1
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Pitarque A, Meléndez JC, Satorres E, Escudero J, García-Justicia JM. Effect of emotional valence on true and false recognition controlling arousal. Cogn Emot 2024; 38:928-937. [PMID: 38635401 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2337124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
The aim of our experiment was to analyse the effect of the emotional valence (positive, negative, or neutral) on true and false recognition, matching the arousal, frequency, concreteness, and associative strength of the study and recognition words. Fifty younger adults and 46 healthy older adults performed three study tasks (with words of different valence: positive, negative, neutral) and their corresponding recognition tests. Two weeks later, they performed the three recognition tests again. The results show that words with a negative valence produced less true recognition and less false recognition than words with a positive or neutral valence, in both younger and older adults, on the immediate recognition test. This pattern of results was also found in the younger adults on the delayed recognition test, whereas in the older participants, these differences disappeared. Thus, when arousal is controlled, both younger and older adults tend to recognise negative information worse than positive or neutral information, but they also commit fewer errors. Results would suggest that the greater arousal commonly associated with negative stimuli, rather than their own valence, could explain some of the contradictory results found in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Pitarque
- Department of Methodology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Juan C Meléndez
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Encarna Satorres
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Joaquín Escudero
- General University Hospital Consortium of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - José Manuel García-Justicia
- Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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2
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Cooper LM, Shah D, Moucharik I, Munshi Z. Investigating a bias account of emotional false memories using a criterion warning and force choice restrictions at retrieval. Cogn Emot 2024:1-16. [PMID: 39069646 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2379824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Here, we add to the debate as to whether false recognition of emotional stimuli is more memory-based or more bias-based. Emotional false memory findings using the DRM paradigm have been marked by higher false alarms to negatively arousing compared to neutral critical lure items. Explanation for these findings has mainly focused on false memory-based accounts. However, here we address the question of whether a response bias for emotional stimuli can, at least in part, explain this phenomenon. In Experiment 1, we used a criterion warning, previously shown to increase more conservative responding and reduce false recognition. Experiment 2, we employed a two-alternative-forced choice test, which minimises the role of criterion setting. In both experiments, we compared false alarms to negative and neutral critical lures. We observed a significant decrease in false recognition rates for both negative and neutral critical lures under the conditions of forced choice restriction and criterion warning. However, despite these conditions, negative items, compared to their neutral counterparts, still consistently provoked a higher degree of false recognition. The discussion that follows presents an exploration of both memory-based accounts and criterion-setting explanations for the enhanced emotional false memory finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Cooper
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Imane Moucharik
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Zainab Munshi
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
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3
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Chang M, Brainerd CJ. Effects of emotional ambiguity and emotional intensity on true and false memory. Mem Cognit 2024:10.3758/s13421-024-01559-y. [PMID: 38691262 DOI: 10.3758/s13421-024-01559-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Whereas the effects of emotional intensity (the perceived strength of an item's valence or arousal) have long been studied in true- and false-memory research, emotional ambiguity (the uncertainty that attaches to perceived emotional intensity) has only been studied recently. Available evidence suggests that emotional ambiguity has reliable effects on true memory that are distinct from those of emotional intensity. However, those findings are mostly restricted to recall, and the effects of emotional ambiguity on false memory remain unexplored. The current study addressed both limitations by measuring the effects of emotional ambiguity and emotional intensity on true and false recognition. In two experiments, we manipulated valence ambiguity and valence intensity (Experiment 1) and arousal ambiguity and arousal intensity (Experiment 2) of Deese/Roediger/McDermott lists. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted for Experiment 1, Experiment 2, and the combined data of the experiments to separate the effects of emotional ambiguity and emotional intensity. Our results showed that both valence ambiguity and arousal ambiguity improved true recognition, and the effects of valence ambiguity remained robust even when controlling for valence intensity, arousal intensity, and arousal ambiguity. More importantly, for both valence and arousal, there was an interaction between ambiguity and intensity in false memory. Specifically, we found that valence ambiguity increased false recognition with positive valence, while arousal ambiguity amplified the effect of arousal intensity on false recognition. Our results are discussed in the context of the emotional ambiguity hypothesis and fuzzy-trace theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minyu Chang
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, 2001 Avenue McGill College, Montréal, QC, H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - C J Brainerd
- Department of Psychology and Human Neuroscience Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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4
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Mirandola C, Lanciano T, Battista F, Otgaar H, Curci A. Psychopathic personality traits are linked to reduced false memories for negative events. Br J Psychol 2023; 114:176-193. [PMID: 36302691 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Individuals scoring high on psychopathic personality traits process emotional material to a different extent than individuals with few psychopathic traits. Evidence exists that these individuals have impaired emotional memory. The question arises whether this emotional memory impairment has ramifications for the production of emotional false memories. In the present study, we investigated the production of false and true memories for emotional events in a community sample (N = 120) of individuals varying in psychopathic traits (evaluated with the Psychopathic Personality Inventory-Revised [PPI-R] questionnaire). The fearless dominance (FD) component of psychopathy interacted with the emotional impact of to-be-remembered events in the production of false memories, showing fewer negative false memories with increasing levels of FD. At the subjective level, negative false memories were not perceived as vivid memory experiences in high FD individuals. Concerning true memories, higher scores in cold-heartedness were related to fewer true memories for neutral and negative (but not positive) events. These results show that individuals with high psychopathy traits - in particular, FD - do not have a general emotional memory impairment but they process negative material in a different way than individuals with low psychopathic traits and thus are less susceptible to producing false memories for negative events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Mirandola
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.,Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Tiziana Lanciano
- Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Fabiana Battista
- Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy.,Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Leuvens Institute of Criminology, Catholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.,Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Antonietta Curci
- Department of Education, Psychology, Communication, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
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5
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Riesthuis P, Mangiulli I, Bogaard G, Otgaar H. The impact of fabrication on recognition memory: An experimental study. NEW IDEAS IN PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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6
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Knott L, Wilkinson S, Hellenthal M, Shah D, Howe ML. Generative processing and emotional false memories: a generation "cost" for negative false memory formation but only after delay. Cogn Emot 2022; 36:1448-1457. [PMID: 36196863 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2022.2128063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Previous research shows that manipulations (e.g. levels-of-processing) that facilitate true memory often increase susceptibility to false memory. An exception is the generation effect. Using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm, Soraci et al. found that generating rather than reading list items led to an increase in true but not false memories. They argued that generation led to enhanced item-distinctiveness that drove down false memory production. In the current study, we investigated the effects of generative processing on valenced stimuli and after a delayed retention interval to examine factors that may lead to a generation effect that increases false memories. At the immediate test, false recognition rates for both negative and neutral valanced critical lures were similar across read and generate conditions. However, after a one-week delay, we saw a valence differentiation, with a generation effect for false recognition but only for negative stimuli. The roles of item-specific and relational processing during encoding and their interaction with long-term retention are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Knott
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | | | - Maria Hellenthal
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
| | - Mark L Howe
- Department of Psychology, City, University of London, London, UK
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7
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False (or biased) memory: Emotion and working memory capacity effects in the DRM paradigm. Mem Cognit 2022; 50:1443-1463. [DOI: 10.3758/s13421-022-01298-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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8
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Coburn PI, Dogra KK, Rai IK, Bernstein DM. The Trajectory of Targets and Critical Lures in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott Paradigm: A Systematic Review. Front Psychol 2021; 12:718818. [PMID: 34925128 PMCID: PMC8677658 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm has been used extensively to examine false memory. During the study session, participants learn lists of semantically related items (e.g., pillow, blanket, tired, bed), referred to as targets. Critical lures are items which are also associated with the lists but are intentionally omitted from study (e.g., sleep). At test, when asked to remember targets, participants often report false memories for critical lures. Findings from experiments using the DRM show the ease with which false memories develop in the absence of suggestion or misinformation. Given this, it is important to examine factors which influence the generalizability of the findings. One important factor is the persistence of false memory, or how long false memories last. Therefore, we conducted a systemic review to answer this research question: What is the persistence of false memory for specific items in the DRM paradigm? To help answer this question our review had two research objectives: (1) to examine the trajectory of target memory and false memory for critical lures and (2) to examine whether memory for targets exceeded false memory for critical lures. We included empirical articles which tested memory for the same DRM lists with at least two testing sessions. We discuss the results with respect to single-session delays, long-term memory recall and recognition, remember and know judgments for memory, and the effect of development, valence, warning, and connectivity on the trajectory of memory. Overall, the trajectory of targets showed a relatively consistent pattern of decrease across delay. The trajectory of critical lures was inconsistent. The proportion of targets versus critical lures across delay was also inconsistent. Despite the inconsistencies, we conclude that targets and critical lures have a dissimilar trajectory across delay and that critical lures are more persistent than targets. The findings with respect to long-term recall and recognition are consistent with both Fuzzy Trace Theory and Associative-Activation Theory of the DRM effect. The generation of false memory with brief delays (3-4 s) is better explained by Associative-Activation Theory. Examining the connectivity between target items, and critical lures, and the effect that has during study and retrieval, can provide insight into the persistence of false memory for critical lures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia I Coburn
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Kirandeep K Dogra
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Iarenjit K Rai
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
| | - Daniel M Bernstein
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada.,Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
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9
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Emotional Modulation of Episodic Memory in School-Age Children and Adults: An Event-Related Potential Study. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11121598. [PMID: 34942900 PMCID: PMC8699418 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11121598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Emotional Enhancement of Memory (EEM) has been well-demonstrated in adults, but less is known about EEM in children. The present study tested the impact of emotional valence of pictures on episodic memory using behavioral and neurophysiological measures. Twenty-six 8- to 11-year-old children were tested and compared to 30 young adults. Both groups participated in pictures' intentional encoding tasks while event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded, followed by immediate free recall tasks. Behavioral results revealed a general EEM in free recall performances in both groups, along with a negativity effect in children. ERP responses revealed a particular sensitivity to negative pictures in children with a late emotion effect at anterior clusters, as well as a greater successful encoding effect for emotional pictures compared to neutral ones. For adults, the emotion effect was more pronounced for positive pictures across all time windows from the centro-parietal to the frontal part, and localized in the left hemisphere. Positive pictures also elicited a greater successful encoding effect at anterior clusters in adults. By combining behavioral and neurophysiological measures to assess the EEM in children compared with adults, our study provides new knowledge concerning the interaction between emotional and memory processes during development.
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10
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Zhang W, Cowan G, Colombo M, Gross J, Hayne H. Emotional content of the event but not mood influences false memory. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Georgia Cowan
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Marea Colombo
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Julien Gross
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
| | - Harlene Hayne
- Department of Psychology University of Otago Dunedin New Zealand
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11
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Marble KE, Caporaso JS, Bettencourt KM, Boseovski JJ, Pathman T, Marcovitch S, Scales ML. Children's Informant Judgments and Recall of Valenced Facts at a Science Center. Front Psychol 2021; 12:659633. [PMID: 34220631 PMCID: PMC8242232 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.659633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In laboratory-based research, children recognize who is an expert and demonstrate an interest in learning from that person. However, children prefer positive information in the moment and sometimes prioritize positivity over expertise. To what extent do these social judgments (e.g., a preference for positivity) relate to information that children remember? We investigated the relation between these judgments and memory at a local science center to better understand children's learning outcomes in naturalistic settings. We examined the extent to which 4- to 8-year-olds accepted facts about an unfamiliar animal from a zookeeper informant (i.e., expert) and a maternal figure (i.e., non-expert) when these facts were positive, negative, or neutral. Children endorsed positive information as correct, regardless of expertise, but demonstrated the strongest memory for neutral information. We discuss the implications of this dissociation for learning outcomes in naturalistic contexts as well as theoretical frameworks regarding children's learning from others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly E Marble
- Development and Understanding of Children's Knowledge Lab, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Jessica S Caporaso
- Development and Understanding of Children's Knowledge Lab, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Kathleen M Bettencourt
- Development and Understanding of Children's Knowledge Lab, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Janet J Boseovski
- Development and Understanding of Children's Knowledge Lab, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Thanujeni Pathman
- Memory Development Lab, Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Stuart Marcovitch
- Development and Understanding of Children's Knowledge Lab, Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Margaret L Scales
- Department of Social Sciences and Health Policy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, United States
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12
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Zhang W, Gao F, Gross J, Shrum LJ, Hayne H. How does social distancing during COVID-19 affect negative moods and memory? Memory 2020; 29:90-97. [PMID: 33320027 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2020.1857774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
In the absence of an effective vaccine or treatment, the current best defence against COVID-19 is social distancing - staying at home as much as possible, keeping distance from others, and avoiding large gatherings. Although social distancing improves physical health in terms of helping to reduce viral transmission, its psychological consequences are less clear, particularly its effects on memory. In this research, we investigated the effect of social distancing duration on negative moods and memory. The relation between social distancing duration and both negative mood and memory errors followed the same U-shaped function: negative moods and memory errors initially decreased as social distancing duration increased, and then at approximately 30 days, they began to increase. Subsequent analyses indicated that memory errors were mediated by lonely mood in particular. Thus, short-term social distancing might benefit psychological well-being and memory performance, but extended social distancing has a negative impact on mood and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Fei Gao
- Department of Marketing, Bentley University, Waltham, MA, USA
| | - Julien Gross
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - L J Shrum
- Department of Marketing, HEC Paris, Jouy en Josas, France
| | - Harlene Hayne
- Department of Psychology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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13
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Kim JM, Sidhu DM, Pexman PM. Effects of Emotional Valence and Concreteness on Children's Recognition Memory. Front Psychol 2020; 11:615041. [PMID: 33343478 PMCID: PMC7746830 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.615041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There are considerable gaps in our knowledge of how children develop abstract language. In this paper, we tested the Affective Embodiment Account, which proposes that emotional information is more essential for abstract than concrete conceptual development. We tested the recognition memory of 7- and 8-year-old children, as well as a group of adults, for abstract and concrete words which differed categorically in valence (negative, neutral, and positive). Word valence significantly interacted with concreteness in hit rates of both children and adults, such that effects of valence were only found in memory for abstract words. The pattern of valence effects differed for children and adults: children remembered negative words more accurately than neutral and positive words (a negativity effect), whereas adults remembered negative and positive words more accurately than neutral words (a negativity effect and a positivity effect). In addition, signal detection analysis revealed that children were better able to discriminate negative than positive words, regardless of concreteness. The findings suggest that the memory accuracy of 7- and 8-year-old children is influenced by emotional information, particularly for abstract words. The results are in agreement with the Affective Embodiment Account and with multimodal accounts of children's lexical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia M Kim
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - David M Sidhu
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Penny M Pexman
- Department of Psychology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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14
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Kim Y, Choi A. EEG-Based Emotion Classification Using Long Short-Term Memory Network with Attention Mechanism. SENSORS 2020; 20:s20236727. [PMID: 33255539 PMCID: PMC7727805 DOI: 10.3390/s20236727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recently, studies that analyze emotions based on physiological signals, such as electroencephalogram (EEG), by applying a deep learning algorithm have been actively conducted. However, the study of sequence modeling considering the change of emotional signals over time has not been fully investigated. To consider long-term interaction of emotion, in this study, we propose a long short-term memory network to consider changes in emotion over time and apply an attention mechanism to assign weights to the emotional states appearing at specific moments based on the peak–end rule in psychology. We used 32-channel EEG data from the DEAP database. Two-level (low and high) and three-level (low, middle, and high) classification experiments were performed on the valence and arousal emotion models. The results show accuracies of 90.1% and 87.9% using the two-level classification for the valence and arousal models with four-fold cross validation, respectively. In the case of the three-level classification, these values were obtained as 83.5% and 82.6%, respectively. Additional experiments were conducted using a network combining a convolutional neural network (CNN) submodule with the proposed model. The obtained results showed accuracies of 90.1% and 88.3% in the case of the two-level classification and 86.9% and 84.1% in the case of the three-level classification for the valence and arousal models with four-fold cross validation, respectively. In 10-fold cross validation, there were 91.8% for valence and 91.6% for arousal accuracy, respectively.
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15
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Memory distortion for orthographically associated words in individuals with depressive symptoms. Cognition 2020; 203:104330. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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16
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Effects of stress on 6- and 7-year-old children's emotional memory differs by gender. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 199:104924. [PMID: 32707294 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Revised: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Understanding effects of emotional valence and stress on children's memory is important for educational and legal contexts. This study disentangled the effects of emotional content of to-be-remembered information (i.e., items differing in emotional valence and arousal), stress exposure, and associated cortisol secretion on children's memory. We also examined whether girls' memory is more affected by stress induction. A total of 143 6- and 7-year-old children were randomly allocated to the Trier Social Stress Test for Children (n = 103) or a control condition (n = 40). At 25 min after stressor onset, children incidentally encoded 75 objects varying in emotional valence (crossed with arousal) together with neutral scene backgrounds. We found that response bias corrected memory was worse for low-arousing negative items than for neutral and positive items, with the latter two categories not being different from each other. Whereas boys' memory was largely unaffected by stress, girls in the stress condition showed worse memory for negative items, especially the low-arousing ones, than girls in the control condition. Girls, compared with boys, reported higher subjective stress increases following stress exposure and had higher cortisol stress responses. Whereas a higher cortisol stress response was associated with better emotional memory in girls in the stress condition, boys' memory was not associated with their cortisol secretion. Taken together, our study suggests that 6- and 7-year-old children, more so girls, show memory suppression for negative information. Girls' memory for negative information, compared with that of boys, is also more strongly modulated by stress experience and the associated cortisol response.
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17
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18
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The impact of false denials on forgetting and false memory. Cognition 2020; 202:104322. [PMID: 32470711 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
People sometimes falsely deny having experienced an event. In the current experiments, we examined the effect of false denials on forgetting and false memory formation. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with emotionally-negative and neutral associatively related word lists known to engender false memories. After encoding, half of the participants had to falsely deny having seen the words while the other half had to tell the truth. During a final memory test (recall or source monitoring task), participants who falsely denied forgot that they discussed certain words with an experimenter. Furthermore, the act of falsely denying reduced the formation of false memories. These results were partially replicated in Experiment 2 where participants also had to re-learn several words and received a second memory task. This latter design feature diminished the effect of false denials on false memory creation. Our experiments suggest that false denials not only have negative consequences (forgetting), but can have positive ones too (reduction in false memories).
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19
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Neural correlates of emotion-attention interactions: From perception, learning, and memory to social cognition, individual differences, and training interventions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 108:559-601. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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20
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Kauschke C, Bahn D, Vesker M, Schwarzer G. The Role of Emotional Valence for the Processing of Facial and Verbal Stimuli-Positivity or Negativity Bias? Front Psychol 2019; 10:1654. [PMID: 31402884 PMCID: PMC6676801 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Emotional valence is predominately conveyed in social interactions by words and facial expressions. The existence of broad biases which favor more efficient processing of positive or negative emotions is still a controversial matter. While so far this question has been investigated separately for each modality, in this narrative review of the literature we focus on valence effects in processing both words and facial expressions. In order to identify the factors underlying positivity and negativity effects, and to uncover whether these effects depend on modality and age, we present and analyze three representative overviews of the literature concerning valence effects in word processing, face processing, and combinations of word and face processing. Our analysis of word processing studies points to a positivity bias or a balanced processing of positive and negative words, whereas the analysis of face processing studies showed the existence of separate positivity and negativity biases depending on the experimental paradigm. The mixed results seem to be a product of the different methods and types of stimuli being used. Interestingly, we found that children exhibit a clear positivity advantage for both word and face processing, indicating similar processing biases in both modalities. Over the course of development, the initial positivity advantage gradually disappears, and in some face processing studies even reverses into a negativity bias. We therefore conclude that there is a need for future research that systematically analyses the impact of age and modality on the emergence of these valence effects. Finally, we discuss possible explanations for the presence of the early positivity advantage and its subsequent decrease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Kauschke
- Department of German Linguistics, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Daniela Bahn
- Department of German Linguistics, Philipps-University Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Michael Vesker
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen, Germany
| | - Gudrun Schwarzer
- Department of Developmental Psychology, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen, Gießen, Germany
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21
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Abstract
It is widely accepted that sleep aids in the encoding, consolidation, and retrieval processes involved in memory processing; however, the conditions under which sleep influences memory may be substantially constrained. In a meta-analysis, we examined the effects that sleep has on both veridical (accurate) and false memory consolidation, in studies using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm for memory of thematically related words. The meta-analysis revealed that, whereas there was no overall effect of sleep on either accurate or false memories, the effect of sleep on overall memories was moderated by two constraints. First, sleep effects were influenced by the number of words within each themed word list, relating to differences in processing of the associative network of related words. Second, sleep effects were greater in recall than in recognition tests. Thus, whether sleep consolidation increased or decreased DRM veridical or false memory effects depended on the specific features of the memory task.
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Toffalini E, Mirandola C, Altoè G, Borella E. Inferential false memories for emotional events in older adults. Br J Psychol 2018; 110:686-706. [PMID: 30592299 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Emotional events have been shown to protect individuals against false memory when remembering scripted material. Whether the same is true also for older adults, however, is unclear, and it has been investigated in the present study. Seventy-six older adults (age range 65-89 years) were presented with a series of photographs depicting scripted events. Each event included the consequence of an action whose corresponding cause was not presented; the consequence was either neutral, negative, or positive. False recognitions of unseen causes of the consequences (i.e., 'causal errors') were calculated. A Bayesian inferential approach was adopted in order to include evidence from previous studies and to use it as a benchmark for newly collected information. Older adults showed enhanced false memories and lower accuracy than previously reported in studies on young adults. Compared to neutral ones, both negative and positive events were associated with fewer false memories in older adults. The emotional false memory 'profile' of older adults was very similar, in terms of the effect size, to the one previously found in young adults, although the overall chances of older adults incurring errors were higher. Results are discussed considering both cognitive and socioemotional hypotheses on emotional memory in late adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gianmarco Altoè
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
| | - Erika Borella
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padova, Italy
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23
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Abstract
Previous research has shown that, in comparison to neutral stimuli, false memories for high arousing negative stimuli are greater after very fast presentation and limited attention at study. However, full compared to limited attention conditions still produce comparably more false memories for all stimuli types. Research has also shown that emotional stimuli benefit from a period of consolidation. What effect would such consolidation have on false memory formation even when attention is limited at study? The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of fast presentation on false memory production for negatively-arousing and neutral items over time using the DRM paradigm. Sixty-eight participants studied Negative and neutral DRM lists with fast or slow presentation conditions. Half completed a recognition test immediately and half completed a recognition test after one-week. Results revealed that, for fast presentation, negative critical lures increased after one week and were comparable to negative critical lures in the slow presentation encoding conditions. Neutral critical lures in the fast presentation condition did not change and remained lower compared to the slow presentation condition. These findings are the first demonstration that arousing negative false memories can increase over time when attention at encoding is limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Knott
- a Department of Psychology, City University of London , London , UK
| | - Datin Shah
- a Department of Psychology, City University of London , London , UK
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24
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Knott LM, Howe ML, Toffalini E, Shah D, Humphreys L. The role of attention in immediate emotional false memory enhancement. Emotion 2018; 18:1063-1077. [PMID: 29927261 PMCID: PMC6277129 DOI: 10.1037/emo0000407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments examined the effect of reduced attentional resources on false memory production for emotionally valenced stimuli using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. Prior research has demonstrated that emotional information is often better remembered than neutral information and that enhanced memory for emotional information is dependent on either automatic or controlled neural processing (Kensinger & Corkin, 2004). Behavioral studies designed to reduce attention resources at encoding have supported neuroimaging findings that indicate high arousal negative stimuli rely more on automatic processing but positive high arousal stimuli rely more on controlled processing. No study has yet examined the attentional resources required to produce emotionally valenced false memories. In Experiment 1, negative, positive, and neutral DRM lists were studied under full or divided attention (DA) conditions, and in Experiment 2, negative and neutral DRM lists were studied under fast (20 ms) or slow (2,000 ms) presentation conditions. Under DA and speeded presentation conditions, higher false memory recognition rates were found for negative compared with positive (Experiment 1) and neutral (Experiments 1 and 2) critical lures. This is the first demonstration of which we are aware that suggests negative false memories are associated with automatic neural processing, whereas positive and nonvalenced neutral false memories are associated with more controlled processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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25
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Quas JA, Castro A, Bryce CI, Granger DA. Stress physiology and memory for emotional information: Moderation by individual differences in pubertal hormones. Dev Psychol 2018; 54:1606-1620. [PMID: 30148390 DOI: 10.1037/dev0000532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to a large body of work concerning the effects of physiological stress reactivity on children's socioemotional functioning, far less attention has been devoted to understanding the effects of such reactivity on cognitive, including mnemonic, functioning. How well children learn and remember information under stress has implications for a range of educational, clinical, and legal outcomes. We evaluated 8-14 year olds' (N = 94, 50 female) memory for negative, neutral, and positive images. Youth had seen the images a week previously as a part of a laboratory stress task. At encoding and retrieval, and in between, youth provided saliva samples that were later assayed for cortisol, salivary α amylase (sAA), testosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Overall, higher cortisol reactivity to the lab task predicted enhanced memory for emotional but not neutral images. However, cortisol further interacted with pubertal hormones (testosterone and DHEA) to predict memory. Among girls with lower pubertal hormone levels, greater cortisol reactivity was associated with enhanced memory for negative information, whereas among boys with higher pubertal hormone levels, cortisol reactivity was associated with enhanced memory for positive information. sAA, was unrelated to memory. Overall, our findings reveal that individual differences in hormone levels associated with pubertal development have implications for our understanding of how stress-responsive biological systems directly and interactively influence cognitive outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- Jodi A Quas
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine
| | - Amy Castro
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine
| | - Crystal I Bryce
- Institute for Interdisciplinary Salivary Bioscience Research, University of California, Irvine
| | - Douglas A Granger
- Department of Psychology and Social Behavior, University of California, Irvine
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Yu Q, Zhuang Q, Wang B, Liu X, Zhao G, Zhang M. The effect of anxiety on emotional recognition: evidence from an ERP study. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16146. [PMID: 30385790 PMCID: PMC6212571 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34289-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Anxiety-related bias in the recognition memory based on trait anxiety has induced some studies. Their results, however, were conflicting. In fact, anxious differences not only differed from personality traits but also from different anxiety mood levels. We explored the emotional memory bias in both trait and state anxiety individuals, the high trait and high state anxiety group, the high trait and low state anxiety group, the low trait and high state anxiety group, and the low trait and low state anxiety group, on classic recognition paradigm using event-related potentials (ERPs). The behavioral results showed high state anxiety levels increased the d' of negative words, regardless of the trait anxiety of participant is high or low, and a lower d' of recognition memory for negative words than for neutral and positive words in all participants. Moreover, Electrophysiological results supported the findings of behavior, showing an earlier N400 (250-500 ms) latency elicited for new-negative words in high state level than in low state levels in right parietal region. These results suggested that the memory bias to negative events resides in state anxiety, but not in trait anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Yu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, 116029, China
| | - Qian Zhuang
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, 116029, China
| | - Bo Wang
- College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Henan, 450001, China
| | - Xingze Liu
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, 116029, China
| | - Guang Zhao
- Research Center of Brain and Cognitive neuroscience, Liaoning Normal University, Dalian, 116029, China.
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Psychology, Xinxiang Medical University, Henan, 453003, China.
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27
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Parker A, Dagnall N, Abelson A. Effects of survival processing and retention interval on true and false recognition in the DRM and category repetition paradigms. Memory 2018; 27:353-367. [PMID: 30130475 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2018.1511808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments examined the effects of survival processing and delay on true and related false recognition. Experiment 1 used the Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm and found survival processing to increase true and related false recognition. Extending the delay from 5-mins to 1-day reduced true, but not false memory. Measures of the characteristics of true and false memories showed survival processing increased "remember" and "know" responses for related false memory, "know" responses for true memory and gist processing. Experiment 2 made use of the category repetition procedure and found a broadly similar pattern of results for true memory. However, related false memory was decreased by survival processing. Except for one result, no interactions were found between encoding task and delay. Overall, survival processing produced similar or different effects on true/false memory depending on the nature of the list. The mechanisms that might underpin these are evaluated and considered in relation to future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Parker
- a Department of Psychology , Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester , UK
| | - Neil Dagnall
- a Department of Psychology , Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester , UK
| | - Ashley Abelson
- a Department of Psychology , Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester , UK
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28
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Zhang W, Gross J, Hayne H. Mood impedes monitoring of emotional false memories: evidence for the associative theories. Memory 2018; 27:198-208. [PMID: 30001179 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2018.1498107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
In the present experiment, we investigated whether warnings provided at the time of retrieval would reduce emotional false memories in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. The provision of retrieval warnings allowed us to test specific predictions based on the associative theories (e.g., Activation-Monitoring Theory; AMT) and Fuzzy-Trace Theory (FTT) that have been used to account for false memories in the DRM paradigm. Participants were randomly assigned to either a no-warning group or a retrieval-warning group. In each group, mood-induction procedures were used to elicit a positive, negative, or neutral mood and participants were then presented with word lists comprised of positive, negative, or neutral words. Retrieval warnings reduced false recognition, regardless of the valence of the to-be-remembered information or participants' mood. Consistent with the associative theories' predictions, within the warning condition, positive moods yielded greater false recognition for positive critical lures, and negative moods yielded greater false recognition for negative critical lures, compared to neutral moods. These findings have important practical implications for our understanding of the effect of mood on memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Julien Gross
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Harlene Hayne
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
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29
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Abstract
FANchild (French Affective Norms for Children) provides norms of valence and arousal for a large corpus of French words (N = 720) rated by 908 French children and adolescents (ages 7, 9, 11, and 13). The ratings were made using the Self-Assessment Manikin (Lang, 1980). Because it combines evaluations of arousal and valence and includes ratings provided by 7-, 9-, 11-, and 13-year-olds, this database complements and extends existing French-language databases. Good response reliability was observed in each of the four age groups. Despite a significant level of consensus, we found age differences in both the valence and arousal ratings: Seven- and 9-year-old children gave higher mean valence and arousal ratings than did the other age groups. Moreover, the tendency to judge words positively (i.e., positive bias) decreased with age. This age- and sex-related database will enable French-speaking researchers to study how the emotional character of words influences their cognitive processing, and how this influence evolves with age. FANchild is available at https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Catherine_Monnier/contributions .
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30
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Wang B. Retention interval modulates the effect of negative arousing pictures on recognition memory. Memory 2018; 26:1105-1116. [PMID: 29357740 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2018.1427763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the modulation of retention interval in the effect of emotion as elicited from negative and positive arousing pictures on recognition memory. Participants underwent seven encoding sessions and one testing session. The encoding sessions were separated by certain lengths of intervals such that there were seven levels of time gaps between encoding and testing. In each encoding session, participants learned a list of 30 pictures (including 10 neutral, 10 positive and 10 negative pictures). In the testing session, they were presented with a list of 210 old and 210 new pictures and made "old/new" and "remember/know" judgements. The results showed that negative arousing pictures enhanced overall recognition in the 2-week interval and enhanced recollection in both the 2-week and 3-week intervals. However, neither negative nor positive arousing pictures had any effect on familiarity regardless of retention interval. The current study contributes to the literature by suggesting that longer retention intervals do not necessarily lead to more pronounced effects of negative arousing pictures and that the modulation of retention interval depends on the specific components of recognition memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Wang
- a Department of Psychology, School of Sociology and Psychology , Central University of Finance and Economics , Beijing , People's Republic of China
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31
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Abstract
The concept of denial has its roots in psychoanalysis. Denial has been assumed to be effective in blocking unwanted memories. In two experiments, we report that denial has unique consequences for remembering. In our two experiments, participants viewed a video of a theft, and half of the participants had to deny seeing certain details in the video, whereas the other half had to tell the truth. One day later, all participants were given either a source-monitoring recognition or a recall task. In these tasks, they were instructed to indicate (1) whether they could remember talking about certain details and (2) whether they could recollect seeing those details in the video. In both experiments, we found that denial made participants forget that they had talked about these details, while leaving memory for the video itself unaffected. This denial-induced forgetting was evident for both the source-monitoring recognition and recall tests. Furthermore, when we asked participants after the experiment whether they could still not remember talking about these details, those who had to deny were most likely to report that they had forgotten talking about the details. In contrast to a widely held belief, we show that denial does not impair memory for the experienced stimuli, but that it has a unique ability to undermine memory for what has been talked about.
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32
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Lind M, Visentini M, Mäntylä T, Del Missier F. Choice-Supportive Misremembering: A New Taxonomy and Review. Front Psychol 2017; 8:2062. [PMID: 29255436 PMCID: PMC5723021 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the literature on the influence of memory on decisions is well developed, research on the effects of decision making on memory is rather sparse and scattered. Choice-supportive misremembering (i.e., misremembering choice-related information that boosts the chosen option and/or demotes the foregone options) has been observed in several studies and has the potential to affect future choices. Nonetheless, no attempt has been made to review the relevant literature, categorize the different types of choice-supportive misremembering observed, and critically appraise the existing evidence and proposed explanations. Thus, starting from a new theoretically motivated and empirically grounded taxonomy, we review the current research. Our taxonomy classifies choice-supportive misremembering into four conceptually distinct types: misattribution is when information is attributed to the wrong source, fact distortion when the facts are remembered in a distorted manner, false memory when items that were not part of the original decision scenarios are remembered as presented and, finally, selective forgetting is when information is selectively forgotten. After assessing the impact of various potentially moderating factors, we evaluate the evidence for each type of misremembering and conclude that the support for the phenomenon is solid in relation to misattribution when recognition memory is assessed, but significantly weaker for the other three types, and when other memory tests are used to assess memory. Finally, we review the cognitive and emotional explanations proposed for choice-supportive misremembering in the light of the available evidence and identify the main gaps in the current knowledge and the more promising avenues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Lind
- Department of Psychology and Cognitive Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy
| | - Mimì Visentini
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
| | - Timo Mäntylä
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fabio Del Missier
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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33
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Abstract
For some years, the DRM illusion has been the most widely studied form of false memory. The consensus theoretical interpretation is that the illusion is a reality reversal, in which certain new words (critical distractors) are remembered as though they are old list words rather than as what they are-new words that are similar to old ones. This reality-reversal interpretation is supported by compelling lines of evidence, but prior experiments are limited by the fact that their memory tests only asked whether test items were old. We removed that limitation by also asking whether test items were new-similar. This more comprehensive methodology revealed that list words and critical distractors are remembered quite differently. Memory for list words is compensatory: They are remembered as old at high rates and remembered as new-similar at very low rates. In contrast, memory for critical distractors is complementary: They are remembered as both old and new-similar at high rates, which means that the DRM procedure induces a complementarity illusion rather than a reality reversal. The conjoint recognition model explains complementarity as a function of three retrieval processes (semantic familiarity, target recollection, and context recollection), and it predicts that complementarity can be driven up or down by varying the mix of those processes. Our experiments generated data on that prediction and introduced a convenient statistic, the complementarity ratio, which measures (a) the level of complementarity in memory performance and (b) whether its direction is reality-consistent or reality-reversed. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- C J Brainerd
- Department of Human Development, Cornell University
| | - V F Reyna
- Department of Human Development, Cornell University
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Otgaar H, Muris P, Howe ML, Merckelbach H. What Drives False Memories in Psychopathology? A Case for Associative Activation. Clin Psychol Sci 2017; 5:1048-1069. [PMID: 29170722 PMCID: PMC5665161 DOI: 10.1177/2167702617724424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In clinical and court settings, it is imperative to know whether posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression may make people susceptible to false memories. We conducted a review of the literature on false memory effects in participants with PTSD, a history of trauma, or depression. When emotional associative material was presented to these groups, their levels of false memory were raised relative to those in relevant comparison groups. This difference did not consistently emerge when neutral or nonassociative material was presented. Our conclusion is supported by a quantitative comparison of effect sizes between studies using emotional associative or neutral, nonassociative material. Our review suggests that individuals with PTSD, a history of trauma, or depression are at risk for producing false memories when they are exposed to information that is related to their knowledge base.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter Muris
- Maastricht University
- Stellenbosch University
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35
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Parker A, Dagnall N. Associative false consumer memory: effects of need for cognition and encoding task. Memory 2017; 26:559-573. [PMID: 28949832 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1381745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Two experiments investigated the effects of product-attribute associations on false consumer memory. In both experiments, subjects were presented with sets of related product attributes under incidental encoding conditions. Later, recognition memory was tested with studied attributes, non-studied but associated attributes (critical lures) and non-studied unrelated attributes. In Experiment 1, the effect of Need for Cognition (NFC) was assessed. It was found that individuals high in NFC recognised more presented attributes and falsely recognised more associative critical lures. The increase in both true and associative false memory was accompanied by a greater number of responses that index the retrieval of detailed episodic-like information. Experiment 2, replicated the main findings through an experimental manipulation of the encoding task that required subjects to consider purchase likelihood. Explanations for these findings are considered from the perspective of activation processes and knowledge structures in the form of gist-based representations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Parker
- a Department of Psychology , Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester , UK
| | - Neil Dagnall
- a Department of Psychology , Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester , UK
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36
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Shah D, Knott LM. The role of attention at retrieval on the false recognition of negative emotional DRM lists. Memory 2017; 26:269-276. [DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1349803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Datin Shah
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, UK
| | - Lauren M. Knott
- Department of Psychology, City University of London, London, UK
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37
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Zhang W, Gross J, Hayne H. If You're Happy and You Know It: Positive Moods Reduce Age-Related Differences in False Memory. Child Dev 2017; 89:e332-e341. [DOI: 10.1111/cdev.12890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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38
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Dewhurst SA, Anderson RJ, Berry DM, Garner SR. Individual differences in susceptibility to false memories: The effect of memory specificity. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2017. [PMID: 28649899 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1345961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous research has highlighted the wide individual variability in susceptibility to the false memories produced by the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) procedure. This study investigated whether susceptibility to false memories is influenced by individual differences in the specificity of autobiographical memory retrieval. Memory specificity was measured using the Sentence Completion for Events from the Past Test (SCEPT). Memory specificity did not correlate with correct recognition, but a specific retrieval style was positively correlated with levels of false recognition. It is proposed that the contextual details that frequently accompany false memories of non-studied lures are more accessible in individuals with specific retrieval styles.
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39
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Abstract
Emotional material is commonly reported to be more accurately recognised; however, there is substantial evidence of increased false alarm rates (FAR) for emotional material and several reports of stronger influences on response bias than accuracy. This pattern is more frequently reported for words than pictures. Research on the mechanisms underlying bias differences has mostly focused on word lists under short retention intervals. This article presents four series of experiments examining recognition memory for emotional pictures while varying arousal and the control over the content of the pictures at two retention intervals, and one study measuring the relatedness of the series picture sets. Under the shorter retention interval, emotion increased false alarms and reduced accuracy. Under the longer retention interval emotion increased hit rates and FAR, resulting in reduced accuracy and/or bias. At both retention intervals, the pattern of valence effects differed based on the arousal associated with the picture sets. Emotional pictures were found to be more related than neutral pictures in each set; however, the influence of relatedness alone does not provide an adequate explanation for all emotional differences. The results demonstrate substantial emotional differences in picture recognition that vary based on valence, arousal and retention interval.
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40
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Abstract
Research has demonstrated that false memories are capable of priming and facilitating insight-based problem-solving tasks by increasing solution rates and decreasing solution times. The present research extended this finding by investigating whether false memories could be used to bias ambiguous insight-based problem-solving tasks in a similar manner. Compound remote associate task (CRAT) problems with two possible correct answers, a dominant and a non-dominant solution, were created and normed (Experiment 1). In Experiment 2, participants were asked to solve these CRAT problems after they were given Deese/Roediger-McDermott lists whose critical lures were also the non-dominant solution to half of the corresponding CRATs. As predicted, when false memories served as primes, solution rates were higher and solution times were faster for non-dominant than dominant CRAT solutions. This biasing effect was only found when participants falsely recalled the critical lure, and was not found when participants did not falsely recall the critical lure, or when they were not primed. Results are discussed with regard to spreading activation models of solution competition in problem-solving tasks and current theories of false memory priming effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark L Howe
- a Department of Psychology and Centre for Memory and Law , City, University of London , London , UK
| | - Sarah R Garner
- b Centre for Memory and Law , City, University of London , London , UK
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41
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Melinder A, Toffalini E, Geccherle E, Cornoldi C. Positive events protect children from causal false memories for scripted events. Memory 2017; 25:1366-1374. [PMID: 28361561 DOI: 10.1080/09658211.2017.1306080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adults produce fewer inferential false memories for scripted events when their conclusions are emotionally charged than when they are neutral, but it is not clear whether the same effect is also found in children. In the present study, we examined this issue in a sample of 132 children aged 6-12 years (mean 9 years, 3 months). Participants encoded photographs depicting six script-like events that had a positively, negatively, or a neutral valenced ending. Subsequently, true and false recognition memory of photographs related to the observed scripts was tested as a function of emotionality. Causal errors-a type of false memory thought to stem from inferential processes-were found to be affected by valence: children made fewer causal errors for positive than for neutral or negative events. Hypotheses are proposed on why adults were found protected against inferential false memories not only by positive (as for children) but also by negative endings when administered similar versions of the same paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Melinder
- a Cognitive Developmental Research Unit, Department of Psychology , University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway
| | - Enrico Toffalini
- b Department of General Psychology , University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Eleonora Geccherle
- a Cognitive Developmental Research Unit, Department of Psychology , University of Oslo , Oslo , Norway.,b Department of General Psychology , University of Padova , Padova , Italy
| | - Cesare Cornoldi
- b Department of General Psychology , University of Padova , Padova , Italy
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Saillot I. Mémoire et émotion chez Syssau et Monnier (2012) : quelques remarques à la lumière de modèles historiques. PSYCHOLOGIE FRANCAISE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.psfr.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Abstract
In prior work on how true and false memory are influenced by emotion, valence and arousal have often been conflated. Thus, it is difficult to say which specific effects are caused by valence and which are caused by arousal. In the present research, we used a picture-memory paradigm that allowed emotional valence to be manipulated with arousal held constant. Negatively valenced pictures elevated both true and false memory, relative to positive and neutral pictures. Conjoint recognition modeling revealed that negative valence (a) reduced erroneous suppression of true memories and (b) increased the familiarity of the semantic content of both true and false memories. Overall, negative valence impaired the verbatim side of episodic memory but enhanced the gist side, and these effects persisted even after a week-long delay. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Bookbinder
- Department of Human Development and Institute of Human Neuroscience, Cornell University
| | - C J Brainerd
- Department of Human Development and Institute of Human Neuroscience, Cornell University
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Pardilla-Delgado E, Payne JD. The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory. J Vis Exp 2017:54793. [PMID: 28190038 PMCID: PMC5407674 DOI: 10.3791/54793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The Deese, Roediger and McDermott (DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words (e.g., nurse, hospital, etc.) at encoding. After a delay, subjects are asked to recall or recognize these words. In the recognition memory version of the task, subjects are asked whether they remember previously presented words, as well as related (but never presented) critical lure words ('doctor'). Typically, the critical word is recognized with high probability and confidence. This false memory effect has been robustly demonstrated across short (e.g., immediate, 20 min) and long (e.g., 1, 7, 60 d) delays between encoding and memory testing. A strength of using this task to study false memory is its simplicity and short duration. If encoding and retrieval components of the task occur in the same session, the entire task can take as little as 2 - 30 min. However, although the DRM task is widely considered a 'false memory' paradigm, some researchers consider DRM illusions to be based on the activation of semantic memory networks in the brain, and argue that such semantic gist-based false memory errors may actually be useful in some scenarios (e.g., remembering the forest for the trees; remembering that a word list was about "doctors", even though the actual word "doctor" was never presented for study). Remembering the gist of experience (instead of or along with individual details) is arguably an adaptive process and this task has provided a great deal of knowledge about the constructive, adaptive nature of memory. Therefore, researchers should use caution when discussing the overall reach and implications of their experiments when using this task to study 'false memory', as DRM memory errors may not adequately reflect false memories in the real world, such as false memory in eyewitness testimony, or false memories of sexual abuse.
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Muris P. Maltreatment increases spontaneous false memories but decreases suggestion-induced false memories in children. BRITISH JOURNAL OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017; 35:376-391. [PMID: 28093783 PMCID: PMC5573940 DOI: 10.1111/bjdp.12177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
We examined the creation of spontaneous and suggestion‐induced false memories in maltreated and non‐maltreated children. Maltreated and non‐maltreated children were involved in a Deese–Roediger–McDermott false memory paradigm where they studied and remembered negative and neutral word lists. Suggestion‐induced false memories were created using a misinformation procedure during which both maltreated and non‐maltreated children viewed a negative video (i.e., bank robbery) and later received suggestive misinformation concerning the event. Our results showed that maltreated children had higher levels of spontaneous negative false memories but lower levels of suggestion‐induced false memories as compared to non‐maltreated children. Collectively, our study demonstrates that maltreatment both increases and decreases susceptibility to memory illusions depending on the type of false memory being induced. Statement of contribution What is already known on this subject? Trauma affects memory. It is unclear how trauma affects false memory.
What does this study add? This study focuses on two types of false memories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Maastricht University, The Netherlands.,City, University of London, UK
| | - Mark L Howe
- Maastricht University, The Netherlands.,City, University of London, UK
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Gong X, Xiao H, Wang D. Emotional valence of stimuli modulates false recognition: Using a modified version of the simplified conjoint recognition paradigm. Cognition 2016; 156:95-105. [PMID: 27592144 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
False recognition results from the interplay of multiple cognitive processes, including verbatim memory, gist memory, phantom recollection, and response bias. In the current study, we modified the simplified Conjoint Recognition (CR) paradigm to investigate the way in which the valence of emotional stimuli affects the cognitive process and behavioral outcome of false recognition. In Study 1, we examined the applicability of the modification to the simplified CR paradigm and model. Twenty-six undergraduate students (13 females, aged 21.00±2.30years) learned and recognized both the large and small categories of photo objects. The applicability of the paradigm and model was confirmed by a fair goodness-of-fit of the model to the observational data and by their competence in detecting the memory differences between the large- and small-category conditions. In Study 2, we recruited another sample of 29 undergraduate students (14 females, aged 22.60±2.74years) to learn and recognize the categories of photo objects that were emotionally provocative. The results showed that negative valence increased false recognition, particularly the rate of false "remember" responses, by facilitating phantom recollection; positive valence did not influence false recognition significantly though enhanced gist processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianmin Gong
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China; Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hongrui Xiao
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China; Beijing Luhe High School, Beijing 100875, PR China
| | - Dahua Wang
- Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, PR China.
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Otgaar H, Howe ML, Brackmann N, Smeets T. The malleability of developmental trends in neutral and negative memory illusions. J Exp Psychol Gen 2016; 145:31-55. [PMID: 26709588 PMCID: PMC4694095 DOI: 10.1037/xge0000127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Among many legal professionals and memory researchers there exists the assumption that susceptibility to false memory decreases with age. In 4 misinformation experiments, we show that under conditions that focus on the meaning of experiences, children are not always the most susceptible to suggestion-induced false memories. We begin by presenting a short overview of previous developmental false memory studies, the majority of which have found that the susceptibility to misinformation decreases with age. In Experiment 1, 6/7-year-olds, 11/12-year-olds, and adults received a video and were confronted with misinformation about related but nonpresented details. Older children and adults had higher misinformation acceptance rates than younger children. In Experiment 2, we replicated this finding adding a younger child group (4/6-year-olds). In Experiments 3 and 4, we used new material and again found that susceptibility to misinformation increased with age. Together, these experiments show that children's memory accuracy is not necessarily inferior to that of adults.'
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry Otgaar
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
| | - Mark L Howe
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
| | | | - Tom Smeets
- Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
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Sauerland M, Raymaekers LHC, Otgaar H, Memon A, Waltjen TT, Nivo M, Slegers C, Broers NJ, Smeets T. Stress, stress-induced cortisol responses, and eyewitness identification performance. BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES & THE LAW 2016; 34:580-94. [PMID: 27417874 PMCID: PMC5129533 DOI: 10.1002/bsl.2249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In the eyewitness identification literature, stress and arousal at the time of encoding are considered to adversely influence identification performance. This assumption is in contrast with findings from the neurobiology field of learning and memory, showing that stress and stress hormones are critically involved in forming enduring memories. This discrepancy may be related to methodological differences between the two fields of research, such as the tendency for immediate testing or the use of very short (1-2 hours) retention intervals in eyewitness research, while neurobiology studies insert at least 24 hours. Other differences refer to the extent to which stress-responsive systems (i.e., the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis) are stimulated effectively under laboratory conditions. The aim of the current study was to conduct an experiment that accounts for the contemporary state of knowledge in both fields. In all, 123 participants witnessed a live staged theft while being exposed to a laboratory stressor that reliably elicits autonomic and glucocorticoid stress responses or while performing a control task. Salivary cortisol levels were measured to control for the effectiveness of the stress induction. One week later, participants attempted to identify the thief from target-present and target-absent line-ups. According to regression and receiver operating characteristic analyses, stress did not have robust detrimental effects on identification performance. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. © 2016 The Authors Behavioral Sciences & the Law Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Sauerland
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Linsey H C Raymaekers
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Henry Otgaar
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
- City University London, UK
| | | | - Thijs T Waltjen
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Maud Nivo
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Chiel Slegers
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Nick J Broers
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
| | - Tom Smeets
- Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, the Netherlands
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Baugerud GA, Howe ML, Magnussen S, Melinder A. Maltreated and non-maltreated children’s true and false memories of neutral and emotional word lists in the Deese/Roediger–McDermott task. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 143:102-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2015.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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50
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Abstract
In the present study, we investigated the effect of participants' mood on true and false memories of emotional word lists in the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In Experiment 1, we constructed DRM word lists in which all the studied words and corresponding critical lures reflected a specified emotional valence. In Experiment 2, we used these lists to assess mood-congruent true and false memory. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three induced-mood conditions (positive, negative, or neutral) and were presented with word lists comprised of positive, negative, or neutral words. For both true and false memory, there was a mood-congruent effect in the negative mood condition; this effect was due to a decrease in true and false recognition of the positive and neutral words. These findings are consistent with both spreading-activation and fuzzy-trace theories of DRM performance and have practical implications for our understanding of the effect of mood on memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Julien Gross
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
| | - Harlene Hayne
- a Department of Psychology , University of Otago , Dunedin , New Zealand
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