. Findings underscore the importance of accounting for campus type in campus sexual violence research and programming and to center nonresidential campuses to learn more about the strategies they adopt to address their students' unique victimization needs and experiences.

Institution of Higher Education Substance Use Amnesty Policies and Sexual Violence Reporting

Sexual violence (SV) is common among college students, but the vast majority of these experiences are not formally reported to institutions of higher education (IHEs). While it is well known that alcohol and drug use is highly associated with SV, little is known about whether policies and procedures regarding substance use (SU) at IHEs may contribute to low rates of reporting. This study describes the association between SU violations and SV reporting at IHE campuses in the US and examines whether SU amnesty policies are associated with more SV reporting. Linear regression was used to estimate the association between SU violations and SV reporting and assess differences between IHE campuses by amnesty policy status. Around 50% of campuses between 2001 and 2018 document neither SV reports nor SU violations. IHE campuses with amnesty policies have more SV reports. On average, IHEs with amnesty policies have 2.7 SV reports per 1000 students and an additional 0.02 SV reports for each SU violation per 1000 students. Amnesty policies that reduce the potential costs of reporting like facing disciplinary action for alcohol or drug use are positively associated with both the level and rate of SV reporting. Institutions of higher education administrators interested in making reporting an option for more SV survivors should examine how their policies, especially those related to alcohol, may play in creating barriers to SV reporting.

Facilitators of Formal Help-Seeking for Adult Survivors of IPV in the United States: A Systematic Review

A survivor's decision to engage with formal services for experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) is influenced by factors at the individual, interpersonal, and sociocultural levels. Understanding factors that facilitate survivors' choice to seek services could be beneficial to formal service providers including community agencies, health professionals, and the criminal justice system, providing guidance toward the development and implementation of accessible services for survivors of IPV. This systematic review of the literature aims to identify key factors that facilitate survivors' formal help-seeking. Ten electronic databases were searched for key terms related to help-seeking from formal services and facilitators of formal help-seeking. Articles were included in the review if the studies were conducted in the United States, focused on adults with experiences of IPV, and discussed facilitators of formal help-seeking. A total of 1,155 studies were initially identified, and after screening, 24 were included in the review. Seven factors were identified including provider knowledge, support, accessibility, desire to provide protection and to prevent future violence, and other factors such as knoweldge of and desire for services, policy factors, and personal factors. Findings demonstrate a need for more research on the facilitators of help-seeking among East Asian, South Asian, and Middle Eastern survivors living in the United States, as well as male-identified, trans, and gender nonconforming survivors. The review also indicates a need for culturally sensitive and accessible services that support survivors and the importance of raising awareness of the services and resources available for survivors.

Exploration of potential indicators of burnout, psychological distress and post-traumatic stress disorder, among Australian female first responders

There is limited research on the psychological wellbeing of female first responders (FRs) and therefore we explore potential indicators of burnout, psychological distress and post-traumatic stress disorder among Australian female FRs. We conducted an online health survey among Australian female FRs (fire, police, paramedical, aeromedical, remote area and other e.g., State Emergency Service). Of the 422 eligible participants who submitted the online survey, 286 completed at least 80% of all survey questions and were used in the final analyses. The main outcomes of interest were moderate burnout (compared to low burnout) and high scores for combined PCL-5/K10 (compared to low scores). Using logistical regression stepwise regression models, we analysed associations between the outcomes of interest and various work-psychosocial factors. Results showed the strongest indicators of moderate burnout to be, 1) returning to work with <12-hour break, 2) exposure to gossip and slander, 3) not enough time to do things, 4) and having experienced rape/sexual assault. The strongest indicators of higher PCL-5/K10 scores were, 1) exposure to unpleasant teasing, 2) pressure at work and home, 3) having experienced physical violence (e.g., beaten/mugged), and 4) someone close to them died unexpectedly. These findings show workforce stressors have more impact on female FRs psychological wellbeing, compared to lifetime traumatic exposures.

Extending Johnson's Typology: Additional Manifestations of Dating Violence and Coercive Control

In this study, we explored patterns of violence and coercive control in young adult dating relationships by testing and extending Johnson's typology of intimate partner violence. Young adults (N = 398) between 18 and 27 years old completed an online survey about experiences of violence and coercive control in current and past dating relationships. Using cluster analysis, we classified relationships as no/low coercive control and high coercive control. We then categorized relationship types according to Johnson's typology using the coercive control clusters and the absence/presence of violence. In total, 35% of relationships were abusive (i.e., violent and/or high coercive control), with 24% of all reported relationships including violence with and without high coercive control, and 11% including nonviolent coercive control. Among violent relationships, situational couple violence was more common than other types of dating violence, and two additional types of violence were found: (a) violence toward a nonviolent coercive controlling partner and (b) nonviolent coercive control toward an intimate terrorist, both of which are potentially types of resistance distinct from Johnson's concept of violent resistance. Additionally, victims of intimate terrorism and victims of nonviolent coercive control were significantly more fearful of their partners than victims of situational couple violence, and victims of situational couple violence did not differ in their fear of partners compared to respondents in nonabusive relationships. These findings identify additional abusive relationship types and elucidate the importance of extending Johnson's typology to more comprehensively capture the complex dynamics of coercive control and/or violence in young adult dating relationships.

Correlates of reproductive coercion among college women in abusive relationships: baseline data from the college safety study

ObjectiveThe purpose of this study was to examine correlates of reproductive coercion (RC) among a sample of college women in abusive relationships. Participants: 354 college students reporting a recent history of intimate partner violence (IPV). Methods: This study examines baseline data from a randomized controlled trial testing effectiveness of an interactive safety decision aid (myPlan). Results: Almost a quarter (24.3%) of the sample reported RC. Associated factors included races other than White (p = 0.019), relationship instability (p = 0.022), missing class due to relationship problems (p = 0.001), IPV severity (p < 0.001), technology abuse (p < 0.001), traumatic brain injury-associated events (p < 0.001), and depression (p = 0.024). Conclusions: RC was a significant predictor of depression, with implications for providers working with abused college women regarding the need for mental health services concurrent with IPV/RC services. A larger proportion of women who experienced RC sought help from a healthcare provider for contraception, which suggests intervention opportunities for college health providers.

Correlates of Bystander Intentions and Behavior among Community College Students in Situations of Sexual Violence

Sexual violence (SV) is a public health problem on college campuses. Research suggests that bystanders can effectively prevent and respond in situations of SV. There is no research to date concerning correlates of bystander behavior (e.g., gender, perceptions of SV) on community college campuses. However, there are notable differences between students enrolled in two- and four-year colleges. We conducted two exploratory studies across seven community colleges in one northeastern state to examine correlates of bystander intentions and behavior. In Studies 1 and 2, the majority of respondents identified as women, heterosexual, and White. We administered online surveys that inquired about demographics, peer attitudes, knowledge of sexual consent, history of victimization, and intent to help (Study 1) or self-reported bystander behavior (Study 2). The first study (n = 1,067) demonstrated that gender (i.e., identifying as woman), less accepting peer attitudes toward SV, and greater knowledge of sexual consent and awareness of campus SV were significantly associated with bystander intentions. The second study (n = 1,506) indicated that age (i.e., younger than 25 years old), greater knowledge of sexual consent, and victimization history were associated with bystander behavior. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Sexual and Relationship Violence Prevention Programming on Commuter Campuses: Wisdom From Students and Campus Personnel

Responding to the dearth of literature regarding sexual and relationship violence prevention programming on nonresidential university campuses, this study investigates how students and staff conceptualize prevention on commuter campuses. We use qualitative analysis of data from interviews with personnel, and focus groups with students on three commuter campuses and describe (a) the unique considerations associated with implementing prevention in commuter contexts and (b) core elements of comprehensive prevention approaches on these campuses. Results suggest that comprehensive prevention programming is desired by commuter campus stakeholders, but requires policy revision, creative delivery strategies, and student involvement, among other factors, to be realized.

Pathways From Intimate Partner Violence to Academic Disengagement Among Women University Students

More knowledge is needed related to collegiate intimate partner violence (IPV) and the pathways between experiencing physical and psychological IPV and academic disengagement. Students in a University System in the southwest completed an online survey including measures of physical and psychological IPV, academic disengagement, sense of community, and safety on campus. Conditional process analyses were used to understand key pathways for 6,818 woman identified students. All models found a significant indirect path between physical and psychological IPV and academic disengagement via depression symptoms. Students' sense of community on campus was associated with less academic disengagement regardless of physical violence. The impact of psychological IPV on disengagement was stronger for those with lower senses of community. Enhancing screening and education, providing effective mental health counseling, and increasing advocacy will help institutions better address IPV.

Rape Myth Acceptance Reflects Perceptions of Media Portrayals as Similar to Others, but Not the Self

Understanding the antecedents and consequences of rape myths is important for sexual assault prevention programming. We investigated whether general perceptions of media predict rape myth endorsement among community college students, a group with elevated sexual assault risk. Students who perceived greater similarity between people they know and people in media reported higher endorsement of rape myths that blame the victim and exonerate the accused. This relationship did not emerge for perceptions of one's personal similarity to people in media, with the exception of men's endorsement of myths exonerating male perpetrators.

Intimate partner violence and academic performance: the role of physical, mental, behavioral, and financial health

Undergraduate students of all gender identities are at risk of experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization. It is known that IPV negatively affects academic performance, yet little is known about the role of health. This study examined if past-year IPV victimization was associated with an increase in students' self-perception of health interfering with academic performance. Data were drawn from the 2011-2014 National College Health Assessment (N = 84,734). Structural equation modeling was used to examine the relationship between a latent variable of IPV and health impediments to academic performance. The model was a good fit for the data (RMSEA = .012, CFI = .994, TLI = .981). Undergraduate survivors of past-year IPV - and transgender students - were more likely to report impediments to their academic performance: physical assault (0.66, p < .001), sexual assault (0.57, p < .001), sexually transmitted infections (0.42, p < .001), pregnancy (0.38, p < .001), depression (0.38, p < .001), disordered eating (0.36, p < .001), financial problems (0.33, p < .001), anxiety (0.32, p < .001), sleep problems (0.32, p < .001), chronic health problems (0.29, p < .001), drug use (0.29, p < .001), injury (0.25, p < .001), and alcohol use (0.25, p < .001). This demonstrates that IPV has a spiral effect, such that IPV's impact on health is perceived by students as detrimental to their academics.

Sexual violence victimization among community college students

Objective: To assess the prevalence of sexual violence victimization among a community college student population. Participants: In March 2017, students (800) from seven community colleges in a northeastern state participated in an online campus climate survey using the ARC3 Survey Instrument. Methods: We analyze demographic differences between participants who were victimized and those who were not, and we examine the relationship between participant victimization and well-being. Results: Participants who identified as female, younger than 26, not heterosexual, or a race other than Caucasian were significantly more likely to report victimization. Participants who reported victimization were significantly more likely to score negatively on well-being scales than those who did not. Conclusions: Sexual violence prevalence rates among community college students are similar to reported prevalence rates among traditional 4-year undergraduate students. Results suggest a need for increased research on sexual violence among the understudied community college student population.

Alcohol Use and Intimate Partner Violence Among Community College Women: An Exploration of Protective Factors

Little is known regarding the association between alcohol use and violence among community college women. Accordingly, this study investigated daily-level associations between alcohol use and intimate partner victimization (IPV) in a sample of young women (ages 18-24) in a community college setting, and the potentially protective role of education aspirations and living with family. Using a calendar-based assessment, women enrolled in a large community college (N = 212) completed past-month surveys of IPV and alcohol use. Unadjusted Generalized Estimating Equations showed nonsignificant positive associations between alcohol consumption (any alcohol use and number of drinks) and IPV at the daily level. Adjusted models showed a slight (but nonsignificant) increase in the odds of experiencing IPV on a drinking day. Those reporting a family income above $20,000 were at increased risk of experiencing violence. Living with family and wanting to attain a master's or doctoral degree reduced the risk of experiencing IPV on drinking days. Although the literature suggests that drinking among 4-year college women elevates the odds of experiencing IPV, our findings suggest the importance of examining contextual variables when understanding risk among community college women. Particularly, the role of family and educational aspirations may serve as protective factors in the association between alcohol use and IPV on a daily basis. As this is the first day-level study of IPV and alcohol use among community college women, further research is warranted to better explicate these findings.