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Li J, Xu Y, Liu J, Yang B, Yang C, Zhang M, Dong X. Drug resistance evolution in patients with human immunodeficiency virus-1 under long-term antiretroviral treatment-failure in Yunnan Province, China. Virol J 2019; 16:5. [PMID: 30621727 PMCID: PMC6325746 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-018-1112-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Understanding the prevalence and evolution of HIV-1 drug resistance (DR) and associated mutation patterns is critical to implementing free antiretroviral therapy in Yunnan, the first antiretroviral treatment location in China. Here We provide a basis for understanding the occurrence and development of HIV-1 resistance in Yunnan and a theoretical foundational for strategy to delay HIV-1 drug resistance and achieve successful individualized treatment. Methods Plasma samples from different cities/prefectures were collected at Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease from January 2010 to September 2016, and those from drug-resistant individuals were genotyped using in-house assays, 88 patients were selected for the study who had been on treatment for ≥6 months (and for whom drug resistance was then measured), and each patient had at least 3 genotype resistance tests and who were enrolled to analyze mutation and evolution of HIV resistance. Results 264 Pol sequences of 88 patients were obtained. Drug resistance levels to eight drugs increased to varying degrees with prolonged treatment. Resistance to efavirenz (EFV) and etravirine (ETR) showed the highest change, comparisons of resistant changes to second and first and to third and second agents showed altered level of drug resistance were 25 and 20 cases, 28 and 18 cases, respectively. The smallest change was Lopinavir/Ritonavir (LPV/r) present 2 and 3 cases; Resistance to lamivudine (3TC) and lopinavir/ritonavir (LPV/r) was high among patients detected thrice, whereas other drugs were distributed in all resistance levels. M184 V/I (26.14%), T69S (11.36%), and T215Y/I (10.23%) mutations were the most common in nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), and K103 N/R/S (21.59%), V179D/E (20.45%) in Non-NRTIs (NNRTIs). Furthermore, L10 V/F/I (6.82%), A71V (4.55%), and I54V (4.55%) mutations were common in protease inhibitors (PIs). Conclusions We found dynamic genotypic changes in HIV-1 drug-resistance in Yunnan, with prolonged treatment, and drug resistance was inevitable. However, resistance to different drugs occurred at varying times, and mutation site emergence was the main cause. These findings enhance our understanding of evolution and regulation, and are valuable for developing HIV-1 DR prevention strategies in Yunnan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianjian Li
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China
| | - Yawen Xu
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China
| | - Jiafa Liu
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China
| | - Bihui Yang
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China
| | - Cuixian Yang
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China
| | - Mi Zhang
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China.
| | - Xingqi Dong
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, AIDS Care Center (YNACC), Kunming Medical University affiliated Infectious diseases hospital, 28 Shian Road, Taiping District, Kunming, 650301, China.
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Burgos JL, Cepeda JA, Kahn JG, Mittal ML, Meza E, Lazos RRP, Vargas PC, Vickerman P, Strathdee SA, Martin NK. Cost of provision of opioid substitution therapy provision in Tijuana, Mexico. Harm Reduct J 2018; 15:28. [PMID: 29792191 PMCID: PMC5967039 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-018-0234-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Accepted: 05/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mexico recently enacted drug policy reform to decriminalize possession of small amounts of illicit drugs and mandated that police refer identified substance users to drug treatment. However, the economic implications of drug treatment expansion are uncertain. We estimated the costs of opioid substitution therapy (OST) provision in Tijuana, Mexico, where opioid use and HIV are major public health concerns. METHODS We adopted an economic health care provider perspective and applied an ingredients-based micro-costing approach to quantify the average monthly cost of OST (methadone maintenance) provision at two providers (one private and one public) in Tijuana, Mexico. Costs were divided by type of input (capital, recurrent personnel and non-personnel). We defined "delivery cost" as all costs except for the methadone and compared total cost by type of methadone (powdered form or capsule). Cost data were obtained from interviews with senior staff and review of expenditure reports. Service provision data were obtained from activity logs and senior staff interviews. Outcomes were cost per OST contact and cost per person month of OST. We additionally collected information on patient charges for OST provision from published rates. RESULTS The total cost per OST contact at the private and public sites was $3.12 and $5.90, respectively, corresponding to $95 and $179 per person month of OST. The costs of methadone delivery per OST contact were similar at both sites ($2.78 private and $3.46 public). However, cost of the methadone itself varied substantially ($0.34 per 80 mg dose [powder] at the private site and $2.44 per dose [capsule] at the public site). Patients were charged $1.93-$2.66 per methadone dose. CONCLUSIONS The cost of OST provision in Mexico is consistent with other upper-middle income settings. However, evidenced-based (OST) drug treatment facilities in Mexico are still unaffordable to most people who inject drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Luis Burgos
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Javier A Cepeda
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, USA.
| | - James G Kahn
- Institute for Health Policy Studies, School of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, USA
| | - Maria Luisa Mittal
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | | | | | | | - Peter Vickerman
- School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Steffanie A Strathdee
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, USA
| | - Natasha K Martin
- Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, USA.,School of Social and Community Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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Vuong T, Shanahan M, Nguyen N, Le G, Ali R, Pham K, Vuong TTA, Dinh T, Ritter A. Cost-effectiveness of center-based compulsory rehabilitation compared to community-based voluntary methadone maintenance treatment in Hai Phong City, Vietnam. Drug Alcohol Depend 2016; 168:147-155. [PMID: 27664552 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 08/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In Vietnam, two dominant approaches for heroin treatment are center-based compulsory rehabilitation (CCT), funded by the Vietnamese government and community-based voluntary methadone maintenance treatment (MMT), funded primarily by international donors. Recent reduction in international funding requires more efficient allocation of government funding for public health programs. A cost-effectiveness analysis comparing two approaches provides a useful source of evidence to inform the government about funding reallocation. METHODS The study was a combined retrospective and prospective, non-randomized cohort comparison over three years of CCT and MMT in Vietnam, conducted between 2012 and 2014, involving 208 CCT participants and 384 MMT participants with heroin dependence. The primary end-point was drug-free days over three years. Total costs, including both program and participant personal costs were measured and cost-effectiveness compared. Mixed effects regression analyses were used to analyze effectiveness data and non-parametric bootstrapping method was used to compare cost-effectiveness. RESULTS Over three years, MMT costed on average VND85.73 million (US$4108) less than CCT (95% CI: -VND76.88 million, -VND94.59 million). On average, a MMT participant had 344.20 more drug-free days compared to a CCT participant (p<0.001). The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for MMT was -VND0.25 million (US$11.99) (95% CI: -VND0.34 million, -VND0.19 million) per drug-free day suggesting MMT is the more cost effective alternative. CONCLUSIONS Compared to CCT, MMT is both less expensive and more effective in achieving drug-free days. If the government of Vietnam invests in MMT instead of CCT, it is potentially a cost-saving strategy for reducing illicit drug use among heroin dependent individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thu Vuong
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre/UNSW, Australia.
| | | | | | - Giang Le
- Hanoi Medical University, Viet Nam
| | - Robert Ali
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre/UNSW, Australia; University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - Khue Pham
- Haiphong University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | | | | | - Alison Ritter
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre/UNSW, Australia
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The economic costs associated with opioid misuse are immense. Effective interventions for opioid use disorders are available; however, given the scarce resources faced by substance use treatment providers and payers of all kinds, evidence of effectiveness is not always sufficient to encourage adoption of a given therapy-nor should it be. Economic evaluations can provide evidence that will help stakeholders efficiently allocate their resources. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to review the literature on economic evaluations of opioid use disorder interventions. METHODS We performed a systematic review of the major electronic databases from inception until August 2015. A sensitive approach was used to ensure a comprehensive list of relevant articles. Given the quality of the existing reviews, we narrowed our search to studies published since 2007. The Drummond checklist was used to evaluate and categorize economic evaluation studies according to their quality. RESULTS A total of 98 articles were identified as potentially relevant to the current study. Of these 98 articles, half (n = 49) were included in this study. Six of the included articles were reviews. The remaining 43 articles reported economic evaluation studies of interventions for opioid use disorders. In general, the evidence on methadone maintenance therapy (MMT) supports previous findings that MMT is an economically advantageous opioid use disorder therapy. The economic literature comparing MMT with other opioid use disorder pharmacotherapies is limited, as is the literature on other forms of therapy. CONCLUSION With the possible exception of MMT, additional high-quality economic evaluations are needed in order to assess the relative value of existing opioid use disorder interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Murphy
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, Washington State University, P.O. Box 1495, Spokane, WA, 99210-1495, USA.
| | - Daniel Polsky
- Leonard Davis Institute of Health Economics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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From conflict to partnership: growing collaboration between police and NGOs in countries with concentrated epidemics among key populations. J Int AIDS Soc 2016; 19:20939. [PMID: 27435718 PMCID: PMC4951531 DOI: 10.7448/ias.19.4.20939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 04/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Between September 2012 and December 2015, a series of national and regional consultations, aimed at resolving a persistent dynamic of conflict between law enforcement agencies (LEAs) and civil society organizations (CSOs) working on issues of access to HIV services in high-priority countries for people who use drugs have been organized by the HIV/AIDS Section of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS, the Law Enforcement and HIV Network (LEAHN) and other international organizations. The aim of these consultations has been to understand, at a national and regional level, the key points of tension between police and CSOs and how to overcome these tensions to enhance access to and uptake of services by key populations, including people who inject drugs, sex workers, men who have sex with men and transgenders. This commentary briefly describes the methods, process, content and key outcomes of these consultations held across diverse number of countries and regions, including Africa, South East Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Europe and Latin America. Discussion While the context varies, this paper highlights that there are commonalities that drive a persistent dynamic of conflict and therefore also common methods for resolution of conflict and forging partnerships. Both policing and CSOs have key sectoral responsibilities and reform agendas to implement to ensure that as an individual agency they are able to meet their obligations as partners in the HIV response. Using the key outcomes of discussions and recommendations from these consultations and drawing on existing literature, the objective of this paper is to present a preliminary model that roadmaps the critical path from resolution of conflict to partnership between LEAs and CSOs. Conclusions This paper seeks to highlight that critical resources are required to support ongoing development and harnessing of partnerships between LEAs and CSOs and argues that these resources should not just come from global HIV funding mechanisms but should be part of a more mainstreamed security sector reform agenda that understands the mutual benefits that programming for human rights–based policing reform would have on HIV, development and security.
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Police, Law Enforcement and HIV. J Int AIDS Soc 2016. [DOI: 10.7448/ias.19.4.21260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Csete J, Kamarulzaman A, Kazatchkine M, Altice F, Balicki M, Buxton J, Cepeda J, Comfort M, Goosby E, Goulão J, Hart C, Kerr T, Lajous AM, Lewis S, Martin N, Mejía D, Camacho A, Mathieson D, Obot I, Ogunrombi A, Sherman S, Stone J, Vallath N, Vickerman P, Zábranský T, Beyrer C. Public health and international drug policy. Lancet 2016; 387:1427-1480. [PMID: 27021149 PMCID: PMC5042332 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00619-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In September 2015, the member states of the United Nations endorsed sustainable development goals (SDG) for 2030 that aspire to human rights-centered approaches to ensuring the health and well-being of all people. The SDGs embody both the UN Charter values of rights and justice for all and the responsibility of states to rely on the best scientific evidence as they seek to better humankind. In April 2016, these same states will consider control of illicit drugs, an area of social policy that has been fraught with controversy, seen as inconsistent with human rights norms, and for which scientific evidence and public health approaches have arguably played too limited a role. The previous UN General Assembly Special Session (UNGASS) on drugs in 1998 – convened under the theme “a drug-free world, we can do it!” – endorsed drug control policies based on the goal of prohibiting all use, possession, production, and trafficking of illicit drugs. This goal is enshrined in national law in many countries. In pronouncing drugs a “grave threat to the health and well-being of all mankind,” the 1998 UNGASS echoed the foundational 1961 convention of the international drug control regime, which justified eliminating the “evil” of drugs in the name of “the health and welfare of mankind.” But neither of these international agreements refers to the ways in which pursuing drug prohibition itself might affect public health. The “war on drugs” and “zero-tolerance” policies that grew out of the prohibitionist consensus are now being challenged on multiple fronts, including their health, human rights, and development impact. The Johns Hopkins – Lancet Commission on Drug Policy and Health has sought to examine the emerging scientific evidence on public health issues arising from drug control policy and to inform and encourage a central focus on public health evidence and outcomes in drug policy debates, such as the important deliberations of the 2016 UNGASS on drugs. The Johns Hopkins-Lancet Commission is concerned that drug policies are often colored by ideas about drug use and drug dependence that are not scientifically grounded. The 1998 UNGASS declaration, for example, like the UN drug conventions and many national drug laws, does not distinguish between drug use and drug abuse. A 2015 report by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, by contrast, found it important to emphasize that “[d]rug use is neither a medical condition nor does it necessarily lead to drug dependence.” The idea that all drug use is dangerous and evil has led to enforcement-heavy policies and has made it difficult to see potentially dangerous drugs in the same light as potentially dangerous foods, tobacco, alcohol for which the goal of social policy is to reduce potential harms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michel Kazatchkine
- UN Special Envoy, HIV in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | - Javier Cepeda
- Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Eric Goosby
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | | | - Carl Hart
- Columbia University, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Thomas Kerr
- University of British Columbia, Center of Excellence in HIV/AIDS, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Susan Sherman
- Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Nandini Vallath
- Trivandrum Institute of Palliative Sciences, Trivandrum, India
| | | | | | - Chris Beyrer
- Center for Public Health and Human Rights, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Zhao Y, Shi CX, McGoogan JM, Rou K, Zhang F, Wu Z. Predictors of accessing antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive drug users in China's National Methadone Maintenance Treatment Programme. Addiction 2015; 110 Suppl 1:40-50. [PMID: 25533863 PMCID: PMC5596174 DOI: 10.1111/add.12782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2012] [Revised: 09/19/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The objective of this study was to examine factors that predict antiretroviral therapy (ART) access among eligible, HIV-positive methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) clients. We also tested the hypothesis that sustained MMT participation increases the likelihood of accessing ART. DESIGN A nation-wide cohort study conducted from 1 March 2004 to 31 December 2011. SETTING MMT clients were followed from the time of their enrolment in China's national MMT programme until their death or the study end date. PARTICIPANTS Our cohort comprised 7111 ART-eligible, HIV-positive MMT clients, 49.2% of whom remained ART-naive and 50.8% of whom received ART. MEASUREMENTS Demographic variables, drug use history, MMT programme participation and HIV-related clinical characteristics of study participants who remained naive to ART and those who accessed ART were compared by univariate and multivariable analysis. FINDINGS Predictors of accessing ART among this cohort included being retained in MMT at the time of first meeting ART eligibility [adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=1.84, confidence interval (CI)=1.54-2.21, P<0.001] compared to meeting ART eligibility before entering MMT (AOR=0.98, CI=0.80-1.21, P=0.849) or previously entering MMT and dropping out before meeting ART eligibility. Additional predictors were CD4≤200 cells/μl when ART-eligibility requirement was first met (AOR=1.81, CI=1.61-2.05, P<0.001 compared to CD4=201-350 cells/μl), and being in a stable partner relationship (married/cohabitating: AOR=1.14, CI=1.01-1.28, P=0.030). CONCLUSIONS Retained participation in methadone maintenance treatment increases the likelihood that eligible clients will access antiretroviral therapy. These results highlight the potential benefit of colocalization of methadone maintenance treatment and antiretroviral therapy services in a 'one-stop-shop' model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhao
- National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Beijing China
| | - Cynthia X. Shi
- National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Beijing China
| | - Jennifer M. McGoogan
- National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Beijing China
| | - Keming Rou
- National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Beijing China
| | - Fujie Zhang
- National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Beijing China
| | - Zunyou Wu
- National Center for AIDS/STD Control and Prevention; Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; Beijing China
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Shepherd A, Perrella B, Hattingh HL. The impact of dispensing fees on compliance with opioid substitution therapy: a mixed methods study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2014; 9:32. [PMID: 25108396 PMCID: PMC4136401 DOI: 10.1186/1747-597x-9-32] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Opioid substitution therapy (OST) programs involve the dispensing of OST medicines to patients to address their dependence on heroin and/or other opioid substances. OST medicines are subsidised by the Australian government but patients need to pay the dispensing fees. This study explored opinions from OST patients and stakeholders about the potential impact of dispensing fees on compliance and OST program retention. Current and past experiences and the potential impact of OST dispensing fees were evaluated. METHODS Mixed methodology was used to obtain data from OST patients and stakeholders. This involved 1) interviews with OST stakeholders, 2) a focus group of OST patients and 3) surveys of OST patients in Perth, Australia, between June and August 2013. RESULTS The majority of the eight stakeholders declared cost as the factor mostly impacting on OST compliance. Almost all of the stakeholders commented that there was a positive correlation between time on the OST program and success in terms of relapse. Most stakeholders advocated for OST fees to contribute towards the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme Safety Net, and for fee subsidy. Focus group themes supported stakeholder interview findings. A total of 138 surveys were completed. Survey analysis illustrated a strong correlation between patient debt and impacted lifestyle: 82.4% (p < 0.001, Chi-square test) of the 138 survey participants stated that dispensing fees impacted significantly on patients' finances and lifestyle, specifically those patients with major debt. The cost of dispensing fees was identified by 46.3% (64/138) of survey participants as the biggest impacting factor on patient success. Logistic regression models showed that the cost of dispensing fees was also found to significantly influence both the occurrence of debt (57.7%, p < 0.0001) and lifestyle difficulties (80.0%, p = 0.0004). CONCLUSION Findings provided insight into OST patients' financial difficulties with data suggesting that dispensing fees are likely to have a negative impact on OST patients' compliance with therapy, retention in the OST program and lifestyle. Government sponsorship of the OST dispensing fees should be considered as sponsorship would potentially increase the retention rates of income-poor OST program recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Shepherd
- Curtin Health, Curtin University, Bentley, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia
| | - Bianca Perrella
- Curtin Health, Curtin University, Bentley, Perth, Western Australia 6845, Australia
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Spending of HIV resources in Asia and Eastern Europe: systematic review reveals the need to shift funding allocations towards priority populations. J Int AIDS Soc 2014; 17:18822. [PMID: 24572053 PMCID: PMC3936108 DOI: 10.7448/ias.17.1.18822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION It is increasingly important to prioritize the most cost-effective HIV interventions. We sought to summarize the evidence on which types of interventions provide the best value for money in regions with concentrated HIV epidemics. METHODS We conducted a systematic review of peer-reviewed and grey literature reporting measurements of cost-effectiveness or cost-benefit for HIV/AIDS interventions in Asia and Eastern Europe. We also collated HIV/AIDS spending assessment data from case-study countries in the region. RESULTS We identified 91 studies for inclusion, 47 of which were from peer-reviewed journals. Generally, in concentrated settings, prevention of mother-to-child transmission programmes and prevention programmes targeting people who inject drugs and sex workers had lower incremental cost-effectiveness ratios than programmes aimed at the general population. The few studies evaluating programmes targeting men who have sex with men indicate moderate cost-effectiveness. Collation of prevention programme spending data from 12 countries in the region (none of which had generalized epidemics) indicated that resources for the general population/non-targeted was greater than 30% for eight countries and greater than 50% for five countries. CONCLUSIONS There is a misalignment between national spending on HIV/AIDS responses and the most affected populations across the region. In concentrated epidemics, scarce funding should be directed more towards most-at-risk populations. Reaching consensus on general principles of cost-effectiveness of programmes by epidemic settings is difficult due to inconsistent evaluation approaches. Adopting a standard costing, impact evaluation, benefits calculation, analysis and reporting framework would enable cross comparisons and improve HIV resource prioritization and allocation.
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Li H, Zhong M, Guo W, Zhuang D, Li L, Liu Y, Bao Z, Liu S, Wang X, Li T, Yang S, Li J. Prevalence and mutation patterns of HIV drug resistance from 2010 to 2011 among ART-failure individuals in the Yunnan Province, China. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72630. [PMID: 24009694 PMCID: PMC3757030 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2012] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Assessing the prevalence of HIV-1 drug-resistance and the mutation patterns associated with resistance in the geographical regions implementing free antiretroviral therapy (ART) in China is necessary for preventing the spread of resistant strains and designing the regimens for the subsequent therapies with limited resources. METHODS Plasma samples in different cities/prefectures were collected at Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease from January 2010 to December 2011. Genotyping of drug-resistant individuals was conducted using an in-house assay on plasma samples. Viral load, CD4 T cell counts and demographic data were obtained from medical records and an administered questionnaire. RESULTS A total of 609 pol sequences (515 ART-failure and 94 therapy-naïve individuals) derived from 664 samples were obtained. The prevalence of drug-resistance was 45.1% in the ART-failure individuals. Of these, 26.8% harbored HIV strains dually resistant to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, and 14.8% harbored HIV strains resistant to only one drug category. Mutations such as M184V/I, K103N, V106A, Y181C and G190A were common among the ART-failure individuals, and the frequencies of M184V/I, K103N and V106A were 28.2%, 19.2%, and 22.1%, respectively. The percentages of individuals exhibiting intermediate or high-level resistance to 3TC, FTC, EFV and NVP drugs were 28.4%, 28.2%, 37.3%, and 37.5%, respectively. Factors such as ethnicity, transmission route, CD4 counts, viral load and the duration of ART were significantly correlated with development of drug resistance in the ART-failure individuals. CONCLUSIONS The high prevalence of HIV drug-resistance observed among the ART-failure individuals from 2010 to 2011 in Yunnan province should be of increasing concern in regions where the implementation of ART is widespread. Education about the risk factors associated with HIV drug resistance is important for preventing and controlling the spread of HIV drug-resistant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanping Li
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Min Zhong
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, Kunming, China
| | - Wei Guo
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Daomin Zhuang
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Lin Li
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Yongjian Liu
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Zuoyi Bao
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Siyang Liu
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaolin Wang
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Tianyi Li
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
| | - Shaomin Yang
- Yunnan Provincial Hospital of Infectious Disease, Kunming, China
| | - Jingyun Li
- Department of AIDS Research, State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Beijing Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, Beijing, China
- * E-mail:
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Tran BX, Nguyen LT. Impact of methadone maintenance on health utility, health care utilization and expenditure in drug users with HIV/AIDS. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2013; 24:e105-10. [PMID: 23937854 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2013] [Revised: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 07/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study assessed the impact of methadone maintenance treatment (MMT) on health utility, health care service utilization, and out-of-pocket (OOP) health expenditure in drug users with HIV/AIDS in Vietnam. METHODS Using the 2012 Vietnam HIV Service Users Survey data, a post-evaluation was designed to compare 121 MMT patients with 347 non-MMT patients who were matched using propensity scores of MMT covariates. Health utility was measured using the EuroQOL - five dimensions - five levels (EQ-5D-5L) and a visual analogue scale (EQ-VAS). RESULTS The mean EQ-5D-5L single index and EQ-VAS score of MMT patients were 0.68 (95% CI=0.64-0.73) and 71.5% (95% CI=68.2-74.9). Compared with the control group, the adjusted differences in health utility were 0.08 and 4.43% (p=0.07), equivalent to 12.1% and 6.5% increases during MMT. There was a 45.9% decrease in the frequency of health care service utilization that was attributable to MMT. Although, antiretroviral treatment and MMT services were free-of-charge, MMT and non-MMT patients still paid their OOP for health care for averagely US$ 16.3/month and US$ 28.9/month. The adjusted difference between the two groups was US$ 19.3/month ($ 231.6/year) that equivalents to a reduction of 66.7% in OOP health expenditure related to MMT. CONCLUSION MMT was associated with a clinically important difference in health utility, large reductions in health care service utilization and OOP health expenditure in HIV-positive drug users. Scaling up MMT in large drug-using population could help improve the outcomes of HIV/AIDS interventions and reduce economic vulnerability of affected households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bach Xuan Tran
- Institute for Preventive Medicine and Public Health, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
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Ruger JP, Chawarski M, Mazlan M, Ng N, Schottenfeld R. Cost-effectiveness of buprenorphine and naltrexone treatments for heroin dependence in Malaysia. PLoS One 2012; 7:e50673. [PMID: 23226534 PMCID: PMC3514172 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0050673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aims To aid public health policymaking, we studied the cost-effectiveness of buprenorphine, naltrexone, and placebo interventions for heroin dependence in Malaysia. Design We estimated the cost-effectiveness ratios of three treatments for heroin dependence. We used a microcosting methodology to determine fixed, variable, and societal costs of each intervention. Cost data were collected from investigators, staff, and project records on the number and type of resources used and unit costs; societal costs for participants’ time were estimated using Malaysia’s minimum wage. Costs were estimated from a provider and societal perspective and reported in 2004 US dollars. Setting Muar, Malaysia. Participants 126 patients enrolled in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial in Malaysia (2003–2005) receiving counseling and buprenorphine, naltrexone, or placebo for treatment of heroin dependence. Measurements Primary outcome measures included days in treatment, maximum consecutive days of heroin abstinence, days to first heroin use, and days to heroin relapse. Secondary outcome measures included treatment retention, injection drug use, illicit opiate use, AIDS Risk Inventory total score, and drug risk and sex risk subscores. Findings Buprenorphine was more effective and more costly than naltrexone for all primary and most secondary outcomes. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were below $50 for primary outcomes, mostly below $350 for secondary outcomes. Naltrexone was dominated by placebo for all secondary outcomes at almost all endpoints. Incremental treatment costs were driven mainly by medication costs, especially the price of buprenorphine. Conclusions Buprenorphine appears to be a cost-effective alternative to naltrexone that might enhance economic productivity and reduce drug use over a longer term.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Prah Ruger
- Department of Public Health, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America.
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Vickerman P, Martin N, Turner K, Hickman M. Can needle and syringe programmes and opiate substitution therapy achieve substantial reductions in hepatitis C virus prevalence? Model projections for different epidemic settings. Addiction 2012; 107:1984-95. [PMID: 22564041 DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03932.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the impact of scaling-up opiate substitution therapy (OST) and high coverage needle and syringe programmes (100%NSP-obtaining more sterile syringes than you inject) on HCV prevalence among injecting drug users (IDUs). DESIGN Hepatitis C virus HCV transmission modelling using U.K. estimates for effect of OST and 100%NSP on individual risk of HCV infection. SETTING Range of chronic HCV prevalent (20/40/60%) settings with no OST/100%NSP, and U.K. setting with 50% coverage of both OST and 100%NSP. PARTICIPANTS Injecting drug users. MEASUREMENTS Decrease in HCV prevalence after 5-20 years due to scale-up of OST and 100%NSP to 20/40/60% coverage in no OST/100%NSP settings, or from 50% to 60/70/80% coverage in the U.K. setting. FINDINGS For 40% chronic HCV prevalence, scaling-up OST and 100%NSP from 0% to 20% coverage reduces HCV prevalence by 13% after 10 years. This increases to a 24/33% relative reduction at 40/60% coverage. Marginally less impact occurs in higher prevalence settings over 10 years, but this becomes more pronounced over time. In the United Kingdom, without current coverage levels of OST and 100%NSP the chronic HCV prevalence could be 65% instead of 40%. However, increasing OST and 100%NSP coverage further is unlikely to reduce chronic prevalence to less than 30% over 10 years unless coverage becomes ≥80%. CONCLUSIONS Scaling-up opiate substitution therapy and high coverage needle and syringe programmes can reduce hepatitis C prevalence among injecting drug users, but reductions can be modest and require long-term sustained intervention coverage. In high coverage settings, other interventions are needed to further decrease hepatitis C prevalence. In low coverage settings, sustained scale-up of both interventions is needed.
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