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Milano BA, Moutoussis M, Convertino L. The neurobiology of functional neurological disorders characterised by impaired awareness. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1122865. [PMID: 37009094 PMCID: PMC10060839 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1122865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
We review the neurobiology of Functional Neurological Disorders (FND), i.e., neurological disorders not explained by currently identifiable histopathological processes, in order to focus on those characterised by impaired awareness (functionally impaired awareness disorders, FIAD), and especially, on the paradigmatic case of Resignation Syndrome (RS). We thus provide an improved more integrated theory of FIAD, able to guide both research priorities and the diagnostic formulation of FIAD. We systematically address the diverse spectrum of clinical presentations of FND with impaired awareness, and offer a new framework for understanding FIAD. We find that unraveling the historical development of neurobiological theory of FIAD is of paramount importance for its current understanding. Then, we integrate contemporary clinical material in order to contextualise the neurobiology of FIAD within social, cultural, and psychological perspectives. We thus review neuro-computational insights in FND in general, to arrive at a more coherent account of FIAD. FIAD may be based on maladaptive predictive coding, shaped by stress, attention, uncertainty, and, ultimately, neurally encoded beliefs and their updates. We also critically appraise arguments in support of and against such Bayesian models. Finally, we discuss implications of our theoretical account and provide pointers towards an improved clinical diagnostic formulation of FIAD. We suggest directions for future research towards a more unified theory on which future interventions and management strategies could be based, as effective treatments and clinical trial evidence remain limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice Annunziata Milano
- Institute of Life Sciences, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, Pisa, Italy
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Michael Moutoussis
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- National Hospital of Neurology and Neurosurgery (UCLH), London, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Convertino
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- National Hospital of Neurology and Neurosurgery (UCLH), London, United Kingdom
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Laura Convertino,
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2
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Barlati S, Lisoni J, Nibbio G, Baldacci G, Cicale A, Ferrarin LC, Italia M, Zucchetti A, Deste G, Vita A. Current Evidence and Theories in Understanding the Relationship between Cognition and Depression in Childhood and Adolescence: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:2525. [PMID: 36292214 PMCID: PMC9600470 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12102525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The present narrative review has covered the current evidence regarding the role of cognitive impairments during the early phase of major depressive disorder (MDD), attempting to describe the cognitive features in childhood, adolescence and in at-risk individuals. These issues were analyzed considering the trait, scar and state hypotheses of MDD by examining the cold and hot dimensions, the latter explained in relation to the current psychological theoretical models of MDD. This search was performed on several electronic databases up to August 2022. Although the present review is the first to have analyzed both cold and hot cognitive impairments considering the trait, scar and state hypotheses, we found that current evidence did not allow to exclusively confirm the validity of one specific hypothesis since several equivocal and discordant results have been proposed in childhood and adolescence samples. Further studies are needed to better characterize possible cognitive dysfunctions assessing more systematically the impairments of cold, hot and social cognition domains and their possible interaction in a developmental perspective. An increased knowledge on these topics will improve the definition of clinical endophenotypes of enhanced risk to progression to MDD and, to hypothesize preventive and therapeutic strategies to reduce negative influences on psychosocial functioning and well-being.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Barlati
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Jacopo Lisoni
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Gabriele Nibbio
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giulia Baldacci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Cicale
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Laura Chiara Ferrarin
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Mauro Italia
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Zucchetti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giacomo Deste
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Antonio Vita
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
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Gallant C, Good D. Examining the role of neuropsychology in community-based pediatric mental health care. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY: CHILD 2022; 12:104-121. [PMID: 35184633 DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2022.2038169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Numerous investigations have demonstrated a link between neuropsychological functioning and mental health. Children with a history of neurological compromise are more vulnerable to mental illness and there is a growing literature indicating that neurocognitive functioning predicts psychosocial outcomes in adulthood. However, not much is known about how neuropsychological information is utilized in community-based mental health care. Thus, we examined what neuropsychological information is available to pediatric centers and how neuropsychological functioning relates to treatment outcomes in these settings. Two content analyses were conducted to identify mental health indicators across different intake sources and these results were compared to a structured intake. Further, a series of standardized neurocognitive and neuroemotional measures were completed and these indices were correlated with treatment outcomes. Qualitative results confirmed that neuropsychological factors are often overlooked when utilizing current approaches and that observable symptoms are a primary focus of treatment. Additionally, neurocognitive deficits were associated with self-reported interpersonal difficulties and caregivers' reports of externalizing; however, only caregiver-reported externalizing challenges correlated with treatment outcomes. Importantly, neurocognitive challenges were associated with long-term treatment responses, suggesting that these factors may be an important therapeutic target. Collectively, these findings indicate a need to incorporate neuropsychological factors in pediatric mental health treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlyn Gallant
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
| | - Dawn Good
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
- Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, St. Catharines, Canada
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Brief, Performance-Based Cognitive Screening in Youth Aged 12-25: A Systematic Review. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2021; 27:835-854. [PMID: 33461647 DOI: 10.1017/s1355617720001241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Cognitive screening is an efficient method of detecting cognitive impairment in adults and may signal need for comprehensive assessment. Cognitive screening is not, however, routinely used in youth aged 12-25, limiting clinical recommendations. The aims of this review were to describe performance-based cognitive screening tools used in people aged 12-25 and the contexts of use, review screening accuracy in detecting cognitive impairment relative to an objective reference standard, and evaluate the risk of bias of included studies. METHOD Electronic databases (Scopus, Medline, PsychINFO, and ERIC) were searched for relevant studies according to pre-determined criteria. Risk of bias was rated using the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies-2. Dual screening, extraction, and quality ratings occurred at each review phase. RESULTS Twenty studies met the review inclusion criteria. A diverse range of screening tools (length, format) were used in youth aged 12-25 with or without health conditions. Six studies investigating cognitive screening were conducted as primary accuracy studies and reported some relevant psychometric parameters (e.g., sensitivity and specificity). Fourteen studies presented correlational data to investigate the cognitive measure utility. Studies generally presented limited data on classification accuracy, which impacted full screening tool appraisal. Risk of bias was high (or unclear) in most studies with poor adherence to the Standards for Reporting Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (STARD) criteria. CONCLUSIONS Few, high quality studies have investigated the utility of cognitive screening in youth aged 12-25, with no screening measure emerging as superior at detecting cognitive impairment in this age group.
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Allott K, Van‐der‐el K, Bryce S, Hamilton M, Adams S, Burgat L, Killackey E, Rickwood D. Need for clinical neuropsychological assessment in headspace youth mental health services: A national survey of providers. AUSTRALIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/ajpy.12225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Allott
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Kristi Van‐der‐el
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Shayden Bryce
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Matthew Hamilton
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Sophie Adams
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Orygen Youth Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Liz Burgat
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Eoin Killackey
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,
| | - Debra Rickwood
- Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia,
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Delagneau G, Bowden SC, Bryce S, van-der-El K, Hamilton M, Adams S, Burgat L, Killackey E, Rickwood D, Allott K. Thematic analysis of youth mental health providers' perceptions of neuropsychological assessment services. Early Interv Psychiatry 2020; 14:220-227. [PMID: 31512388 DOI: 10.1111/eip.12876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
AIM A growing number of quantitative studies have investigated the utility of neuropsychological assessment in mental health settings. However, to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has qualitatively explored youth mental health providers' perceptions of neuropsychological assessment services. A more in-depth understanding of the perceived advantages and barriers associated with neuropsychological assessment in youth mental health settings is critical to better inform policy, practice and service uptake. Thus, the aim of this study was to qualitatively explore clinicians' views about neuropsychological assessments for youth with mental health concerns. METHODS A single open-ended qualitative question, included as part of an anonymous cross-sectional online survey, was completed by clinicians (N = 206) treating or assessing adolescents and young adults within Australian primary care mental health centres (headspace). Responses were analysed using an inductive approach to thematic analysis. RESULTS Five main themes were identified. Clinicians (a) identified barriers to accessing neuropsychological assessments (53%), (b) indicated a range of mixed outcomes following neuropsychological assessment (39%), (c) highlighted a need for neuropsychological assessments (22%), (d) reported a lack of awareness about this resource (10%) and (e) described practice issues associated with neuropsychological services (4%). CONCLUSION This study uncovered perceived factors contributing to reduced access to neuropsychological assessment in Australian youth mental health settings. Given potential adverse outcomes resulting from this clinical service gap, efforts should be made to address factors contributing to poorer access, thereby mitigating the impact of poor access on the management of mental illness in youth. Several strategies, including funding neuropsychological assessments, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garance Delagneau
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stephen C Bowden
- Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Shayden Bryce
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Kristi van-der-El
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Matthew Hamilton
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Sophie Adams
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.,Orygen Youth Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Liz Burgat
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Eoin Killackey
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Debra Rickwood
- Faculty of Health, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia & headspace The National Youth Mental Health Foundation, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kelly Allott
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
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Tickell AM, Scott EM, Davenport T, Iorfino F, Ospina-Pinillos L, White D, Harel K, Parker L, Hickie IB, Hermens DF. Developing neurocognitive standard clinical care: A study of young adult inpatients. Psychiatry Res 2019; 276:232-238. [PMID: 31121529 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Neuropsychological assessments have provided the field of psychiatry with important information about patients. As an assessment tool, a neuropsychological battery can be useful in a clinical setting; however, implementation as standard clinical care in an inpatient unit has not been extensively evaluated. A computerized cognitive battery was administered to 103 current young adult inpatients (19.2 ± 3.1 years; 72% female) with affective disorder. Neurocognitive tasks included Verbal Recognition Memory (VRM), Attention Switching (AST), Paired Association Learning (PAL), and Rapid Visual Processing (RVP). Patients also completed a computerized self-report questionnaire evaluating subjective impressions of their cognition. Hierarchical cluster analysis determined three neurocognitive subgroups: cluster 1 (n = 17) showed a more impaired neurocognitive profile on three of the four variables compared to their peers in cluster 2 (n = 59), and cluster 3 (n = 27), who had the most impaired attentional shifting. Two of the four neurocognitive variables were significantly different between all three cluster groups (verbal learning and sustained attention). Overall group results showed an association between poorer sustained attention and increased suicidal ideation. These findings strengthen the idea that neurocognitive profiles may play an important role in better understanding the severity of illness in young inpatients with major psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh M Tickell
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia.
| | - Elizabeth M Scott
- Young Adult Mental Health Unit, Uspace, St Vincent's Private Hospital, Australia
| | - Tracey Davenport
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Frank Iorfino
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Laura Ospina-Pinillos
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Django White
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Kate Harel
- Young Adult Mental Health Unit, Uspace, St Vincent's Private Hospital, Australia
| | - Lisa Parker
- Young Adult Mental Health Unit, Uspace, St Vincent's Private Hospital, Australia
| | - Ian B Hickie
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia
| | - Daniel F Hermens
- Clinical Research Unit, Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 100 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW 2050, Australia; Sunshine Coast Mind and Neuroscience Thompson Institute, University of the Sunshine Coast, Birtinya, QLD, Australia
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Proffitt TM, Brewer WJ, Parrish EM, McGorry PD, Allott KA. Reasons for referral and findings of clinical neuropsychological assessment in youth with mental illness: A clinical file audit. APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-CHILD 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/21622965.2017.1284663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tina-Marie Proffitt
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- School of Psychology, University of Waikato, Hamilton, Waikato, New Zealand
| | - Warrick J. Brewer
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emma M. Parrish
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Patrick D. McGorry
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kelly A. Allott
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Allott K, Fisher CA, Amminger GP, Goodall J, Hetrick S. Characterizing neurocognitive impairment in young people with major depression: state, trait, or scar? Brain Behav 2016; 6:e00527. [PMID: 27781141 PMCID: PMC5064339 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Revised: 04/29/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Major depressive disorder (MDD) affects a quarter of adolescents and young adults and is associated with the greatest global burden of disease in this population. There is a growing literature, mostly in adults, showing that significant neurocognitive impairments are common in MDD. It remains unclear whether these impairments are pre-existing trait markers of MDD, state-related impairments that fluctuate with depressive symptoms, or 'scar' impairments that worsen with illness progression. The aim of this study is to provide a conceptual framework for understanding MDD and neurocognitive impairment in adolescence and young adulthood (ages 12-25 years). METHOD Examination of the evidence for neurocognitive deficits as trait, state, and scar features of MDD according to different study designs (family studies, premorbid studies, current depression, remitted depression, and longitudinal studies with repeated assessment) was conducted. RESULTS The few premorbid and family studies conducted in youth provide equivocal evidence for neurocognitive impairments as trait markers of MDD. The presence of state-based neurocognitive impairment remains unclear as evidence comes mostly from cross-sectional studies. There are a limited, but growing number of longitudinal studies with repeated neurocognitive assessment in youth. Studies that examined neurocognition prior to the onset of MDD and with long-term follow-up provide tentative evidence for neurocognitive scarring. CONCLUSION Neurocognitive impairment is a feature of MDD in adolescents and young adults. To better understand the nature, timing, and pattern of impairment, longitudinal studies that examine neurocognition before and after the development of full-threshold MDD, including following recurrence are needed. This knowledge will have important implications for mechanisms, prevention, and treatment of MDD in youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Allott
- OrygenThe National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health Parkville Victoria Australia; The Centre for Youth Mental Health The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Caroline A Fisher
- The Melbourne Clinic Richmond Melbourne Australia; Royal Melbourne Hospital Parkville Melbourne Australia
| | - Gunther Paul Amminger
- OrygenThe National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health Parkville Victoria Australia; The Centre for Youth Mental Health The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Joanne Goodall
- Orygen The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health Parkville Victoria Australia
| | - Sarah Hetrick
- OrygenThe National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health Parkville Victoria Australia; The Centre for Youth Mental Health The University of Melbourne Parkville Victoria Australia
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Lin A, Wood SJ. Understanding the course of cognitive deficits over the onset of psychosis. EVIDENCE-BASED MENTAL HEALTH 2015; 18:87. [PMID: 25941270 PMCID: PMC11234934 DOI: 10.1136/eb-2014-101975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ashleigh Lin
- Telethon Kids Institute, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Stephen J Wood
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne & Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Australia
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