Effect of glutathione liposomes on diabetic nephropathy based on oxidative stress and polyol pathway mechanism

Targeted drug delivery strategy: a bridge to the therapy of diabetic kidney disease

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the main complication in diabetes mellitus (DM) and the main cause of end-stage kidney disease worldwide. However, sodium glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibition, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists and endothelin receptor A inhibition have yielded promising effects in DKD, a great part of patients inevitably continue to progress to uremia. Newly effective therapeutic options are urgently needed to postpone DKD progression. Recently, accumulating evidence suggests that targeted drug delivery strategies, such as macromolecular carriers, nanoparticles, liposomes and so on, can enhance the drug efficacy and reduce the undesired side effects, which will be a milestone treatment in the management of DKD. The aim of this article is to summarize the current knowledge of targeted drug delivery strategies and select the optimal renal targeting strategy to provide new therapies for DKD.

Nanomedicines for the management of diabetic nephropathy: present progress and prospects

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious microvascular consequence of diabetes mellitus (DM), posing an encumbrance to public health worldwide. Control over the onset and progress of DN depend heavily on early detection and effective treatment. DN is a major contributor to end-stage renal disease, and a complete cure is yet to be achieved with currently available options. Though some therapeutic molecules have exhibited promise in treating DN complications, their poor solubility profile, low bioavailability, poor permeation, high therapeutic dose and associated toxicity, and low patient compliance apprehend their clinical usefulness. Recent research has indicated nano-systems as potential theranostic platforms displaying futuristic promise in the diagnosis and treatment of DN. Early and accurate diagnosis, site-specific delivery and retention by virtue of ligand conjugation, and improved pharmacokinetic profile are amongst the major advantages of nano-platforms, defining their superiority. Thus, the emergence of nanoparticles has offered fresh approaches to the possible diagnostic and therapeutic strategies regarding DN. The present review corroborates an updated overview of different types of nanocarriers regarding potential approaches for the diagnosis and therapy of DN.

Single-cell and genetic multi-omics analysis combined with experiments confirmed the signature and potential targets of cuproptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background: Cuproptosis, as a recently discovered type of programmed cell death, occupies a very important role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and provides new methods for immunotherapy; however, the functions of cuproptosis in HCC are still unclear. Methods: We first analyzed the transcriptome data and clinical information of 526 HCC patients using multiple algorithms in R language and extensively described the copy number variation, prognostic and immune infiltration characteristics of cuproptosis related genes (CRGs). Then, the hub CRG related genes associated with prognosis through LASSO and Cox regression analyses and constructed a prognostic prediction model including multiple molecular markers and clinicopathological parameters through training cohorts, then this model was verified by test cohorts. On the basis of the model, the clinicopathological indicators, immune infiltration and tumor microenvironment characteristics of HCC patients were further explored via bioinformation analysis. Then, We further explored the key gene biological function by single-cell analysis, cell viability and transwell experiments. Meantime, we also explored the molecular docking of the hub genes. Results: We have screened 5 hub genes associated with HCC prognosis and constructed a prognosis prediction scoring model. And the model results showed that patients in the high-risk group had poor prognosis and the expression levels of multiple immune markers, including PD-L1, CD276 and CTLA4, were higher than those patients in the low-risk group. We found a significant correlation between risk score and M0 macrophages and memory CD4+ T cells. And the single-cell analysis and molecular experiments showed that BEX1 were higher expressed in HCC tissues and deletion inhibited the proliferation, invasion and migration and EMT pathway of HCC cells. Finally, it was observed that BEX1 could bind to sorafenib to form a stable conformation. Conclusion: The study not only revealed the multiomics characteristics of CRGs in HCC but also constructed a new high-accuracy prognostic prediction model. Meanwhile, BEX1 were also identified as hub genes that can mediate the cuproptosis of hepatocytes as potential therapeutic targets for HCC.

The roles of gut microbiota and its metabolites in diabetic nephropathy

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a severe microvascular complication of diabetes, which increases the risk of renal failure and causes a high global disease burden. Due to the lack of sustainable treatment, DN has become the primary cause of end-stage renal disease worldwide. Gut microbiota and its metabolites exert critical regulatory functions in maintaining host health and are associated with many pathogenesis of aging-related chronic diseases. Currently, the theory gut-kidney axis has opened a novel angle to understand the relationship between gut microbiota and multiple kidney diseases. In recent years, accumulating evidence has revealed that the gut microbiota and their metabolites play an essential role in the pathophysiologic processes of DN through the gut-kidney axis. In this review, we summarize the current investigations of gut microbiota and microbial metabolites involvement in the progression of DN, and further discuss the potential gut microbiota-targeted therapeutic approaches for DN.

The impact of oxidative stress-induced mitochondrial dysfunction on diabetic microvascular complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a metabolic disease characterized by chronic hyperglycaemia, with absolute insulin deficiency or insulin resistance as the main cause, and causes damage to various target organs including the heart, kidney and neurovascular. In terms of the pathological and physiological mechanisms of DM, oxidative stress is one of the main mechanisms leading to DM and is an important link between DM and its complications. Oxidative stress is a pathological phenomenon resulting from an imbalance between the production of free radicals and the scavenging of antioxidant systems. The main site of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production is the mitochondria, which are also the main organelles damaged. In a chronic high glucose environment, impaired electron transport chain within the mitochondria leads to the production of ROS, prompts increased proton leakage and altered mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), which in turn releases cytochrome c (cyt-c), leading to apoptosis. This subsequently leads to a vicious cycle of impaired clearance by the body's antioxidant system, impaired transcription and protein synthesis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), which is responsible for encoding mitochondrial proteins, and impaired DNA repair systems, contributing to mitochondrial dysfunction. This paper reviews the dysfunction of mitochondria in the environment of high glucose induced oxidative stress in the DM model, and looks forward to providing a new treatment plan for oxidative stress based on mitochondrial dysfunction.

Advance in the Correlation between Diabetic Nephropathy and Abnormal Serum Thyroid Hormone Levels in Patients

This study was developed to explore the correlation between diabetic nephropathy (DN) and abnormal serum thyroid hormone (TH) levels in patients, which can provide a reference for disease prevention and control in patients with DN. DN is the most serious complication of diabetes. The mortality rate of diabetic patients with DN is approximately 30 times higher than that of diabetic patients without DN. DN leads to high blood sugar, which causes vascular dysfunction in patients, causes cardiovascular disease, aggravates the disease and disease complexity, and thus increases the mortality of patients. DN patients often have oxidative stress and even fibrosis in severe cases. TH has a potential renal protective effect and can also regulate glucose metabolism and improve abnormal glucose tolerance and insulin resistance. Abnormal serum TH levels increase the risk of DN. Normal thyroid function plays an important role in regulating the physiological functions of the human body. Hormonal disorders promote the development of diabetes mellitus (DM) into DN. The pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, detection, and treatment methods of DN were reviewed in this study. The research progress of the influence of TH on DN was analyzed. This study is conducive to clinical research on DN and provides a reference.

Diphenyl Diselenide Alleviates Tert-Butyl Hydrogen Peroxide-Induced Oxidative Stress and Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation in Rat Glomerular Mesangial Cells

Hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, and inflammation play key roles in the onset and development of diabetic complications such as diabetic nephropathy (DN). Diphenyl diselenide (DPDS) is a stable and simple organic selenium compound with anti-hyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative activities. Nevertheless, in vitro, the role and molecular mechanism of DPDS on DN remains unknown. Therefore, we investigated the effects of DPDS on tert-butyl hydrogen peroxide (t-BHP)-induced oxidative stress and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in rat glomerular mesangial (HBZY-1) cells and explored the underlying mechanisms. DPDS attenuated t-BHP-induced cytotoxicity, concurrent with decreased intracellular ROS and MDA contents and increased SOD activity and GSH content. Moreover, DPDS augmented the protein and mRNA expression of Nrf2, HO-1, NQO1, and GCLC in t-BHP-stimulated HBZY-1 cells. In addition, DPDS suppressed LPS-induced elevations of intracellular content and mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β and TNF-α. Furthermore, LPS-induced NFκB activation and high phosphorylation of JNK and ERK1/2 were markedly suppressed by DPDS in HBZY-1 cells. In summary, these data demonstrated that DPDS improves t-BHP-induced oxidative stress by activating the Nrf2/Keap1 pathway, and also improves LPS-induced inflammation via inhibition of the NFκB/MAPK pathways in HBZY-1 cells, suggesting that DPDS has the potential to be developed as a candidate for the prevention and treatment of DN.

Detection of glutathione in dairy products based on surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy of silver nanoparticles

In this paper, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were prepared as enhanced substrates for the detection of glutathione in dairy products by polyol reduction of silver nitrate. The infrared spectra were collected and analyzed by surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRA) method of transmission mode using a cell of calcium fluoride window sheet immobilization solution for the study. The disappearance of the thiol (-SH) absorption peak in the infrared spectrum, and the shift of its characteristic absorption peak when glutathione was bound to AgNPs solvate indicated the Ag-S bond interaction and the aggregation of AgNPS. AgNPs accumulate to form "hot spots", resulting in enhanced electromagnetic fields and thus enhanced infrared signals of glutathione. The intensity of the characteristic absorption peak at 1,654 cm^-1 (carbonyl C=O bond stretching) was used for the quantitative analysis of glutathione. After optimizing the conditions, glutathione content in pretreated pure milk and pure ewe's milk was determined using AgNPs in combination with SEIRA. Good linearity was obtained in the range of 0.02-0.12 mg/mL with correlation coefficients (R ²) of 0.9879 and 0.9833, respectively, and LOD of 0.02 mg/mL with average spiked recoveries of 101.3 and 92.5%, respectively. The results show that the method can be used for accurate determination of glutathione content in common dairy products.

Approaches to Address PK-PD Challenges of Conventional Liposome Formulation with Special Reference to Cancer, Alzheimer's, Diabetes, and Glaucoma: An Update on Modified Liposomal Drug Delivery System

Liposomes nowadays have become a preferential drug delivery system since they provide facilitating properties to drugs, such as improved therapeutic index of encapsulated drug, target and controlled drug delivery, and less toxicity. However, conventional liposomes have shown some disadvantages, such as less drug loading capacity, poor retention, clearance by kidney or reticuloendothelial system, and less release of hydrophilic drugs. Thus, to overcome these disadvantages recently, scientists have explored new approaches and methods, viz., ligand conjugation, polymer coating, and liposome hybrids, including surface-modified liposomes, biopolymer-incorporated liposomes, guest-in-cyclodextrin-in-liposome, liposome-in-hydrogel, liposome-in-film, liposome-in-nanofiber, etc. These approaches have been shown to improve the physiochemical and pharmacokinetic properties of encapsulated drugs. Lately, pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) computational modeling has emerged as a beneficial tool for analyzing the impact of formulation and system-specific factors on the target disposition and therapeutic efficacy of liposomal drugs. There has been an increasing number of liposome-based therapeutic drugs, both FDA approved and those undergoing clinical trials, having application in cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, and glaucoma. To meet the continuous demand of health sectors and to produce the desired product, it is important to perform pharmacokinetic studies. This review focuses on the physical, physicochemical, and chemical factors of drugs that influence the target delivery of drugs. It also explains various physiological barriers, such as systemic clearance and extravasation. A novel approach, liposomal-hybrid complex, an innovative approach as a vesicular drug delivery system to overcome limited membrane permeability and bioavailability, has been discussed in the review. Moreover, this review highlights the pharmacokinetic considerations and challenges of poorly absorbed drugs along with the applications of a liposomal delivery system in improving PKPD in various diseases, such as cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, and glaucoma.

Liposome-encapsulated glycyrrhizin alleviates hyperglycemia and glycation-induced iron-catalyzed oxidative reactions in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Glycyrrhizin, a bioactive constituent of Glycyrrhiza glabra has been reported to ameliorate diabetes. Here, the effects of liposome-encapsulated glycyrrhizin on STZ-induced diabetes and associated oxidative stress were investigated. Wistar rats were grouped as control (NC, received placebo), diabetic (DC, STZ-induced), diabetic treated with free glycyrrhizin (DTG, 3 i.v. doses, 1.6 mg/0.5 ml), empty liposomes (DTl, 3 i.v. doses), and liposome-encapsulated glycyrrhizin (DTbd, 3 i.v. doses, 1.6 mg/0.5 ml). Serum glucose, insulin, intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test and glycohemoglobin were estimated. Free iron and iron-mediated oxidative stress were examined. Histological examinations of the kidney and liver were performed. Liposomal-glycyrrhizin treatment caused significant improvement of hyperglycemia (DC vs. DTbd p < .05), glucose intolerance (DC vs. DTG p < .01 and DC vs. DTbd p < .05), insulin (DC vs. DTG p < .1, DTbd vs. DC p < .05 and DTbd vs. DTG p < .1) and glycohemoglobin (DC vs. DTG p < .1 and DC vs. DTbd p < .05) levels in the DTbd group. Alleviation of free iron release (DC vs. DTbd p < .05), lipid peroxidation (DC + H₂O₂ vs. DTbd + H₂O₂ p < .05), deoxyribose (DC + H₂O₂ vs. DTbd + H₂O₂, p < .05), and DNA degradation occurred in the DTbd group. The abnormalities of the kidney and liver were abolished in the DTbd group. The inhibitory effects were more pronounced compared to free glycyrrhizin. Liposome-encapsulated glycyrrhizin treatment caused inhibition of diabetic complications through its antioxidant effects and can be exploited for effective treatment of diabetes.

Nano-Drug Design Based on the Physiological Properties of Glutathione

Glutathione (GSH) is involved in and regulates important physiological functions of the body as an essential antioxidant. GSH plays an important role in anti-oxidation, detoxification, anti-aging, enhancing immunity and anti-tumor activity. Herein, based on the physiological properties of GSH in different diseases, mainly including the strong reducibility of GSH, high GSH content in tumor cells, and the NADPH depletion when GSSH is reduced to GSH, we extensively report the design principles, effect, and potential problems of various nano-drugs in diabetes, cancer, nervous system diseases, fluorescent probes, imaging, and food. These studies make full use of the physiological and pathological value of GSH and develop excellent design methods of nano-drugs related to GSH, which shows important scientific significance and prominent application value for the related diseases research that GSH participates in or responds to.

Aldose Reductase: a cause and a potential target for the treatment of diabetic complications

Diabetes mellitus, a disorder of metabolism, results in the elevation of glucose level in the blood. In this hyperglycaemic condition, aldose reductase overexpresses and leads to further complications of diabetes through the polyol pathway. Glucose metabolism-related disorders are the accumulation of sorbitol, overproduction of NADH and fructose, reduction in NAD⁺, and excessive NADPH usage, leading to diabetic pathogenesis and its complications such as retinopathy, neuropathy, and nephropathy. Accumulation of sorbitol results in the alteration of osmotic pressure and leads to osmotic stress. The overproduction of NADH causes an increase in reactive oxygen species production which leads to oxidative stress. The overproduction of fructose causes cell death and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Apart from these disorders, many other complications have also been discussed in the literature. Therefore, the article overviews the aldose reductase as the causative agent and a potential target for the treatment of diabetic complications. So, aldose reductase inhibitors have gained much importance worldwide right now. Several inhibitors, like derivatives of carboxylic acid, spirohydantoin, phenolic derivatives, etc. could prevent diabetic complications are discussed in this article.

Mitochondrial Glutathione: Recent Insights and Role in Disease

Mitochondria are the main source of reactive oxygen species (ROS), most of them deriving from the mitochondrial respiratory chain. Among the numerous enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant systems present in mitochondria, mitochondrial glutathione (mGSH) emerges as the main line of defense for maintaining the appropriate mitochondrial redox environment. mGSH’s ability to act directly or as a co-factor in reactions catalyzed by other mitochondrial enzymes makes its presence essential to avoid or to repair oxidative modifications that can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and subsequently to cell death. Since mitochondrial redox disorders play a central part in many diseases, harboring optimal levels of mGSH is vitally important. In this review, we will highlight the participation of mGSH as a contributor to disease progression in pathologies as diverse as Alzheimer’s disease, alcoholic and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, or diabetic nephropathy. Furthermore, the involvement of mitochondrial ROS in the signaling of new prescribed drugs and in other pathologies (or in other unmet medical needs, such as gender differences or coronavirus disease of 2019 (COVID-19) treatment) is still being revealed; guaranteeing that research on mGSH will be an interesting topic for years to come.