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Yap KH, Azmin S, Abdul Manan H, Yahya N, Ahmad N, Tajurudin FW, Mat Desa SH, van de Warrenburg B, Mohamed Mukari SA, Achok HN, Ahmad Damanhuri H, Rani R, Mohamed Ibrahim N. Randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial of the effects of oral trehalose in spinocerebellar ataxia type 3: An interim analysis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2024; 124:107013. [PMID: 38843619 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2024.107013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Spinocerebellar ataxia type 3 (SCA3) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by increasingly worsening ataxia and non-ataxia features, negatively impacting patients' quality of life. This study was designed to test formally evaluate whether oral trehalose was effective in SCA3 patients. METHODS In this double-blind, randomized controlled trial, SCA3 patients received either 100 g oral trehalose or 30 g maltose to improve ataxia severity over six months. We also measured other clinical (non-ataxia), patient-reported (quality of life, motivations), and safety endpoints. An unscheduled interim analysis was conducted using two-way ANOVAs to analyze the interaction between time (baseline, 3-months, 6-months) and intervention (Trehalose vs. Placebo). RESULTS Fifteen participants (Trehalose = 7 vs. Placebo = 8) completed the study at the time of interim analysis. There was no interaction effect on the ataxia severity, and available data suggested an estimated sample size of 132 (66 per arm) SCA3 patients required to demonstrate changes in a 6-month trial. There were significant interaction effects for executive function (ƞ2 = 0.28-0.43). Safety data indicated that 100 g oral trehalose was well-tolerated. CONCLUSION We performed an unplanned interim analysis due to a slow recruitment rate. The new estimated sample size was deemed unfeasible, leading to premature termination of the clinical trial. In this small, current sample of SCA3 patients, 100 g oral trehalose did not differentially impact on ataxia severity compared to placebo. Interestingly, our findings may suggest an improvement in executive function. Future efforts will require a large multi-country, multi-center study to investigate the potential effect of trehalose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kah Hui Yap
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Shahrul Azmin
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hanani Abdul Manan
- Makmal Pemprosesan Imej Kefungsian (Functional Image Processing Laboratory), Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Noorazrul Yahya
- School of Diagnostic and Applied Health Science, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 50300 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Norfazilah Ahmad
- Department of Public Health Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Farah Waheeda Tajurudin
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Siti Hajar Mat Desa
- Department of Nursing, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Bart van de Warrenburg
- Department of Neurology, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Shahizon Azura Mohamed Mukari
- Makmal Pemprosesan Imej Kefungsian (Functional Image Processing Laboratory), Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Hamdi Najman Achok
- Department of Medicine, Hospital Sultanah Aminah, 80586 Johor Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Hanafi Ahmad Damanhuri
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Rufaidah Rani
- Department of Dietetic and Food Services, Hospital Kuala Lumpur, 50586 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Norlinah Mohamed Ibrahim
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 56000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Oliveira CM, Hayiou-Thomas ME, Henderson LM. Reliability of the serial reaction time task: If at first you don't succeed, try, try, try again. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2024:17470218241232347. [PMID: 38311604 DOI: 10.1177/17470218241232347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
Procedural memory is involved in the acquisition and control of skills and habits that underlie rule and procedural learning, including the acquisition of grammar and phonology. The serial reaction time task (SRTT), commonly used to assess procedural learning, has been shown to have poor stability (test-retest reliability). We investigated factors that may affect the stability of the SRTT in adults. Experiment 1 examined whether the similarity of sequences learned in two sessions would impact stability: test-retest correlations were low regardless of sequence similarity (r < .31). Experiment 2 added a third session to examine whether individual differences in learning would stabilise with further training. There was a small (but nonsignificant) improvement in stability for later sessions (Sessions 1 and 2: r = .42; Sessions 2 and 3: r = .60). Stability of procedural learning on the SRTT remained suboptimal in all conditions, posing a serious obstacle to the use of this task as a sensitive predictor of individual differences and ultimately theoretical advance.
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Petok JR, Dang L, Hammel B. Impaired executive functioning mediates the association between aging and deterministic sequence learning. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT, AND COGNITION. SECTION B, AGING, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2024; 31:323-339. [PMID: 36476065 PMCID: PMC10244484 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2022.2153789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sensitivity to the fixed ordering of actions and events, or deterministic sequence learning, is an important skill throughout adulthood. Yet, it remains unclear whether age deficits in sequencing exist, and we lack a firm understanding of which factors might contribute to age-related impairments when they arise. Though debated, executive functioning, governed by the frontal lobe, may underlie age-related sequence learning deficits in older adults. The present study asked if age predicts errors in deterministic sequence learning across the older adult lifespan (ages 55-89), and whether executive functioning accounts for any age-related declines. Healthy older adults completed a comprehensive measure of frontal-based executive abilities as well as a deterministic sequence learning task that required the step-by-step acquisition of associations through trial-and-error feedback. Among those who met a performance-based criterion, increasing age was positively correlated with higher sequencing errors; however, this relationship was no longer significant after controlling for executive functioning. Moreover, frontal-based executive abilities mediated the relationship between age and sequence learning performance. These findings suggest that executive or frontal functioning may underlie age deficits in learning judgment-based, deterministic serial operations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Layla Dang
- Department of Psychology, Saint Olaf College, Northfield, MN
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
| | - Beatrice Hammel
- Department of Psychology, Saint Olaf College, Northfield, MN
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Wang HS, Köhler S, Batterink LJ. Separate but not independent: Behavioral pattern separation and statistical learning are differentially affected by aging. Cognition 2023; 239:105564. [PMID: 37467624 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Our brains are capable of discriminating similar inputs (pattern separation) and rapidly generalizing across inputs (statistical learning). Are these two processes dissociable in behavior? Here, we asked whether cognitive aging affects them in a differential or parallel manner. Older and younger adults were tested on their ability to discriminate between similar trisyllabic words and to extract trisyllabic words embedded in a continuous speech stream. Older adults demonstrated intact statistical learning on an implicit, reaction time-based measure and an explicit, familiarity-based measure of learning. However, they performed poorly in discriminating similar items presented in isolation, both for episodically-encoded items and for statistically-learned regularities. These results indicate that pattern separation and statistical learning are dissociable and differentially affected by aging. The acquisition of implicit representations of statistical regularities operates robustly into old age, whereas pattern separation influences the expression of statistical learning with high representational fidelity and is subject to age-related decline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helena Shizhe Wang
- Western Institute for Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stefan Köhler
- Western Institute for Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada; Rotman Research Institute, Baycrest, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Laura J Batterink
- Western Institute for Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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Witt A, Poulin-Charronnat B, Bard P, Vinter A. The effect of response-to-stimulus interval on children's implicit sequence learning. J Exp Child Psychol 2023; 232:105668. [PMID: 36948041 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2023]
Abstract
The current study examined, for the first time in a developmental perspective, the effect of response-to-stimulus interval (RSI) in incidental sequence learning (SL). Children aged 4, 7, and 10 years performed a serial reaction time (SRT) task in which the RSI was systematically manipulated (0, 250, 500, or 750 ms). SL (difference in reaction times between fixed and random blocks) was not observed for the youngest children whatever the RSI condition, whereas the 7-year-olds learned the sequence only in the 250-ms RSI condition and the 10-year-olds exhibited SL in all temporal conditions except the 500-ms RSI condition. Finally, the results suggest that conscious awareness of the sequence emerges only in older children faced with the 500- and 750-ms RSI conditions. The discussion questions the robustness of implicit learning processes in the light of individual and contextual factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnaud Witt
- Laboratory for Research on Learning and Development (LEAD)-French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), UMR 5022, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21065 Dijon Cedex, France.
| | - Bénédicte Poulin-Charronnat
- Laboratory for Research on Learning and Development (LEAD)-French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), UMR 5022, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21065 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Patrick Bard
- Laboratory for Research on Learning and Development (LEAD)-French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), UMR 5022, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21065 Dijon Cedex, France
| | - Annie Vinter
- Laboratory for Research on Learning and Development (LEAD)-French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), UMR 5022, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, 21065 Dijon Cedex, France
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Schevenels K, Altvater-Mackensen N, Zink I, De Smedt B, Vandermosten M. Aging effects and feasibility of statistical learning tasks across modalities. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY, DEVELOPMENT, AND COGNITION. SECTION B, AGING, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND COGNITION 2023; 30:201-230. [PMID: 34823443 DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2021.2007213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge on statistical learning (SL) in healthy elderly is scarce. Theoretically, it is not clear whether aging affects modality-specific and/or domain-general learning mechanisms. Practically, there is a lack of research on simplified SL tasks, which would ease the burden of testing in clinical populations. Against this background, we conducted two experiments across three modalities (auditory, visual and visuomotor) in a total of 93 younger and older adults. In Experiment 1, SL was induced in all modalities. Aging effects appeared in the tasks relying on an explicit posttest to assess SL. We hypothesize that declines in domain-general processes that predominantly modulate explicit learning mechanisms underlie these aging effects. In Experiment 2, more feasible tasks were developed for which the level of SL was maintained in all modalities, except the auditory modality. These tasks are more likely to successfully measure SL in elderly (patient) populations in which task demands can be problematic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Schevenels
- Research Group Experimental Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | | | - Inge Zink
- Research Group Experimental Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bert De Smedt
- Parenting and Special Education Research Unit, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Maaike Vandermosten
- Research Group Experimental Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Keeping in step with the young: Chronometric and kinematic data show intact procedural locomotor sequence learning in older adults. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0266733. [PMID: 35503784 PMCID: PMC9064075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0266733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sequence learning in serial reaction time tasks (SRTT) is an established, lab-based experimental paradigm to study acquisition and transfer of skill based on the detection of predictable stimulus and motor response sequences. Sequence learning has been mainly studied in key presses using visual target stimuli and is demonstrated by better performance in predictable sequences than in random sequences. In this study, we investigated sequence learning in the context of more complex locomotor responses. To this end, we developed a novel goal-directed stepping SRTT with auditory target stimuli in order to subsequently assess the effect of aging on sequence learning in this task, expecting that age-related performance reductions in postural control might disturb the acquisition of the sequence. We used pressure-sensitive floor mats to characterise performance across ten blocks of trials. In Experiment 1, 22 young adults demonstrated successful acquisition of the sequence in terms of the time to step on the target mat and percent error and thus validated our new paradigm. In Experiment 2, in order to contrast performance improvements in the stepping SRTT between 27 young and 22 old adults, motion capture of the feet was combined with the floor mat system to delineate individual movement phases during stepping onto a target mat. The latencies of several postural events as well as other movement parameters of a step were assessed. We observed significant learning effects in the latency of step initiation, the time to step on the target mat, and motion parameters such as stepping amplitude and peak stepping velocity, as well as in percent error. The data showed general age-related slowing but no significant performance differences in procedural locomotor sequence learning between young and old adults. The older adults also had comparable conscious representations of the sequence of stimuli as the young adults. We conclude that sequence learning occurred in this locomotor learning task that is much more complex than typical finger-tapping sequence learning tasks, and that healthy older adults showed similar learning effects compared to young adults, suggesting intact locomotor sequence learning capabilities despite general slowing and normal age-related decline in sensorimotor function.
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Van Dyck D, Deconinck N, Aeby A, Baijot S, Coquelet N, Trotta N, Rovai A, Goldman S, Urbain C, Wens V, De Tiège X. Resting-state functional brain connectivity is related to subsequent procedural learning skills in school-aged children. Neuroimage 2021; 240:118368. [PMID: 34242786 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
This magnetoencephalography (MEG) study investigates how procedural sequence learning performance is related to prior brain resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC), and to what extent sequence learning induces rapid changes in brain rsFC in school-aged children. Procedural learning was assessed in 30 typically developing children (mean age ± SD: 9.99 years ± 1.35) using a serial reaction time task (SRTT). During SRTT, participants touched as quickly and accurately as possible a stimulus sequentially or randomly appearing in one of the quadrants of a touchscreen. Band-limited power envelope correlation (brain rsFC) was applied to MEG data acquired at rest pre- and post-learning. Correlation analyses were performed between brain rsFC and sequence-specific learning or response time indices. Stronger pre-learning interhemispheric rsFC between inferior parietal and primary somatosensory/motor areas correlated with better subsequent sequence learning performance and faster visuomotor response time. Faster response time was associated with post-learning decreased rsFC within the dorsal extra-striate visual stream and increased rsFC between temporo-cerebellar regions. In school-aged children, variations in functional brain architecture at rest within the sensorimotor network account for interindividual differences in sequence learning and visuomotor performance. After learning, rapid adjustments in functional brain architecture are associated with visuomotor performance but not sequence learning skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorine Van Dyck
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Department of Neurology, Hôpital Universitaire des Enfants Reine Fabiola (HUDERF), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Nicolas Deconinck
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Universitaire des Enfants Reine Fabiola (HUDERF), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Alec Aeby
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Universitaire des Enfants Reine Fabiola (HUDERF), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Research Unit (UR2NF), Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences (CRCN) and ULB Neurosciences Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Simon Baijot
- Department of Neurology, Hôpital Universitaire des Enfants Reine Fabiola (HUDERF), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Research Unit (UR2NF), Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences (CRCN) and ULB Neurosciences Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Coquelet
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nicola Trotta
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroimaging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Antonin Rovai
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroimaging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Serge Goldman
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroimaging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Charline Urbain
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Neuropsychology and Functional Neuroimaging Research Unit (UR2NF), Center for Research in Cognition and Neurosciences (CRCN) and ULB Neurosciences Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Vincent Wens
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroimaging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Xavier De Tiège
- Laboratoire de Cartographie fonctionnelle du Cerveau (LCFC), ULB Neuroscience Institute (UNI), Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium; Department of Functional Neuroimaging, Service of Nuclear Medicine, CUB Hôpital Erasme, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels, Belgium
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Reifegerste J, Meyer AS, Zwitserlood P, Ullman MT. Aging affects steaks more than knives: Evidence that the processing of words related to motor skills is relatively spared in aging. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2021; 218:104941. [PMID: 34015683 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2021.104941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lexical-processing declines are a hallmark of aging. However, the extent of these declines may vary as a function of different factors. Motivated by findings from neurodegenerative diseases and healthy aging, we tested whether 'motor-relatedness' (the degree to which words are associated with particular human body movements) might moderate such declines. We investigated this question by examining data from three experiments. The experiments were carried out in different languages (Dutch, German, English) using different tasks (lexical decision, picture naming), and probed verbs and nouns, in all cases controlling for potentially confounding variables (e.g., frequency, age-of-acquisition, imageability). Whereas 'non-motor words' (e.g., steak) showed age-related performance decreases in all three experiments, 'motor words' (e.g., knife) yielded either smaller decreases (in one experiment) or no decreases (in two experiments). The findings suggest that motor-relatedness can attenuate or even prevent age-related lexical declines, perhaps due to the relative sparing of neural circuitry underlying such words.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Reifegerste
- Brain and Language Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA; Department of Psychology and Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany; Potsdam Research Institute for Multilingualism, University of Potsdam, Germany.
| | - Antje S Meyer
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Pienie Zwitserlood
- Department of Psychology and Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Germany
| | - Michael T Ullman
- Brain and Language Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington DC, USA.
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Lazartigues L, Mathy F, Lavigne F. Statistical learning of unbalanced exclusive-or temporal sequences in humans. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0246826. [PMID: 33592012 PMCID: PMC7886115 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0246826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A pervasive issue in statistical learning has been to determine the parameters of regularity extraction. Our hypothesis was that the extraction of transitional probabilities can prevail over frequency if the task involves prediction. Participants were exposed to four repeated sequences of three stimuli (XYZ) with each stimulus corresponding to the position of a red dot on a touch screen that participants were required to touch sequentially. The temporal and spatial structure of the positions corresponded to a serial version of the exclusive-or (XOR) that allowed testing of the respective effect of frequency and first- and second-order transitional probabilities. The XOR allowed the first-order transitional probability to vary while being not completely related to frequency and to vary while the second-order transitional probability was fixed (p(Z|X, Y) = 1). The findings show that first-order transitional probability prevails over frequency to predict the second stimulus from the first and that it also influences the prediction of the third item despite the presence of second-order transitional probability that could have offered a certain prediction of the third item. These results are particularly informative in light of statistical learning models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lazartigues
- Department of Psychology, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, BCL, Nice, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Fabien Mathy
- Department of Psychology, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, BCL, Nice, France
| | - Frédéric Lavigne
- Department of Psychology, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, BCL, Nice, France
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Franco CY, Petok JR, Langley J, Hu X, Bennett IJ. Implicit associative learning relates to basal ganglia gray matter microstructure in young and older adults. Behav Brain Res 2020; 397:112950. [PMID: 33017642 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Older adults are impaired at implicit associative learning (IAL), or the learning of relationships between stimuli in the environment without conscious awareness. These age effects have been attributed to differential engagement of the basal ganglia (e.g. caudate, globus pallidus) and hippocampus throughout learning. However, no studies have examined gray matter diffusion relations with IAL, which can reveal microstructural properties that vary with age and contribute to learning. In this study, young (18-29 years) and older (65-87 years) adults completed the Triplet Learning Task, in which participants implicitly learn that the location of cues predict the target location on some trials (high frequency triplets). Diffusion imaging was also acquired and multicompartment diffusion metrics were calculated using neurite orientation dispersion and density imaging (NODDI). As expected, results revealed age deficits in IAL (smaller differences in performance to high versus low frequency triplets in the late learning stage) and age-related differences in basal ganglia and hippocampus free, hindered, and restricted diffusion. Significant correlations were seen between restricted caudate diffusion and early IAL and between hindered globus pallidus diffusion and late IAL, which were not moderated by age group. These findings indicate that individual differences in basal ganglia, but not hippocampal, gray matter microstructure contribute to learning, independent of age, further supporting basal ganglia involvement in IAL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna Y Franco
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - Jessica R Petok
- Department of Psychology, St. Olaf College, 1520 St. Olaf Avenue, Northfield, MN 55057, USA
| | - Jason Langley
- Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Xiaoping Hu
- Center for Advanced Neuroimaging, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
| | - Ilana J Bennett
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Dang L, Larson SP, Gluck MA, Petok JR. Age-Related Decline in Learning Deterministic Judgment-Based Sequences. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2020; 75:961-969. [PMID: 30184192 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gby100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Because sequence learning is integral to cognitive functions across the life span, the present study examined the effect of healthy aging on deterministic judgment-based sequence learning. METHODS College-aged, younger-old (YO), and older-old (OO) adults completed a judgment-based sequence learning task which required them to learn a full sequence by chaining together single stimulus-response associations in a step-by-step fashion. RESULTS Results showed that younger adults outperformed YO and OO adults; older adults were less able to acquire the full sequence and committed significantly more errors during learning. Additionally, higher sequence learning errors were associated with advancing age among older adults, even when controlling for other factors known to contribute to sequence learning abilities. Such impairments were selective to learning sequential information, because adults of all ages performed equivalently on postlearning probe trials, as well as on learning simple stimulus-response associations. DISCUSSION This pattern of age deficits during deterministic sequence learning challenges past reports of age preservation. Though the neural processes underlying learning cannot be determined here, our patterns of age deficits and preservation may reflect different brain regions that are involved in the task phases, adding behavioral evidence to the emerging hypothesis of frontostriatal declines despite spared hippocampal function with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Layla Dang
- Psychology Department, Saint Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota
| | - Sylvia P Larson
- Psychology Department, Saint Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota
| | - Mark A Gluck
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
| | - Jessica R Petok
- Psychology Department, Saint Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota.,Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey
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Cheung VCK, Zheng XC, Cheung RTH, Chan RHM. Modulating the Structure of Motor Variability for Skill Learning Through Specific Muscle Synergies in Elderlies and Young Adults. IEEE OPEN JOURNAL OF ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1:33-40. [PMID: 35402962 PMCID: PMC8979619 DOI: 10.1109/ojemb.2019.2963666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Revised: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Motor variability – performance variations across task repetitions – has been assumed to be undesirable. But recent studies argue that variability facilitates early motor learning by allowing exploratory search of reward-generating motion, and that variability's structure may be modulated by neural circuits for furthering learning. What are the neural sources of learning-relevant motor variability and its modulation in humans of different ages? Methods: Elderlies and young adults played a 3-session virtual bowling while multi-muscle electromyographic signals were collected. We quantified trial-to-trial variability of muscle synergies – neuromotor control modules – and of their activations. Results: In elderlies, bowling-score gain correlated with change of activation timing variability of specific synergies, but in young adults, with variability changes of synergy-activation magnitude, and of the synergies themselves. Conclusions: Variability modulation of specific muscle synergies and their activations contribute to early motor learning. Elderly and young individuals may rely on different aspects of motor variability to drive learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent C K Cheung
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, and the KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research of Common DiseasesThe Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong China
| | - Xiao-Chang Zheng
- 1 School of Biomedical Sciences and Gerald Choa Neuroscience Centre, and the KIZ-CUHK Joint Laboratory of Bioresources and Molecular Research of Common DiseasesThe Chinese University of Hong Kong Hong Kong China
| | - Roy T H Cheung
- 2 Department of Rehabilitation SciencesThe Hong Kong Polytechnic University Hong Kong China
| | - Rosa H M Chan
- 3 Department of Electrical EngineeringCity University of Hong Kong Hong Kong China
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14
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Juhasz D, Nemeth D, Janacsek K. Is there more room to improve? The lifespan trajectory of procedural learning and its relationship to the between- and within-group differences in average response times. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215116. [PMID: 31314804 PMCID: PMC6636713 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Characterizing the developmental trajectories of cognitive functions such as learning, memory and decision making across the lifespan faces fundamental challenges. Cognitive functions typically encompass several processes that can be differentially affected by age. Methodological issues also arise when comparisons are made across age groups that differ in basic performance measures, such as in average response times (RTs). Here we focus on procedural learning–a fundamental cognitive function that underlies the acquisition of cognitive, social, and motor skills–and demonstrate how disentangling subprocesses of learning and controlling for differences in average RTs can reveal different developmental trajectories across the human lifespan. Two hundred-seventy participants aged between 7 and 85 years performed a probabilistic sequence learning task that enabled us to separately measure two processes of procedural learning, namely general skill learning and statistical learning. Using raw RT measures, in between-group comparisons, we found a U-shaped trajectory with children and older adults exhibiting greater general skill learning compared to adolescents and younger adults. However, when we controlled for differences in average RTs (either by using ratio scores or focusing on a subsample of participants with similar average speed), only children (but not older adults) demonstrated superior general skill learning consistently across analyses. Testing the relationship between average RTs and general skill learning within age groups shed light on further age-related differences, suggesting that general skill learning measures are more affected by average speed in some age groups. Consistent with previous studies of learning probabilistic regularities, statistical learning showed a gradual decline across the lifespan, and learning performance seemed to be independent of average speed, regardless of the age group. Overall, our results suggest that children are superior learners in various aspects of procedural learning, including both general skill and statistical learning. Our study also highlights the importance to test, and control for, the effect of average speed on other RT measures of cognitive functions, which can fundamentally affect the interpretation of group differences in developmental, aging and clinical psychology and neuroscience studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dora Juhasz
- Doctoral School of Education, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dezso Nemeth
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- Brain, Memory and Language Research Group, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Lyon Neuroscience Research Center (CRNL), Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
- * E-mail: (KJ); (DN)
| | - Karolina Janacsek
- Institute of Psychology, ELTE Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- Brain, Memory and Language Research Group, Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience and Psychology, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- * E-mail: (KJ); (DN)
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15
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Pasquali A, Cleeremans A, Gaillard V. Reversible second-order conditional sequences in incidental sequence learning tasks. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2018; 72:1164-1175. [PMID: 29779443 DOI: 10.1177/1747021818780690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In sequence learning tasks, participants' sensitivity to the sequential structure of a series of events often overshoots their ability to express relevant knowledge intentionally, as in generation tasks that require participants to produce either the next element of a sequence (inclusion) or a different element (exclusion). Comparing generation performance under inclusion and exclusion conditions makes it possible to assess the respective influences of conscious and unconscious learning. Recently, two main concerns have been expressed concerning such tasks. First, it is often difficult to design control sequences in such a way that they enable clear comparisons with the training material. Second, it is challenging to ask participants to perform appropriately under exclusion instructions, for the requirement to exclude familiar responses often leads them to adopt degenerate strategies (e.g., pushing on the same key all the time), which then need to be specifically singled out as invalid. To overcome both concerns, we introduce reversible second-order conditional (RSOC) sequences and show (a) that they elicit particularly strong transfer effects, (b) that dissociation of implicit and explicit influences becomes possible thanks to the removal of salient transitions in RSOCs, and (c) that exclusion instructions can be greatly simplified without losing sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Pasquali
- 1 XCompass, Ltd., Tokyo, Japan
- 2 Neurogenics Research Unit, Adam Neurogenics, Solaro, France
| | - Axel Cleeremans
- 3 Center for Research in Cognition & Neurosciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Vinciane Gaillard
- 3 Center for Research in Cognition & Neurosciences, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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16
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Urry K, Burns NR, Baetu I. Age-related differences in sequence learning: Findings from two visuo-motor sequence learning tasks. Br J Psychol 2018; 109:830-849. [PMID: 29573264 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2017] [Revised: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT) is thought to assess implicit learning, which seems to be preserved with age. However, the reaction time (RT) measures employed on implicit-like tasks might be too unreliable to detect individual differences. We investigated whether RT-based measures mask age effects by comparing the performance of 43 younger and 35 older adults on SRTT and an explicit-like Predictive Sequence Learning Task (PSLT). RT-based measures (difference scores and a ratio) were collected for both tasks, and accuracy was additionally measured for PSLT. We also measured fluid abilities. The RT-difference scores indicated preserved SRTT and PSLT performance with age and did not correlate with fluid abilities, while ratio RT and the accuracy-based measures indicated age-related decline and correlated with fluid abilities. Therefore, RT-difference scores might mask individual differences, which compromises the interpretation of previous studies using SRTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristi Urry
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Burns
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Irina Baetu
- School of Psychology, University of Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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17
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Zwart FS, Vissers CTWM, Kessels RPC, Maes JHR. Procedural learning across the lifespan: A systematic review with implications for atypical development. J Neuropsychol 2017; 13:149-182. [DOI: 10.1111/jnp.12139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fenny S. Zwart
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour; Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
| | - Constance Th. W. M. Vissers
- Behavioural Science Institute; Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Royal Dutch Kentalis; Sint-Michielsgestel The Netherlands
| | - Roy P. C. Kessels
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour; Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Psychology; Radboud University Medical Center; Nijmegen The Netherlands
- Vincent van Gogh Institute for Psychiatry; Venray The Netherlands
| | - Joseph H. R. Maes
- Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour; Radboud University; Nijmegen The Netherlands
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18
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Caljouw SR, Veldkamp R, Lamoth CJC. Implicit and Explicit Learning of a Sequential Postural Weight-Shifting Task in Young and Older Adults. Front Psychol 2016; 7:733. [PMID: 27252670 PMCID: PMC4877372 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Sequence-specific postural motor learning in a target-directed weight-shifting task in 12 older and 12 young participants was assessed. In the implicit sequence learning condition participants performed a concurrent spatial cognitive task and in the two explicit conditions participants were required to discover the sequence order either with or without the concurrent cognitive task. Participants moved a cursor on the screen from the center location to one of the target locations projected in a semi-circle and back by shifting their center of pressure (CoP) on force plates. During the training the targets appeared in a simple fixed 5-target sequence. Plan-based control (i.e., direction of the CoP displacement in the first part of the target-directed movement) improved by anticipating the sequence order in the implicit condition but not in the explicit dual task condition. Only the young participants were able to use the explicit knowledge of the sequence structure to improve the directional error as indicated by a significant decrease in directional error over practice and an increase in directional error with sequence removal in the explicit single task condition. Time spent in the second part of the movement trajectory to stabilize the cursor on the target location improved over training in both the implicit and explicit sequence learning conditions, for both age groups. These results might indicate that an implicit motor learning method, which holds back explicit awareness of task relevant features, may be desirable for improving plan-based motor control in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone R Caljouw
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
| | - Renee Veldkamp
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
| | - Claudine J C Lamoth
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen Netherlands
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19
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Meissner SN, Keitel A, Südmeyer M, Pollok B. Implicit Motor Sequence Learning and Working Memory Performance Changes Across the Adult Life Span. Front Aging Neurosci 2016; 8:89. [PMID: 27199736 PMCID: PMC4844614 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2016.00089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although implicit motor sequence learning is rather well understood in young adults, effects of aging on this kind of learning are controversial. There is first evidence that working memory (WM) might play a role in implicit motor sequence learning in young adults as well as in adults above the age of 65. However, the knowledge about the development of these processes across the adult life span is rather limited. As the average age of our population continues to rise, a better understanding of age-related changes in motor sequence learning and potentially mediating cognitive processes takes on increasing significance. Therefore, we investigated aging effects on implicit motor sequence learning and WM. Sixty adults (18–71 years) completed verbal and visuospatial n-back tasks and were trained on a serial reaction time task (SRTT). Randomly varying trials served as control condition. To further assess consolidation indicated by off-line improvement and reduced susceptibility to interference, reaction times (RTs) were determined 1 h after initial learning. Young and older but not middle-aged adults showed motor sequence learning. Nine out of 20 older adults (compared to one young/one middle-aged) exhibited some evidence of sequence awareness. After 1 h, young and middle-aged adults showed off-line improvement. However, RT facilitation was not specific to sequence trials. Importantly, susceptibility to interference was reduced in young and older adults indicating the occurrence of consolidation. Although WM performance declined in older participants when load was high, it was not significantly related to sequence learning. The data reveal a decline in motor sequence learning in middle-aged but not in older adults. The use of explicit learning strategies in older adults might account for the latter result.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Nadine Meissner
- Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Ariane Keitel
- Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Martin Südmeyer
- Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-UniversityDuesseldorf, Germany; Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-UniversityDuesseldorf, Germany
| | - Bettina Pollok
- Institute of Clinical Neuroscience and Medical Psychology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University Duesseldorf, Germany
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20
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Clark R, Freedberg M, Hazeltine E, Voss MW. Are There Age-Related Differences in the Ability to Learn Configural Responses? PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137260. [PMID: 26317773 PMCID: PMC4552811 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Age is often associated with a decline in cognitive abilities that are important for maintaining functional independence, such as learning new skills. Many forms of motor learning appear to be relatively well preserved with age, while learning tasks that involve associative binding tend to be negatively affected. The current study aimed to determine whether age differences exist on a configural response learning task, which includes aspects of motor learning and associative binding. Young (M = 24 years) and older adults (M = 66.5 years) completed a modified version of a configural learning task. Given the requirement of associative binding in the configural relationships between responses, we predicted older adults would show significantly less learning than young adults. Older adults demonstrated lower performance (slower reaction time and lower accuracy). However, contrary to our prediction, older adults showed similar rates of learning as indexed by a configural learning score compared to young adults. These results suggest that the ability to acquire knowledge incidentally about configural response relationships is largely unaffected by cognitive aging. The configural response learning task provides insight into the task demands that constrain learning abilities in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Clark
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
| | - Michael Freedberg
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
| | - Eliot Hazeltine
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
| | - Michelle W. Voss
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
- Aging Mind and Brain Initiative (AMBI), The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Verneau M, van der Kamp J, Savelsbergh GJP, de Looze MP. Age and time effects on implicit and explicit learning. Exp Aging Res 2015; 40:477-511. [PMID: 25054644 DOI: 10.1080/0361073x.2014.926778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED BACKGROUND/STUDY CONTEXT: It has been proposed that effects of aging are more pronounced for explicit than for implicit motor learning. The authors evaluated this claim by comparing the efficacy of explicit and implicit learning of a movement sequence in young and older adults, and by testing the resilience against fatigue and secondary tasking after learning. It was also examined whether explicit learning in older adults can be promoted by alleviating time constraints during learning. METHODS The alternating serial reaction time task (ASRTT) was used. Experiment 1 compared the benefits of receiving full instructions about the stimulus sequence relative to receiving no instructions in young (20-25 years) and older (50-65 years) adults during retention and during transfer to fatigue and secondary task conditions. Experiment 2 alleviated time constraints during the initial bouts of practice with full instructions. RESULTS Experiment 1 indicated that the older adults learned on the ASRTT and achieved similar performance as young adults when no instructions were given. In contrast to the young adults, learning was not superior in older adults who received full instructions compared with those who did not. Experiment 2 indicated that alleviating time constraints allowed some of the older adults to gain from instruction but only under relatively low time constraints, but there was no retention with rigorous time constraints. CONCLUSION Explicit learning, but not implicit learning, declines in older adults. This is partly due to older adults difficulties to apply explicit knowledge. Less rigorous time constraints can help to ameliorate some of these difficulties and may induce levels of explicit learning in older adults that will result in superior performance compared with implicit learning. Implicit learning did occur under time constraints that prevented explicit learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Verneau
- a Research Institute Move, Faculty of Human Movement Sciences , VU University Amsterdam , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
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22
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Lukács Á, Kemény F. Development of Different Forms of Skill Learning Throughout the Lifespan. Cogn Sci 2014; 39:383-404. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ágnes Lukács
- Department of Cognitive Science; Budapest University of Technology and Economics
| | - Ferenc Kemény
- Department of Cognitive Science; Budapest University of Technology and Economics
- Research Institute for Linguistics; Hungarian Academy of Sciences
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23
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Samara A, Caravolas M. Statistical learning of novel graphotactic constraints in children and adults. J Exp Child Psychol 2014; 121:137-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2013.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 11/15/2013] [Accepted: 11/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Bürki CN, Ludwig C, Chicherio C, de Ribaupierre A. Individual differences in cognitive plasticity: an investigation of training curves in younger and older adults. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2014; 78:821-35. [PMID: 24652343 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-014-0559-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/26/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
To date, cognitive intervention research has provided mixed but nevertheless promising evidence with respect to the effects of cognitive training on untrained tasks (transfer). However, the mechanisms behind learning, training effects and their predictors are not fully understood. Moreover, individual differences, which may constitute an important factor impacting training outcome, are usually neglected. We suggest investigating individual training performance across training sessions in order to gain finer-grained knowledge of training gains, on the one hand, and assessing the potential impact of predictors such as age and fluid intelligence on learning rate, on the other hand. To this aim, we propose to model individual learning curves to examine the intra-individual change in training as well as inter-individual differences in intra-individual change. We recommend introducing a latent growth curve model (LGCM) analysis, a method frequently applied to learning data but rarely used in cognitive training research. Such advanced analyses of the training phase allow identifying factors to be respected when designing effective tailor-made training interventions. To illustrate the proposed approach, a LGCM analysis using data of a 10-day working memory training study in younger and older adults is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline N Bürki
- Felix Platter-Hospital, University Center for Medicine of Aging Basel, Basel, Switzerland,
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25
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Effects of aging and dopamine genotypes on the emergence of explicit memory during sequence learning. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:2757-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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26
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Ren J, Wu YD, Chan JSY, Yan JH. Cognitive aging affects motor performance and learning. Geriatr Gerontol Int 2012; 13:19-27. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1447-0594.2012.00914.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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27
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Weiermann B, Meier B. Incidental sequence learning across the lifespan. Cognition 2012; 123:380-91. [PMID: 22425486 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2011] [Revised: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brigitte Weiermann
- Department of Psychology & Center for Cognition, Learning and Memory University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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28
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Janacsek K, Fiser J, Nemeth D. The best time to acquire new skills: age-related differences in implicit sequence learning across the human lifespan. Dev Sci 2012; 15:496-505. [PMID: 22709399 DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2012.01150.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Implicit skill learning underlies obtaining not only motor, but also cognitive and social skills through the life of an individual. Yet, the ontogenetic changes in humans' implicit learning abilities have not yet been characterized, and, thus, their role in acquiring new knowledge efficiently during development is unknown. We investigated such learning across the lifespan, between 4 and 85 years of age with an implicit probabilistic sequence learning task, and we found that the difference in implicitly learning high- vs. low-probability events--measured by raw reaction time (RT)--exhibited a rapid decrement around age of 12. Accuracy and z-transformed data showed partially different developmental curves, suggesting a re-evaluation of analysis methods in developmental research. The decrement in raw RT differences supports an extension of the traditional two-stage lifespan skill acquisition model: in addition to a decline above the age 60 reported in earlier studies, sensitivity to raw probabilities and, therefore, acquiring new skills is significantly more effective until early adolescence than later in life. These results suggest that due to developmental changes in early adolescence, implicit skill learning processes undergo a marked shift in weighting raw probabilities vs. more complex interpretations of events, which, with appropriate timing, prove to be an optimal strategy for human skill learning.
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29
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Verwey WB, Abrahamse EL, Ruitenberg MFL, Jiménez L, de Kleine E. Motor skill learning in the middle-aged: limited development of motor chunks and explicit sequence knowledge. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2011; 75:406-22. [PMID: 21287199 PMCID: PMC3155672 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-011-0320-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2010] [Accepted: 01/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined whether middle-aged participants, like young adults, learn movement patterns by preparing and executing integrated sequence representations (i.e., motor chunks) that eliminate the need for external guidance of individual movements. Twenty-four middle-aged participants (aged 55-62) practiced two fixed key press sequences, one including three and one including six key presses in the discrete sequence production task. Their performance was compared with that of 24 young adults (aged 18-28). In the middle-aged participants motor chunks as well as explicit sequence knowledge appeared to be less developed than in the young adults. This held especially with respect to the unstructured 6-key sequences in which most middle-aged did not develop independence of the key-specific stimuli and learning seems to have been based on associative learning. These results are in line with the notion that sequence learning involves several mechanisms and that aging affects the relative contribution of these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem B Verwey
- Cognitive Psychology and Ergonomics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands.
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30
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Simon JR, Vaidya CJ, Howard JH, Howard DV. The effects of aging on the neural basis of implicit associative learning in a probabilistic triplets learning task. J Cogn Neurosci 2011; 24:451-63. [PMID: 21861675 DOI: 10.1162/jocn_a_00116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Few studies have investigated how aging influences the neural basis of implicit associative learning, and available evidence is inconclusive. One emerging behavioral pattern is that age differences increase with practice, perhaps reflecting the involvement of different brain regions with training. Many studies report hippocampal involvement early on with learning becoming increasingly dependent on the caudate with practice. We tested the hypothesis that the contribution of these regions to learning changes with age because of differential age-related declines in the striatum and hippocampi. We assessed age-related differences in brain activation during implicit associative learning using the Triplets Learning Task. Over three event-related fMRI runs, 11 younger and 12 healthy older adults responded to only the third (target) stimulus in sequences of three stimuli ("triplets") by corresponding key press. Unbeknown to participants, the first stimulus' location predicted one target location for 80% of trials and another target location for 20% of trials. Both age groups learned associative regularities but differences in favor of the younger adults emerged with practice. The neural basis of learning (response to predictability) was examined by identifying regions that showed a greater response to triplets that occurred more frequently. Both age groups recruited the hippocampus early, but with training, the younger adults recruited their caudate whereas the older adults continued to rely on their hippocampus. This pattern enables older adults to maintain near-young levels of performance early in training, but not later, and adds to evidence that implicit associative learning is supported by different brain networks in younger and older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Simon
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
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Simon JR, Howard JH, Howard DV. Age differences in implicit learning of probabilistic unstructured sequences. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2010; 66:32-8. [PMID: 20974705 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbq066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE It is unclear whether implicit probabilistic learning, the acquisition of regularities without intent or explicit knowledge, declines with healthy aging. METHODS Because age differences in previous work might reflect motor or rule learning deficits, we used the implicit Triplets Learning Task with reduced motor sequencing and non-rule-based associations. Fifteen young and 15 old adults responded only to the last event in a series of discrete 3-event sequences or triplets. A randomly chosen set of triplets occurred with high frequency, so there was no underlying rule to be learned. RESULTS Both age groups learned associative regularities, but age differences in favor of the young emerged with practice. Discussion. Age differences may reflect the different neural regions that are involved as training progresses, which differ in the extent to which they are compromised by aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Simon
- Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20057, USA.
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Verwey WB. Diminished motor skill development in elderly: indications for limited motor chunk use. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2010; 134:206-14. [PMID: 20189547 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2009] [Revised: 02/02/2010] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study examined whether elderly use motor chunks after practicing discrete keying sequences, just like young adults, or whether they perhaps learn these movement patterns in a different way. To that end, elderly (75-88) and young adults (18-28) practiced as part of the discrete sequence production (DSP) task two fixed series of three and six key presses. The results demonstrate that elderly did improve with practice but this improvement was largely sequence-unspecific. Detailed analyses showed that, in contrast to young adults, most elderly did not use motor chunks, had little explicit sequence knowledge, and remained highly dependent on external stimuli. Still, elderly did show sequence-specific learning with a 6-key sequence that can be explained by an associative learning mechanism.
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Activation in striatum and medial temporal lobe during sequence learning in younger and older adults: Relations to performance. Neuroimage 2010; 50:1303-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2009] [Revised: 11/24/2009] [Accepted: 01/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Abstract
Since the very earliest experimental investigations of learning, tension has existed between association-based and cognitive theories. Associationism accounts for the phenomena of both conditioning and "higher" forms of learning via concepts such as excitation, inhibition, and reinforcement, whereas cognitive theories assume that learning depends on hypothesis testing, cognitive models, and propositional reasoning. Cognitive theories have received considerable impetus in regard to both human and animal learning from recent research suggesting that the key illustration of cue selection in learning, blocking, often arises from inferential reasoning. At the same time, a dichotomous view that separates noncognitive, unconscious (implicit) learning from cognitive, conscious (explicit) learning has gained favor. This review selectively describes key findings from this research, evaluates evidence for and against associative and cognitive explanatory constructs, and critically examines both the dichotomous view of learning as well as the claim that learning can occur unconsciously.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Shanks
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London WC1H 0AP United Kingdom.
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Rieckmann A, Bäckman L. Implicit learning in aging: extant patterns and new directions. Neuropsychol Rev 2009; 19:490-503. [PMID: 19813093 DOI: 10.1007/s11065-009-9117-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2009] [Accepted: 09/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Research suggests that the striatum plays an important role in implicit learning (IL). The striatum exhibits marked age-related morphological and neurochemical losses. Yet, behavioral studies suggest that IL is generally well preserved in old age, and that age-related differences emerge only when highly complex IL tasks are used. In this review, we integrate behavioral and neuroimaging evidence on IL in aging. We suggest that relative stability of IL in old age may reflect neural reorganization that compensates for age-related losses in striatal functions. Specifically, there may be an age-related increase in reliance on extrastriatal regions (e.g., medial-temporal, frontal) during IL. This reorganization of function may be beneficial under less taxing performance conditions, but not when task demands become more challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Rieckmann
- Aging Research Center, Karolinska Institute, Gävlegatan 16, 11330 Stockholm, Sweden.
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