Social factors affecting ART adherence in rural settings in Zambia

Healthcare Workers' Perspectives on the Utilization of the International HIV Dementia Scale for the Screening HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorders: A Qualitative Study at TASO Centres in Central and Southwestern Uganda

Introduction

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are becoming a significant public health concern in the continuum of human immune virus (HIV) treatment. These disorders range from subtle cognitive impairments to severe dementia. Despite many early-stage HAND cases being asymptomatic, healthcare workers (HCWs) rarely perform routine neurocognitive assessments. This leads to a high number of unrecognized cases and increases the risk of HAND among people living with HIV (PLWH).

Material and Methods

We aimed to explore HCWs' perspectives on integrating the International HIV Dementia Scale (IHDS) into routine care for screening HAND at The AIDS Support Organization (TASO) centres in central and southwestern Uganda.

Results

We conducted five focus group discussions with 37 HCWs from five TASO centres. Thematic analysis revealed eight key theme: 1) Impaired brain function, 2) Changes in activities of daily living, 3) Promotion of quality care perspectives, 4) Tool applicable and user-friendly, 5) Client increased self-awareness and self-confidence, 6) Integration of IHDS into routine HIV care, 7) Uncertainty about IHDS use, and 8) Continuous training for HCWs.

Conclusion

As PLWH enjoy longer and healthier lives, their risk for HAND increases, potentially affecting their quality of life. The use of the IHDS has raised awareness among HCWs and improved decision-making through cognitive assessments, emphasizing it value in PLWH. We recommend a prospective study to assess the long-term outcomes and efficacy of increased HAND screening. Furthermore, integrating a HAND screening module into the consolidated HIV guidelines is recommended to enhance its relevance.

Social Networks and Barriers to ART Adherence Among Young Adults (18-24 years) Living with HIV at Selected Primary Health Facilities of South-Western Uganda: A Qualitative Study

Background

Young adults living with HIV (YALWH) struggle to maintain high levels of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) because of numerous barriers. This study describes the social networks of YALWH (18–24 years), their barriers to ART adherence, and the perceived role of social networks in overcoming those barriers.

Methods

This study used a qualitative descriptive research design. Twenty-three (23) YALWH who were on ART for a period of greater than one (1) month and had consented to participate in the study were purposively selected from two primary health care facilities in southwestern Uganda. We held four (4) focus group discussions with the YALWH over 5 weeks between the 24th of July and 7th September 2020. Data were audio recorded, transcribed, and entered in Microsoft word 2010. Using the content analysis techniques, data were inductively coded and categories or themes developed.

Results

Most YALWH belonged to bonding (family, friends, and neighbors), followed by bridging (informal groups), and linking (health professionals) social networks, respectively. Most YALWH, irrespective of gender, had close connections with their mothers or elder sisters. The commonest form of bridging networks was informal community groups that provided financial services, whereas the linking ones comprised health professionals’ directly involved in HIV patient care such as nurses, counselors, and their affiliates (expert clients or clinic based peer supporters), who occasionally acted as bonding networks. Structural barriers to ART adherence (eg, stigma) were the most cited, followed by medication- (eg, pill burden), and patient-related barriers (eg, non-disclosure of HIV status). Bonding networks were perceived to help overcome patient, medication, and structural barriers to ART adherence. Bridging networks overcame structural and medication-related barriers to ART adherence. Linking networks were perceived to help overcome some health systems and medication-related barriers to ART adherence.

Conclusion

Bonding social networks seem to play a prominent role in overcoming numerous barriers to ART adherence compared with bridging and linking social networks.

Temporal trends in self-reported HIV stigma and association with adherence and viral suppression in the African Cohort Study

HIV stigma is a major barrier to HIV care and treatment among people living with HIV (PLWH). Evidence suggests that expansion in antiretroviral therapy (ART) may reduce stigma. However, there are limited longitudinal studies examining temporal trends in HIV stigma in sub-Saharan Africa in the Undetectable = Untransmittable (U = U) era. We longitudinally assessed temporal trends in self-reported experienced stigma and the association of experienced stigma with ART adherence and viral suppression among PLWH enrolled in the African Cohort Study (AFRICOS). AFRICOS is an ongoing cohort study enrolling PLWH in Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and Nigeria. As of 1 March 2020, 2937 PLWH enrolled in AFRICOS and had available data. In 2013, 22% of participants reported stigma at the enrollment visit and by 2018 the prevalence decreased to 1% overall and was below 2% for all countries. However, there was not a statistically significant change in stigma prevalence in our longitudinal models. In adjusted models, experiencing stigma was associated with a 0.67 decreased odds of ART Adherence (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.56-0.80) and a 0.64 decreased odds of viral suppression (95% CI: 0.73-0.99). HIV-associated stigma was associated with poor self-reported ART adherence and unsuppressed viral load.

New Directions for the Consideration of HIV: Heterogeneity and the Cognition of Time

It has been almost 40 years since HIV emerged in the human population with an alarming impact in 1981, quickly reaching pandemic proportions. Reaching the goal of eradication, or at least ending the pandemic, however, has not been as easy as hoped. To better understand and therefore better address the persistence and often devastating effects of this now chronic disease, the heterogeneity of HIV-in the virus-human and human-human relationships it engages-is parsed in discussions of the groups affected and the multiple factors that drive the diverse effects of the disease, both of which make treatment and prevention of the disease highly challenging. The construct of time cognition is then considered as a heretofore unexplored factor that may inform our understanding of HIV-relevant behaviors.

Levels of Adherence and Associated Factors Among Children on ART Over Time in Northwest, Ethiopia: Evidence from a Multicenter Follow-Up Study

Background

Despite the increased availability of antiretroviral therapy (ART), its success depends on a high level of adherence to a life-long antiretroviral therapy. However, the extent and factors associated with adherence to ART are not well known, especially in the current study setup. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the level of adherence and associated factors among children on ART in Northwest, Ethiopia.

Methods

A retrospective follow-up study was conducted on human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected children receiving ART at South Gondar public hospitals. Children receiving ART from January 1, 2015, to November 30, 2020, were included in the study. A computer-generated simple random sampling technique was employed. The data were entered into the EpiData version 3.1 and analyzed by STATA 14 statistical software. Bivariable logistic regression was fitted for each predictor variable. Moreover, those variables having a p-value ≤0.25 in bivariate analysis were fitted into a multivariable logistic regression model. P-value <0.05 was used to declare significance.

Results

A total of 363 HIV-infected children were involved in the study. From 363 HIV-infected children, the level of adherence to ART was found to be 78.2%, 95% CI (73.6, 82.2). TB co-infection [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 3.8, 95% CI (1.41, 10.1)], short duration on ART (AOR = 3.4, 95% CI (1.60, 7.20)), treatment failure (AOR = 10.2, 95% CI (3.95, 26.2)), and Zidovudine containing ART regimen (AOR = 3.5, 95% CI (1.1, 10.9)) were significant predictors of poor adherence.

Conclusion

The current study showed that the level of adherence to ART was found to be low TB co-infection, short duration of ART, Zidovudine-containing ART regimen, and treatment failure were found to be significantly associated with poor adherence. Further studies on adherence rate and its determinants with multiple adherence measurements using prospective and multicenter studies were recommended.

Understanding adherence in virally suppressed and unsuppressed human immunodeficiency virus-positive urban patients on second-line antiretroviral treatment

Background

Understanding antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence may assist in designing effective support interventions.

Objectives

This study elicited perspectives on how to promote treatment adherence from virologically suppressed and unsuppressed patients receiving second-line ART.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted with randomly selected patients active on second-line ART, from five public health facilities in the Johannesburg inner city. Data were collected on demographics, clinical information, participant’s experiences and ART knowledge. Virological failure was defined as exceeding 1000 copies/mL.

Results

The study sample comprised 149 participants; of which 47.7% (n = 71) were virally unsuppressed and 69.1% (n = 103) were women; the median age of the participants was 42 years (interquartile range [IQR] 36–47 years). Experiencing medication-related difficulties in taking second-line ART (p = 0.003), finding second-line regimen more difficult to take than a first-line regimen (p = 0.001) and experiencing side effects (p < 0.001) were all subjective predictors of virological failure. Participants’ recommendations for improving adherence included the introduction of a single tablet regimen (31.6%, n = 55), reducing the dosage to once daily (26.4%, n = 46) and reducing the pill size for second-line regimen (4.0%, n = 7).

Conclusion

The results of this study highlight the importance of improving patients’ knowledge about adherence and motivation to continue ART use despite the persistence of side effects and difficulties with taking medication.

Immunological status and virological suppression among HIV-infected adults on highly active antiretroviral therapy

BACKGROUND

World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that viral load ([VL) is a primary tool that clinicians and researchers have used to monitor patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART), an antiviral drug against retroviruses. Whereas, CD4 cell counts can only be used to monitor clinical response to ART in the absence of VL testing service. Therefore, this study is aimed to assess the level of immunological status and virological suppression, and identify associated factors among human immunodeficiency virus ([HIV)-infected adults who were taking antiretroviral drugs of combination regimen know as highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

METHODS

A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted at the University of Gondar comprehensive specialized referral hospital from February to April 2018. A total of 323 adult participants on HAART were selected using a systematic random sampling technique and enrolled into the study. Blood samples for viral load determination and CD4 cell count were collected. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to determine factors associated with immunologic status and virological suppression in HIV patients on HAART. Odds ratio with 95% CI was used to measure the strength of association.

RESULTS

Virological suppression (VL level < 1000 copies/ml) was found in 82% (95% CI 77.7, 86.1) of study participants, and it has been associated with CD4 cell count between 350 and 499 cells/mm³ (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.56; 95% CI 1.14, 5.75) and > 499 cells/mm³ (AOR = 7.71; 95% CI 3.48, 17.09) at VL testing and current age > 45 years old (AOR = 5.99; 95% CI 2.12, 16.91). Similarly, favorable immunological status (≥ 400 cells/mm³ for male and ≥ 466 cells/mm³ for female) was observed in 52.9% (95% CI 47.4, 58.8) of the study participants. Baseline CD4 cell count of > 200 cells/mm³, age at enrollment of 26 through 40 years old, and urban residence were significantly associated with favorable immunological status.

CONCLUSION

Though the majority of HIV-infected adults who were on HAART had shown viral suppression, the rate of suppression was sub-optimal according to the UNAIDS 90-90-90 target to help end the AIDS pandemic by 2020. Nonetheless, the rate of immunological recovery in the study cohort was low. Hence, early initiation of HAART should be strengthened to achieve good virological suppression and immunological recovery.

Using a Multi-level Framework to Test Empirical Relationships Among HIV/AIDS-Related Stigma, Health Service Barriers, and HIV Outcomes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

HIV/AIDS-related (HAR) stigma is an ongoing problem in Sub-Saharan Africa that is thought to impede HIV preventive and treatment interventions. This paper uses a systematic sample of households (Level 1) nested within near-neighbor clusters (Level 2) and communities (Level 3) to examine multilevel relationships of HAR stigma to health service barriers (HSBs) and HIV outcomes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, thereby addressing methodological and conceptual gaps in the literature from this context. Findings suggest differential patterns of prediction at Level 1 when examining two different dimensions of stigma: more highly stigmatizing attitudes predicted more household health service barriers; and perceptions of greater levels of community normative HAR stigma predicted higher household HIV ratios. Level 2 findings were similarly dimension-differentiated. Cross-level analyses found that near-neighbor cluster-level (setting level) consensus about (standard deviation) and level of (mean) community normative HAR stigma significantly predicted household-level HSBs and HIV ratio, controlling for household-level community normative HAR stigma. These differential patterns of prediction suggest that HAR stigma is a multi-level construct with multiple dimensions that relate to important outcomes differently within and across multiple ecological levels. This has important implications for future research, and for developing interventions that address setting-level variation in stigma.

Status and associated factors of self-management in people living with HIV/AIDS in Liangshan area, China: a cross-sectional study

Background: HIV self-management is a lifetime and central task for people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH). To date, there is little evidence to identify the related factors of self-management in PLWH from China. Purpose: This study aimed to investigate the status and related factors of self-management in PLWH from the Liangshan area of Sichuan Province, China. Patients and methods: A total of 322 PLWH were recruited from August to December 2017 in the study. Demographics characteristics and disease-related data were documented for each participant, social support was measured by the Medical Outcomes Study Social Support Survey (MOS-SSS-C), and self-management was evaluated by the HIV Self-Management Scale. Descriptive statistics analysis, independent Student's t-test, one-way ANOVA, Spearman rank correlation, and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data. Results: The total score of HIV self-management was 38.26±7.17. Significant differences in self-management scores were found among the subgroups of different education level, marital status, nation, religion, resident place, occupation, infection route, symptom, research site, and household per capita monthly income. Self-management was positively significantly correlated with social support. Multiple regression analysis identified that nation, resident place, gender, marital status, and social support were the contributors of HIV self-management. Conclusion: The study demostrated that self-management in Yi Autonomous Prefecture was relatively low. The results indicate that the associated factors of self-management should be considered to develop effective intervention to improve the self-management of PLWH.

Sociodemographic Correlates of HIV Discordant and Concordant Couples in Anambra State, Nigeria

Background

The contribution of discordant partnerships to the burden of HIV/AIDS is significant. An understanding of the characteristics of HIV-affected couples will help modify preventive strategies. The aim of this study was to compare the HIV discordant and concordant partnerships for sociodemographic determinants in comprehensive health centers in Anambra State, Nigeria.

Methods

This was an institution based case-control study of 289 (148 HIV-concordant and 141 HIV-discordant) couples, selected using multistage sampling technique. Data collection was done through nterview using semi-structured questionnaire, while analysis was performed with Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 22.0. Chi-square and t tests were used to identify statistically significant associations between variables. Significance level was set at p value of ≤ 0.05.

Results

There were more HIV-discordant positive males 83(28.6%) than females 58(20.1%) (p = 0.043). The mean age (SD) of respondents was 37.8(9.8) years. Concordant couples tended to be younger than discordant couples, with differences in mean ages of 2.41 years (p = 0.028) for males and 2.87 years (p = 0.007) for females. There were no significant differences in proportion of remarriages (p = 0.625) and type of marriage (p = 0.900). The majority of remarriages among discordant couples 15(65.2%), were due to divorce of previous spouses (p = 0.054).

Conclusions

This study found that there were more HIV positive males than females among discordant couples; females in discordant relationships were generally younger than their concordant counterparts. Concordant couples tended to be younger than discordant couples. Such knowledge should be factored in designing novel couple-targeted preventive strategies.

Factors associated with adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV infected children in Kabale district, Uganda: a cross sectional study

Objectives

This study was set out to assess the level of adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) and its determinants among children receiving HIV treatment in Kabale district, south western Uganda, in order to inform interventions for improving pediatric ART adherence.

Results

Overall, 79% (121/153) of the children did not miss ART doses over the 7 days. Caregiver forgetfulness was the major reason for missing ART doses, 37% (13/35). Other reasons included transportation costs to the health facilities, 17%, (6/35) and children sitting for examinations in schools. Older children (11–14 years) were more likely to adhere to ART than the younger ones (0–10 years) (AOR = 6.41, 95% CI 1.31–31.42). Caregivers, who knew their HIV status, had their children more adherent to ART than the caregivers of unknown HIV status (AOR = 21.64: 95% CI 1.09–428.28). A significant proportion of children in two facilities 21.5% (32/153) missed ART doses within the previous week. Support for providers to identify clues or reminders to take drugs, extending HIV testing to caregivers and innovative models of ART delivery that alleviate transport costs to caregivers and allow sufficient drugs for children in school could enhance drug adherence among children.

Facilitators and Barriers Affecting Adherence Among People Living With HIV/AIDS: A Qualitative Perspective

Background:

It is widely accepted that for HIV-positive persons on highly active antiretroviral treatment, high levels of adherence to treatment regimens are essential for promoting viral suppression and preventing drug resistance.

Objectives:

This qualitative study examines factors affecting the adherence to HIV/AIDS treatment among patients with HIV/AIDS at a local hospital in Malaysia.

Methods:

The data from purposefully selected patients were collected by in-depth interviews using a pretested interview guide. Saturation was reached at the 13th interview. All interviews were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim for analysis using thematic content analysis.

Results:

Fear and stigma of perceived negative image of HIV diagnosis, lack of disease understating, poor support from the community, and perceived severity or the treatment side effects were among the reasons of nonadherence. Appropriate education and motivation from the doctors and reduction in pill burden were suggested to improve adherence.

Conclusion:

Educational interventions, self-management, and peer and community supports were among the factors suggested to improve adherence. This necessitates uncovering efficient ways to boost doctor–patient communication and recognizing the role of support group for the social and psychological well-being of the patients.

Barriers and facilitators of antiretroviral therapy adherence in rural Eastern province, Zambia: the role of household economic status

In Zambia, more people living with HIV now have access to lifesaving antiretroviral therapy than ever before. However, progress in HIV treatment and care has not always resulted in lower mortality. Adherence remains a critical barrier to treatment success. The objective of this study was to examine the barriers and facilitators of antiretroviral therapy adherence, particularly the role of household economic status. The study included a cross-sectional sample of 101 people living with HIV (PLHIV) in two rural communities in eastern Zambia. Adherence was measured using patient self-assessment and pharmacy information. Household economic status included components such as occupation, income, assets, food security, and debt. Multivariable logistic regression was conducted to examine the associations between household economic factors and adherence. Our findings suggest that the role of economic status on adherence appears to be a function of the economic component. Debt and non-farming-related occupation were consistently associated with non-adherence. The association between assets and adherence depends on the type of asset. Owning more transportation-related assets was consistently associated with non-adherence, whereas owning more livestock was associated with self-reported adherence. Additionally, living in a community with fewer economic opportunities was associated with non-adherence. The associations between place of residence and pharmacy refill adherence and between transportation assets and self-reported adherence were statistically significant. Improving adherence requires a multifaceted strategy that addresses the role of economic status as a potential barrier and facilitator. Programmes that provide economic opportunities and life-skills training may help PLHIV to overcome economic, social, and psychological barriers.

Patient-reported barriers and facilitators to antiretroviral adherence in sub-Saharan Africa

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to identify the range and frequency of patient-reported barriers and facilitators to antiretroviral treatment (ART) adherence in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

DESIGN

Studies from 2005 to 2016 were identified by searching 10 electronic databases and through additional hand and web-searching.

METHODS

Inclusion criteria were HIV-positive adults taking ART based in any SSA country, qualitative study or quantitative survey and included at least one patient-reported barrier or facilitator to ART adherence. Exclusion criteria were only including data from treatment-naive patients initiating ART, only single-dose treatment, participants residing outside of SSA and reviews.

RESULTS

After screening 11 283 records, 154 studies (161 papers) were included in this review. Forty-three barriers and 30 facilitators were reported across 24 SSA countries. The most frequently identified barriers across studies were forgetting (n = 76), lack of access to adequate food (n = 72), stigma and discrimination (n = 68), side effects (n = 67) and being outside the house or travelling (n = 60). The most frequently identified facilitators across studies were social support (n = 60), reminders (n = 55), feeling better or healthier after taking ART (n = 35), disclosing their HIV status (n = 26) and having a good relationship with a health provider (n = 22).

CONCLUSION

This review addresses the gap in knowledge by collating all the patient-reported barriers and facilitators to ART adherence in SSA. Current barriers measures need to be adapted or new tools developed to include the wide variety of factors identified. The factors that have the greatest impact need to be isolated so interventions are developed that reduce the barriers and enhance the facilitators.

Acceptability of community-based adherence clubs among health facility staff in South Africa: a qualitative study

BACKGROUND

Patient retention in care for HIV/AIDS is a critical challenge for antiretroviral treatment programs. Community-based adherence programs (CBAPs) as compared to health care facility-based adherence programs have been considered as one of the options to provide treatment maintenance support for groups of patients on antiretroviral therapy. Such an approach provides a way of enhancing self-management of the patient's condition. In addition, CBAPs have been implemented to support antiretroviral treatment expansion in resource-limited settings. CBAPs involve 30 patients that are allocated to a group and meet at either a facility or a community venue for less than an hour every 2 or 3 months depending on the supply of medication. Our study aimed to establish perceived challenges in moving adherence clubs from health facilities to communities.

METHODS

A qualitative study was conducted in 39 clinics in Mpumalanga and Gauteng Provinces in South Africa between December 2015 and January 2016. Purposive sampling method was used to identify nurses, club managers, data capturers, pharmacists and pharmacy assistants who had been involved in facility-based treatment adherence clubs. Key-informant interviews were conducted. Also, semi-structured interviews were used and thematic content analysis was done.

RESULTS

A total of 53 health care workers, 12 (22.6%) males and 41 (77.4%) females, participated in the study. Most of them 49 (92.5%) indicated that participating in community adherence clubs were a good idea. Reduction in waiting time at the health facilities, in defaulter rate, improvement in adherence to treatment as well as reduction in stigma were some of the perceived benefits. However, security of medication, storage conditions and transportation of the prepacked medication to the distribution sites were the areas of concern.

CONCLUSION

Health care workers were agreeable to idea of the moving adherence clubs from health facilities to communities. Although some challenges were identified, these could be addressed by the key stakeholders. However, government and nongovernmental organizations need to exercise caution when transitioning to community-based adherence clubs.

Determinants of adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive adults in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

The rapid scale up of antiretroviral treatment (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has resulted in an increased focus on patient adherence. Non-adherence can lead to drug-resistant HIV caused by failure to achieve maximal viral suppression. Optimal treatment requires the identification of patients at high risk of suboptimal adherence and targeted interventions. The aim of this review was to identify and summarise determinants of adherence to ART among HIV-positive adults.

DESIGN

Systematic review of adherence to ART in SSA from January 2002 to October 2014.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed in 6 databases (PubMed, Cochrane Library, EMBASE, Web of Science, Popline, Global Health Library) for qualitative and quantitative articles. Risk of bias was assessed. A meta-analysis was conducted for pooled estimates of effect size on adherence determinants.

RESULTS

Of the 4052 articles screened, 146 were included for final analysis, reporting on determinants of 161 922 HIV patients with an average adherence score of 72.9%. Main determinants of non-adherence were use of alcohol, male gender, use of traditional/herbal medicine, dissatisfaction with healthcare facility and healthcare workers, depression, discrimination and stigmatisation, and poor social support. Promoters of adherence included counselling and education interventions, memory aids, and active disclosure among people living with HIV. Determinants of health status had conflicting influence on adherence.

CONCLUSIONS

The sociodemographic, psychosocial, health status, treatment-related and intervention-related determinants are interlinked and contribute to optimal adherence. Clinics providing ART in SSA should therefore design targeted interventions addressing these determinants to optimise health outcomes.

Rates and Predictors of Non-Adherence to Antiretroviral Therapy among HIV-Positive Individuals in Kenya: Results from the Second Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey, 2012

Introduction

Understanding the levels and associated factors of non-adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is crucial in designing interventions to improve adherence and health outcomes of ART. We assessed non-adherence to ART among HIV-infected persons reporting ART use in a nationally representative survey in Kenya.

Methods

The Kenya AIDS Indicator Survey 2012 was a population-based, household survey of persons aged 18 months-64 years conducted in 2012–2013. Self-reported information was collected on demographics, sexual behaviour, HIV status, and ART use. Blood was collected for HIV testing, and if HIV infected, CD4 and viral load testing. HIV-positive specimens were tested for the presence of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs using a qualitative ARV assay using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. HIV-positive persons who reported receiving ART but did not have the ARV biomarker present were defined as being non-adherent to their ARV medication. We restricted our analysis to HIV-infected persons aged 15–64 years who reported receiving ART and had laboratory-confirmed results from ARV testing. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify variables associated with non-adherence.

Results

A total of 648 (5.6%; CI 4.9–6.3) tested HIV-positive of whom 559 (86.3%) had sufficient volume of blood to be tested for ARV drugs. Of those, 271 (47.7%; CI 41.8–53.6) self-reported HIV-positive status during the interview and 186 (69.1%; CI 62.2–76.0) of those reported taking ART. The ARV biomarker was absent in 18 of 186 individuals (9.4%; CI 4.9–13.8) who thus were defined as being non-adherent to ART. Non-adherence was associated with being aged 15–29 years (AOR 8.39; CI 2.26–31.22, p = 0.002) compared to aged 30–64 years, rural residence (AOR 5.87; CI 1.39–25.61, p = 0.016) compared with urban residence and taking recreational drugs in the past 30 days (AOR 5.89; CI 1.30–26.70, p = 0.022).

Conclusion

Overall, less than 10% of Kenyans aged 15–64 years on ART were not adhering to their HIV medication, highlighting the success of the Kenyan national ART program. Our findings, however, point to the need for targeted interventions particularly for young persons, those in rural areas to improve adherence outcomes, as well as delivery of treatment programs that include psychosocial support as a preventative measure to minimize substance abuse and the risk of treatment failure.

The Association of HIV-Related Stigma to HIV Medication Adherence: A Systematic Review and Synthesis of the Literature

This paper provides a review of the quantitative literature on HIV-related stigma and medication adherence, including: (1) synthesis of the empirical evidence linking stigma to adherence, (2) examination of proposed causal mechanisms of the stigma and adherence relationship, and (3) methodological critique and guidance for future research. We reviewed 38 studies reporting either cross-sectional or prospective analyses of the association of HIV-related stigma to medication adherence since the introduction of antiretroviral therapies (ART). Although there is substantial empirical evidence linking stigma to adherence difficulties, few studies provided data on psychosocial mechanisms that may account for this relationship. Proposed mechanisms include: (a) enhanced vulnerability to mental health difficulties, (b) reduction in self-efficacy, and (c) concerns about inadvertent disclosure of HIV status. Future research should strive to assess the multiple domains of stigma, use standardized measures of adherence, and include prospective analyses to test mediating variables.

A review of the role of food insecurity in adherence to care and treatment among adult and pediatric populations living with HIV and AIDS

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) is critical for reducing HIV/AIDS morbidity and mortality. Food insecurity (FI) is emerging as an important barrier to adherence to care and treatment recommendations for people living with HIV (PLHIV), but this relationship has not been comprehensively examined. Therefore, we reviewed the literature to explore how FI may impact ART adherence, retention in medical care, and adherence to health care recommendations among PLHIV. We found data to support FI as a critical barrier to adherence to ART and to other health care recommendations among HIV-infected adults, HIV-infected pregnant women and their HIV-exposed infants, and child and adolescent populations of PLHIV. Associations between FI and ART non-adherence were seen in qualitative and quantitative studies. We identified a number of mechanisms to explain how food insecurity and ART non-adherence may be causally linked, including the exacerbation of hunger or ART side effects in the absence of adequate food and competing resource demands. Interventions that address FI may improve adherence to care and treatment recommendations for PLHIV.

Predictors and correlates of adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) for chronic HIV infection: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a key predictor of the success of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment, and is potentially amenable to intervention. Insight into predictors or correlates of non-adherence to ART may help guide targets for the development of adherence-enhancing interventions. Our objective was to review evidence on predictors/correlates of adherence to ART, and to aggregate findings into quantitative estimates of their impact on adherence.

METHODS

We searched PubMed for original English-language papers, published between 1996 and June 2014, and the reference lists of all relevant articles found. Studies reporting on predictors/correlates of adherence of adults prescribed ART for chronic HIV infection were included without restriction to adherence assessment method, study design or geographical location. Two researchers independently extracted the data from the same papers. Random effects models with inverse variance weights were used to aggregate findings into pooled effects estimates with 95% confidence intervals. The standardized mean difference (SMD) was used as the common effect size. The impact of study design features (adherence assessment method, study design, and the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) of the country in which the study was set) was investigated using categorical mixed effects meta-regression.

RESULTS

In total, 207 studies were included. The following predictors/correlates were most strongly associated with adherence: adherence self-efficacy (SMD = 0.603, P = 0.001), current substance use (SMD = -0.395, P = 0.001), concerns about ART (SMD = -0.388, P = 0.001), beliefs about the necessity/utility of ART (SMD = 0.357, P = 0.001), trust/satisfaction with the HIV care provider (SMD = 0.377, P = 0.001), depressive symptoms (SMD = -0.305, P = 0.001), stigma about HIV (SMD = -0.282, P = 0.001), and social support (SMD = 0.237, P = 0.001). Smaller but significant associations were observed for the following being prescribed a protease inhibitor-containing regimen (SMD = -0.196, P = 0.001), daily dosing frequency (SMD = -0.193, P = 0.001), financial constraints (SMD -0.187, P = 0.001) and pill burden (SMD = -0.124, P = 0.001). Higher trust/satisfaction with the HIV care provider, a lower daily dosing frequency, and fewer depressive symptoms were more strongly related with higher adherence in low and medium HDI countries than in high HDI countries.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that adherence-enhancing interventions should particularly target psychological factors such as self-efficacy and concerns/beliefs about the efficacy and safety of ART. Moreover, these findings suggest that simplification of regimens might have smaller but significant effects.

Predictors and correlates of adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) for chronic HIV infection: a meta-analysis

Background

Adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a key predictor of the success of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment, and is potentially amenable to intervention. Insight into predictors or correlates of non-adherence to ART may help guide targets for the development of adherence-enhancing interventions. Our objective was to review evidence on predictors/correlates of adherence to ART, and to aggregate findings into quantitative estimates of their impact on adherence.

Methods

We searched PubMed for original English-language papers, published between 1996 and June 2014, and the reference lists of all relevant articles found. Studies reporting on predictors/correlates of adherence of adults prescribed ART for chronic HIV infection were included without restriction to adherence assessment method, study design or geographical location. Two researchers independently extracted the data from the same papers. Random effects models with inverse variance weights were used to aggregate findings into pooled effects estimates with 95% confidence intervals. The standardized mean difference (SMD) was used as the common effect size. The impact of study design features (adherence assessment method, study design, and the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) of the country in which the study was set) was investigated using categorical mixed effects meta-regression.

Results

In total, 207 studies were included. The following predictors/correlates were most strongly associated with adherence: adherence self-efficacy (SMD = 0.603, P = 0.001), current substance use (SMD = -0.395, P = 0.001), concerns about ART (SMD = -0.388, P = 0.001), beliefs about the necessity/utility of ART (SMD = 0.357, P = 0.001), trust/satisfaction with the HIV care provider (SMD = 0.377, P = 0.001), depressive symptoms (SMD = -0.305, P = 0.001), stigma about HIV (SMD = -0.282, P = 0.001), and social support (SMD = 0.237, P = 0.001). Smaller but significant associations were observed for the following being prescribed a protease inhibitor-containing regimen (SMD = -0.196, P = 0.001), daily dosing frequency (SMD = -0.193, P = 0.001), financial constraints (SMD -0.187, P = 0.001) and pill burden (SMD = -0.124, P = 0.001). Higher trust/satisfaction with the HIV care provider, a lower daily dosing frequency, and fewer depressive symptoms were more strongly related with higher adherence in low and medium HDI countries than in high HDI countries.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that adherence-enhancing interventions should particularly target psychological factors such as self-efficacy and concerns/beliefs about the efficacy and safety of ART. Moreover, these findings suggest that simplification of regimens might have smaller but significant effects.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12916-014-0142-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Community viral load and CD4 count distribution among people living with HIV in a South African Township: implications for treatment as prevention

INTRODUCTION

The goals of scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART) have expanded from prevention of morbidity and death to include prevention of transmission. Morbidity and mortality risk are associated with CD4 count; transmission risk depends on plasma viral load (VL). This study aimed to describe CD4 count and VL distributions among HIV-infected individuals in a South African township to gain insights into the potential impact of ART scale-up on community HIV transmission risk.

METHODS

A random sample of 10% of the adult population was invited to attend an HIV testing service. Study procedures included a questionnaire, HIV testing, CD4 count, and VL testing.

RESULTS

One thousand one hundred forty-four (88.0%) of 1300 randomly selected individuals participated in the study. Two hundred sixty tested positive, giving an HIV prevalence of 22.7% [95% confidence interval (CI): 20.3 to 25.3]. A third of all HIV-infected individuals (33.5%, 95% CI: 27.8 to 39.6) reported taking ART. The median CD4 count was 417 cells per microliter (interquartile range, 285-627); 33 (12.7%, 95% CI: 8.9 to 17.4) had a CD4 count of ≤200 cells per microliter. VL measurements were available for 219 individuals (84.2%) and were undetectable in 72 (33.9%), >1500 copies per milliliter in 127 (58.0%) and >10,000 copies per milliliter in 96 (43.8%). Of those reporting they were receiving ART, 30.4% had a VL >1500 copies per milliliter compared with 58.0% of those reporting they were not receiving ART.

CONCLUSIONS

A small proportion of those living with HIV in this community had a CD4 count of <200 cells per microliter; more than half had a VL high enough to be associated with considerable transmission risk. A substantial proportion of HIV-infected individuals remained at risk of transmitting HIV even after starting ART.

High acceptability of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis but challenges in adherence and use: qualitative insights from a phase I trial of intermittent and daily PrEP in at-risk populations in Kenya

This paper used qualitative methods to explore experiences of men who have sex with men and female sex workers in Nairobi and Mtwapa, Kenya, who used oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention as part of a four-month trial of safety, acceptability and adherence. Fifty-one of 72 volunteers who took part in a randomized, placebo-controlled, blinded trial that compared daily and intermittent dosage of PrEP underwent qualitative assessments after completing the trial. Analyses identified three themes: (i) acceptability of PrEP was high, i.e. side effects were experienced early in the study but diminished over time, however characteristics of pills could improve comfort and use; (ii) social impacts such as stigma, rumors, and relationship difficulties due to being perceived as HIV positive were prevalent; (iii) adherence was challenged by complexities of daily life, in particular post-coital dosing adherence suffered from alcohol use around time of sex, mobile populations, and transactional sex work. These themes resonated across dosing regimens and gender, and while most participants favored the intermittent dosing schedule, those in the intermittent group noted particular challenges in adhering to the post-coital dose. Culturally appropriate and consistent counseling addressing these issues may be critical for PrEP effectiveness.

Adherence to antiretroviral therapy (ART) during the early months of treatment in rural Zambia: influence of demographic characteristics and social surroundings of patients

BACKGROUND

Around 70% of those living with HIV in need of treatment accessed antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Zambia by 2009. However, sustaining high levels of adherence to ART is a challenge. This study aimed to identify the predictive factors associated with ART adherence during the early months of treatment in rural Zambia.

METHODS

This is a field based observational longitudinal study in Mumbwa district, which is located 150 km west of Lusaka, the capital of Zambia. Treatment naive patients aged over 15 years, who initiated treatment during September-November 2010, were enrolled. Patients were interviewed at the initiation and six weeks later. The treatment adherence was measured according to self-reporting by the patients. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the predictive factors associated with the adherence.

RESULTS

Of 157 patients, 59.9% were fully adherent to the treatment six weeks after starting ART. According to the multivariable analysis, full adherence was associated with being female [Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR), 3.3; 95% Confidence interval (CI), 1.2-8.9], having a spouse who were also on ART (AOR, 4.4; 95% CI, 1.5-13.1), and experience of food insufficiency in the previous 30 days (AOR, 5.0; 95% CI, 1.8-13.8). Some of the most common reasons for missed doses were long distance to health facilities (n = 21, 53.8%), food insufficiency (n = 20, 51.3%), and being busy with other activities such as work (n = 15, 38.5%).

CONCLUSIONS

The treatment adherence continues to be a significant challenge in rural Zambia. Social supports from spouses and people on ART could facilitate their treatment adherence. This is likely to require attention by ART services in the future, focusing on different social influences on male and female in rural Zambia. In addition, poverty reduction strategies may help to reinforce adherence to ART and could mitigate the influence of HIV infection for poor patients and those who fall into poverty after starting ART.