Glycemic index of pulses and pulse-based products: a review

Antinutrient removal in yellow lentils by malting

BACKGROUND

To improve the current low per capita consumption of lentils, the present study first aimed to minimize the anti-nutrient content of two yellow Moroccan and Italian lentil seeds by resorting to the malting process and then testing the resulting decorticated flours as ingredients in the formulation of gluten-free fresh egg pastas.

RESULTS

The most proper operating conditions for the three malting process steps were identified in a bench-top plant. The first (water steeping) and second (germination) steps were studied at 18, 25 or 32 °C. After 2 or 3 h of steeping at 25 °C and almost 24 h of germination, 95-98.8% of the lentil seeds sprouted. By prolonging the germination process to 72 h, the raffinose or phytic acid content was reduced by about 80% or 95% or 27% or 37%, respectively. The third step (kilning) was carried out under fluent dry air at 50 °C for 24 h and at 75 °C for 3 h. The cotyledons of the resulting yellow lentil malts were cyclonically recovered, milled and chemico-physically characterized.

CONCLUSION

Both flours were used to prepare fresh egg-pastas essentially devoid of oligosaccharides, and low in phytate (4.6-6.0 mg g-1 ) and in vitro glycemic index (38-41%). However, the cooking quality of the fresh egg pasta made of malted Moroccan lentil flour was higher with respect to its crude protein content and lower with respect to its water solubility index. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Effectiveness of Chickpeas on Blood Sugar: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

Diabetes affects one in eleven adults globally, with rising cases in the past 30 years. Type 1 and type 2 cause blood sugar problems, increasing cardiovascular risks. Dietary control, including chickpeas, is suggested but needs more research. Comprehensive searches were conducted across multiple databases for the randomized controlled trial efficacy of chickpea consumption to lower blood sugar levels to a healthy range, with data extraction and risk of bias assessment performed independently by two researchers. Statistical analysis was performed using RevMan 5.4, expressing continuous data as mean differences and risk ratios with 95% confidence intervals, and a summary of the findings is provided considering the variations in study characteristics. A total of 118 articles were initially identified from seven databases, primarily from Anglo-American countries, resulting in 12 selected studies after the identification and screening processes. These studies involved 182 participants, focusing on healthy or normoglycemic adults, and assessed the effects of chickpeas compared to various foods such as wheat, potatoes, pasta, sauce, cheese, rice, and corn. A meta-analysis involving a subset of studies demonstrated that chickpeas were more effective in reducing blood glucose iAUC compared to potatoes and wheat. Chickpeas offer the potential for blood sugar control through low starch digestibility, high fiber, protein, and hormonal effects. Although insulin benefits are seen, statistical significance varies, supporting their role in diabetic diets focusing on nutrient-rich foods over processed carbs.

Assessment of the Malting Process of Purgatory Bean and Solco Dritto Chickpea Seeds

This study was aimed at minimizing the anti-nutrient content of the Gradoli Purgatory bean (GPB: Phaseolus vulgaris) and Solco Dritto chickpea (SDC: Cicer arietinum) seeds grown in the Latium region of Italy by defining the three steps of their malting process. The water steeping and germination phases were carried out in a 1.0-kg bench-top plant at 18, 25, or 32 °C. By soaking both seeds at 25 °C for 3 h, 95 to 100% of seeds sprouted. There was no need for prolonging their germination process after 72 h, the degradation degree of raffinose in germinated GPBs or SDCs being about 63%, while that of phytic acid being ~32% or 23%, respectively. The steeping and germination kinetics of both seeds were mathematically described via the Peleg and first-order reaction models, respectively. The third step (kilning) was carried out under fluent dry air at 50 °C for 24 h and at 75 °C for 3 h, and yielded cream-colored malted seeds, the cotyledons of which were cyclonically separated from the cuticles and finally milled. Owing to their composition, the decorticated malted pulse flours might be used in the formulation of specific gluten-free food products high in raw proteins and low in phytate, α-oligosaccharides and in vitro glycemic index (GI). Even if their low GI trait was preserved after malting, only the GPB malt flour having a resistant starch-to-total starch ratio ≥ 14% has the potential to be labeled with the health claim for improving postprandial glucose metabolism according to EU Regulation 432/2012.

Common beans as a source of food ingredients: Techno-functional and biological potential

Common beans are an inexpensive source of high-quality food ingredients. They are rich in proteins, slowly digestible starch, fiber, phenolic compounds, and other bioactive molecules that could be separated and processed to obtain value-added ingredients with techno-functional and biological potential. The use of common beans in the food industry is a promising alternative to add nutritional and functional ingredients with a low impact on overall consumer acceptance. Researchers are evaluating traditional and novel technologies to develop functionally enhanced common bean ingredients, such as flours, proteins, starch powders, and phenolic extracts that could be introduced as functional ingredient alternatives in the food industry. This review compiles recent information on processing, techno-functional properties, food applications, and the biological potential of common bean ingredients. The evidence shows that incorporating an adequate proportion of common bean ingredients into regular foods such as pasta, bread, or nutritional bars improves their fiber, protein, phenolic compounds, and glycemic index profile without considerably affecting their organoleptic properties. Additionally, common bean consumption has shown health benefits in the gut microbiome, weight control, and the reduction of the risk of developing noncommunicable diseases. However, food matrix interaction studies and comprehensive clinical trials are needed to develop common bean ingredient applications and validate the health benefits over time.

Exploring the underutilized novel foods and starches for formulation of low glycemic therapeutic foods: a review

Rising incidences of life-style disorders like obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases are a matter of concern coupled with escalated consumption of highly refined and high energy foods with low nutrient density. Food choices of consumers have witnessed significant changes globally with rising preference to highly processed palatable foods. Thus, it calls food scientists, researchers and nutritionists' attention towards developing and promoting pleasant-tasting yet healthy foods with added nutritional benefits. This review highlights selected underutilized and novel ingredients from different food sources and their by-products that are gaining popularity because of their nutrient density, that can be employed to improve the nutritional quality of conventionally available empty-calorie foods. It also emphasizes on the therapeutic benefits of foods developed from these understudied grains, nuts, processing by-products of grains, fruits- and vegetable-byproducts and nutraceutical starches. This review aims to draw attention of food scientists and industrialists towards popularizing the utilization of these unconventional, yet nutrient rich foods sources in improving the nutritional profile of the conventional foods lacking in nutrient density.

Trends and patterns of chickpea consumption among U.S. adults: analyses of NHANES data

BACKGROUND

Chickpeas are an affordable and nutrient-dense legume, but there is limited U.S. data on consumption patterns and the relationship between chickpea consumption and dietary intakes.

OBJECTIVE

This study examined trends and socio-demographic patterns among chickpea consumers and the relationship between chickpea consumption and dietary intake.

METHODS

Adults consuming chickpeas or chickpea-containing foods on one or both of the 24-hour dietary recalls were categorized as chickpea consumers. Data from National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys 2003-2018 were used to evaluate trends and socio-demographic patterns in chickpea consumption (n=35,029). The association between chickpea consumption and dietary intakes was compared to other legume consumers and non-legume consumers from 2015-2018 (n=8,342).

RESULTS

The proportion of chickpea consumers increased from 1.9% in 2003-2006 to 4.5% in 2015-2018 (p-value for trend<0.001). This trend was consistent across age group, gender, race/ethnicity, education, and income. In 2015-2018, chickpea consumption was highest among individuals with higher incomes (2.4% among those with incomes <185% of the federal poverty guideline vs. 6.4% with incomes ≥300%), education levels (1.0% for <high school vs. 10.2% for college graduates), physical activity levels (1.9% for no physical activity vs. 7.7% for ≥430min of moderate-equivalent physical activity per week), and those with better self-reported health (1.7% fair poor vs. 6.5% for excellent/very good, p-trend<0.001 for each). Chickpea consumers had greater intakes of whole grains (1.48 oz/d for chickpea consumers vs. 0.91 for non-legume consumers) and nuts/seeds (1.47 vs. 0.72 oz/d), less intake of red meat (0.96 vs. 1.55 oz/d), and higher Healthy Eating Index scores (62.1 vs. 51.2) compared to both non-legume and other legume consumers (p-value<0.05 for each).

CONCLUSIONS

Chickpea consumption among U.S. adults has doubled between 2003 and 2018, yet intake remains low. Chickpea consumers have higher socioeconomic status and better health status, and their overall diets are more consistent with healthy eating.

Common Bean Seeds Obtained by Plant Water Restriction Ameliorates Obesity-Associated Cardiovascular Risk and Insulin Resistance

The inclusion of beans in the diet has been recommended for obesity control. However, its beneficial effect varies depending on agroclimatic factors acting during plant development. The antiobesogenic capacity of Dalia bean (DB) seeds obtained by water restriction (WR) during the vegetative or reproductive stage of plant growth (50/100 and 100/50% of soil moisture in vegetative/reproductive stage, respectively), during the whole cycle (50/50), and well-watered plants (100/100) was researched. After phytochemical characterization, harvested beans from each experimental unit were pooled among treatments, based on a multivariate canonical discriminant analysis considering concentration of non-digestible carbohydrates (total, soluble and insoluble dietary fiber and resistant starch), phenolic compounds (total phenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins and condensed tannins) and total saponins, which showed no differences among replicas of each treatment. Obesity was induced in rats (UAZ-2015-36851) with a high fat diet (HFD) for four months. Afterwards, rats were fed with the HFD supplemented with 20% of cooked DB for three months. During treatment, 100/50 beans, improved blood triglycerides, cholesterol, and glucose, and alleviated early insulin resistance (IR) related to inhibition of lipase, α-amylase and -glucosidase activity. After sacrifice, a hypolipidemic capacity and atherogenic risk reduction was observed, especially from the 100/50 treatment, suggesting that intake of DB obtained from WR may prevent IR and dyslipidemia.

How Cooking Time Affects In Vitro Starch and Protein Digestibility of Whole Cooked Lentil Seeds versus Isolated Cotyledon Cells

Lentils are sustainable sources of bioencapsulated macronutrients, meaning physical barriers hinder the permeation of digestive enzymes into cotyledon cells, slowing down macronutrient digestion. While lentils are typically consumed as cooked seeds, insights into the effect of cooking time on microstructural and related digestive properties are lacking. Therefore, the effect of cooking time (15, 30, or 60 min) on in vitro amylolysis and proteolysis kinetics of lentil seeds (CL) and an important microstructural fraction, i.e., cotyledon cells isolated thereof (ICC), were studied. For ICC, cooking time had no significant effect on amylolysis kinetics, while small but significant differences in proteolysis were observed (p < 0.05). In contrast, cooking time importantly affected the microstructure obtained upon the mechanical disintegration of whole lentils, resulting in significantly different digestion kinetics. Upon long cooking times (60 min), digestion kinetics approached those of ICC since mechanical disintegration yielded a high fraction of individual cotyledon cells (67 g/100 g dry matter). However, cooked lentils with a short cooking time (15 min) showed significantly slower amylolysis with a lower final extent (~30%), due to the presence of more cell clusters upon disintegration. In conclusion, cooking time can be used to obtain distinct microstructures and digestive functionalities with perspectives for household and industrial preparation.

Low glycemic index common bean snack increased satiety without modifying energy intake in adults with normal weight: randomized crossover trials

This study aimed to evaluate the short-term effect of a common bean baked snack (CBBS) and cooked bean consumption on energy intake, satiety, glycemic response, and palatability in subjects with normal weight (Study 1) and overweight (Study 2) and to determine the glycemic index of CBBS (Study 3). For studies 1 and 2, satiety and glycemic response were measured over 45 min after consuming CBBS, cooked beans or white bread preload, and energy intake at an ad libitum test meal was calculated. Energy intake remained similar after consuming the three preloads in both studies. Compared to white bread, CBBS consumption increased fullness by 52% in subjects with normal weight but not in those with overweight. The CBBS calculated glycemic index was considered low (42). Consumption of low glycemic index CBBS increased satiety in adults with a normal weight. Long-term trials assessing the effects on body weight management are necessary.

Phenolic profile, alpha-amylase inhibitory activity, and in vitro glycemic index of adzuki beans

Regular consumption of low-glycemic index (GI) foods is a common strategy for type 2 diabetes patients. To evaluate the potential application of adzuki beans in low-GI foods, the phenolic profile and alpha-amylase inhibitor (α-AI) activity of four varieties of adzuki beans (G24, Te Xiao Li No. 1, Gui Nong No. 1, and Qian Xiao Hei) were determined. The starch digestibility properties and in vitro glycemic index (IVGI) of these beans were also evaluated using the in vitro digestion model coupled with 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid colorimetry. The results indicated that these adzuki beans, containing numerous phenolics, showed inhibitory activities to alpha-amylase with the α-AI activities between 1.760 ± 0.044 and 3.411 ± 0.186 U/g. The resistant starch (RS) contributed predominantly to the total starch with proportions between (69.78 ± 2.45%) and (81.03 ± 0.06%); Te Xiao Li No. 1 was the highest compared with the other varieties. The adzuki beans were categorized into low- or medium-GI foods, and the IVGI ranged from (39.00 ± 0.36) to (56.76 ± 4.21). These results suggested that adzuki beans can be used as a component of low-GI foods.

Andean Sprouted Pseudocereals to Produce Healthier Extrudates: Impact in Nutritional and Physicochemical Properties

The tailored formulation of raw materials and the combination of grain germination and extrusion processes could be a promising strategy to achieve the desired goal of developing healthier expanded extrudates without compromising sensory properties. In this study, modifications in the nutritional, bioactive profile and physicochemical properties of corn extrudates as influenced by the complete or partial replacement by sprouted quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) and cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) were investigated. A simplex centroid mixture design was used to study the effects of formulation on nutritional and physicochemical properties of extrudates, and a desirability function was applied to identify the optimal ingredient ratio in flour blends to achieve desired nutritional, texture and color goals. Partial incorporation of sprouted quinoa flour (SQF) and cañihua flour (SCF) in corn grits (CG)-based extrudates increased phytic acid (PA), total soluble phenolic compounds (TSPC), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and oxygen radical antioxidant activity (ORAC) of the extrudates. Sprouted grain flour usually results in an deleterious effect physicochemical properties of extrudates, but the partial mixture of CG with SQF and SCF circumvented the negative effect of germinated flours, improving technological properties, favoring the expansion index and bulk density and increasing water solubility. Two optimal formulations were identified: 0% CG, 14% SQF and 86% SCF (OPM1) and 24% CG, 17% SQF and 59% SCF (OPM2). The optimized extrudates showed a reduced amount of starch and remarkably higher content of total dietary fiber, protein, lipids, ash, PA, TSPC, GABA and ORAC as compared to those in 100% CG extrudates. During digestion, PA, TSPC, GABA and ORAC showed good stability in physiological conditions. Higher antioxidant activity and amounts of bioaccessible TSPC and GABA were found in OPM1 and OPM2 digestates as compared to those in 100% CG extrudates.

Antinutritional factors, nutritional improvement, and future food use of common beans: A perspective

Common bean seeds are an excellent source of protein as well as of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds reducing, when in the diet, the risks of diseases. The presence of bioactive compounds with antinutritional properties (e.g., phytic acid, lectins, raffinosaccharides, protease inhibitors) limits, however, the bean's nutritional value and its wider use in food preparations. In the last decades, concerted efforts have been, therefore, made to develop new common bean genotypes with reduced antinutritional compounds by exploiting the natural genetic variability of common bean and also applying induced mutagenesis. However, possible negative, or positive, pleiotropic effects due to these modifications, in terms of plant performance in response to stresses or in the resulting technological properties of the developed mutant genotypes, have yet not been thoroughly investigated. The purpose of the perspective paper is to first highlight the current advances, which have been already made in mutant bean characterization. A view will be further provided on future research directions to specifically explore further advantages and disadvantages of these bean mutants, their potential use in innovative foods and representing a valuable genetic reservoir of combinations to assess the true functional role of specific seed bioactive components directly in the food matrix.

An update on nutritional profile, phytochemical compounds, health benefits, and potential applications in the food industry of pulses seed coats: A comprehensive review

Pulses, as a sustainable source of nutrients, are an important choice for human diets, but vast quantities of seed coats generated in pulses processing are usually discarded or used as low-value ruminant feed. It has been demonstrated that pulses seed coats are excellent sources of dietary nutrients and phytochemicals with potential health benefits. With growing interest in the sustainable use of resources and the circular economy, utilization of pulses seed coats to recover these valuable components is a core objective for their valorization and an important step toward agricultural sustainability. This review comprehensively provides a comprehensive insight on the nutritional and phytochemical profiles presented in pulses seed coats and their health benefits obtained from the findings of in vitro and in vivo studies. Furthermore, in the food industry, pulses seed coats can be acted as potential food ingredients with nutritional, antioxidant and antimicrobial characteristics or as the matrix or active components of films for food packaging and edible coatings. A better understanding of pulses seed coats may provide a reference for increasing the overall added value and realizing the pulses' sustainable diets.

Comprehensive transcriptomic analysis of two RIL parents with contrasting salt responsiveness identifies polyadenylated and non-polyadenylated flower lncRNAs in chickpea

Salinity severely affects the yield of chickpea. Understanding the role of lncRNAs can shed light on chickpea salt tolerance mechanisms. However, because lncRNAs are encoded by multiple sites within the genome, their classification to reveal functional versatility at the transcriptional and the post-transcriptional levels is challenging. To address this, we deep sequenced 24 salt-challenged flower transcriptomes from two parental genotypes of a RIL population that significantly differ in salt tolerance ability. The transcriptomes for the first time included 12 polyadenylated and 12 non-polyadenylated RNA libraries to a sequencing depth of ~50 million reads. The ab initio transcriptome assembly comprised ~34 082 transcripts from three biological replicates of salt-tolerant (JG11) and salt-sensitive (ICCV2) flowers. A total of 9419 lncRNAs responding to salt stress were identified, 2345 of which were novel lncRNAs specific to chickpea. The expression of poly(A+) lncRNAs and naturally antisense transcribed RNAs suggest their role in post-transcriptional modification and gene silencing. Notably, 178 differentially expressed lncRNAs were induced in the tolerant genotype but repressed in the sensitive genotype. Co-expression network analysis revealed that the induced lncRNAs interacted with the FLOWERING LOCUS (FLC), chromatin remodelling and DNA methylation genes, thus inducing flowering during salt stress. Furthermore, 26 lncRNAs showed homology with reported lncRNAs such as COOLAIR, IPS1 and AT4, thus confirming the role of chickpea lncRNAs in controlling flowering time as a crucial salt tolerance mechanism in tolerant chickpea genotype. These robust set of differentially expressed lncRNAs provide a deeper insight into the regulatory mechanisms controlled by lncRNAs under salt stress.

Acute Effects of Split Pea-Enriched White Pan Bread on Postprandial Glycemic and Satiety Responses in Healthy Volunteers—A Randomized Crossover Trial

Pulse consumption has been associated with reduced postprandial glucose response (PPGR) and improved satiety. The objective of this study was (i) to investigate the effects of fortifying white pan bread with split yellow pea (Pisum sativum L.) flour on PPGR and appetite-related sensations, and (ii) to determine whether Revtech heat processing of pea flour alters the postprandial effects. A randomized controlled crossover trial was performed with 24 healthy adults. Participants consumed 50 g available carbohydrate from bread containing 20% pea flour that was untreated (USYP), Revtech processed at 140 °C with no steam (RT0%), Revtech processed at 140 °C with 10% steam (RT10%), or a control bread with 100% white wheat flour (100%W). Blood samples were analyzed for glucose and plasma insulin at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min post-meal. Appetite sensations and product acceptability were measured using visual analogue and 9-point hedonic scales. Results showed no significant difference in the postprandial glucose and insulin responses of different bread treatments. However, pea-containing variants resulted in 18% higher fullness and 16–18% lower hunger, desire to eat, and prospective food consumption ratings compared to 100% W. No differences in the aroma, flavor, color, and overall acceptability of different bread products were observed. This trial supports using pea flour as a value-added ingredient to improve the short-term appetite-related sensations of white pan bread without affecting the overall acceptability.

Utilizing Hydrothermal Processing to Align Structure and In Vitro Digestion Kinetics between Three Different Pulse Types

Processing results in the transformation of pulses’ structural architecture. Consequently, digestion is anticipated to emerge from the combined effect of intrinsic (matrix-dependent) and extrinsic (processed-induced) factors. In this work, we aimed to investigate the interrelated effect of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on pulses’ structural architecture and resulting digestive consequences. Three commercially relevant pulses (chickpea, pea, black bean) were selected based on reported differences in macronutrient and cell wall composition. Starch and protein digestion kinetics of hydrothermally processed whole pulses were assessed along with microstructural and physicochemical characteristics and compared to the digestion behavior of individual cotyledon cells isolated thereof. Despite different rates of hardness decay upon hydrothermal processing, the pulses reached similar residual hardness values (40 N). Aligning the pulses at the level of this macrostructural property translated into similar microstructural characteristics after mechanical disintegration (isolated cotyledon cells) with comparable yields of cotyledon cells for all pulses (41–62%). We observed that processing to equivalent microstructural properties resulted in similar starch and protein digestion kinetics, regardless of the pulse type and (prolonged) processing times. This demonstrated the capacity of (residual) hardness as a food structuring parameter in pulses. Furthermore, we illustrated that the digestive behavior of isolated cotyledon cells was representative of the digestion behavior of corresponding whole pulses, opening up perspectives for the incorporation of complete hydrothermally processed pulses as food ingredients.

'Old Is Gold': How Traditional Indian Dietary Practices Can Support Pediatric Diabetes Management

Nutrition is crucial for maintaining normal growth, development, and glycemic control in young people with diabetes (PwD). Undue restrictions cause nutrient deficiencies as well as poor adherence to meal plans. Widespread availability of low-cost, ultra-processed, and hyperpalatable food is further damaging. Most families struggle to find ways to provide nutritious, yet attractive, food with a low glycemic index (GI). India is one of the oldest continuous civilizations with a rich and diverse cultural and culinary heritage. Traditional dietary practices, including the centuries-old 'Thali' (meaning plate) concept, emphasize combinations (grains, lentils, vegetables, dairy, spices, prebiotics and probiotics, and fats) of local, seasonal, and predominantly plant-based ingredients. These practices ensure that all of the necessary food groups are provided and fit well with current evidence-based recommendations, including the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) 2018 Guidelines. Techniques for the preparation, cooking, and preservation of food further impact the GI and nutrient availability. These practices benefit nutrient density, diet diversity, and palatability and thus improve adherence to meal plans and glycemic control. This narrative review describes the ancient wisdom, food composition, and culinary practices from across India which are still valuable today. These may be of benefit worldwide to improve glycemic control as well as quality of life, especially in PwD.

Glycemic Index Values of Pasta Products: An Overview

Durum wheat pasta is considered a low-glycemic index (GI) food. In recent years, the interest in developing enriched pasta has increased. Since both the formulation and processing technologies may affect the GI, this study aimed to investigate the GI values of pasta products (pp) reported in the literature until 2020. GI values of pp analyzed following the ISO guidelines were included in this survey. A total of 95 pp were identified and, according to their formulation, classified into 10 categories (n, mean GI): category n 1: 100% refined wheat (35, 55); category n 2: 100% whole wheat (6, 52); category n 3: other cereal-based products (8, 52); category n 4: containing egg (5, 52); category n 5: gluten free (11, 60); category n 6: containing legumes (9, 46); category n 7: noodles and vermicelli (9, 56); category n 8: containing vegetable or algae (6, 51); category n 9: containing other ingredients (5, 37); category n 10: stuffed (1, 58). Overall, pasta is confirmed to be a medium–low-GI food, even if a high variability among or within each category emerged. The formulation of enriched pp able to elicit a controlled glycemic response could represent a strategy to improve the nutritional value of pasta.

How postharvest variables in the pulse value chain affect nutrient digestibility and bioaccessibility

Pulses are increasingly being put forward as part of healthy diets because they are rich in protein, (slowly digestible) starch, dietary fiber, minerals, and vitamins. In pulses, nutrients are bioencapsulated by a cell wall, which mostly survives cooking followed by mechanical disintegration (e.g., mastication). In this review, we describe how different steps in the postharvest pulse value chain affect starch and protein digestion and the mineral bioaccessibility of pulses by influencing both their nutritional composition and structural integrity. Processing conditions that influence structural characteristics, and thus potentially the starch and protein digestive properties of (fresh and hard-to-cook [HTC]) pulses, have been reported in literature and are summarized in this review. The effect of thermal treatment on the pulse microstructure seems highly dependent on pulse type-specific cell wall properties and postharvest storage, which requires further investigation. In contrast to starch and protein digestion, the bioaccessibility of minerals is not dependent on the integrity of the pulse (cellular) tissue, but is affected by the presence of mineral antinutrients (chelators). Although pulses have a high overall mineral content, the presence of mineral antinutrients makes them rather poorly accessible for absorption. The negative effect of HTC on mineral bioaccessibility cannot be counteracted by thermal processing. This review also summarizes lessons learned on the use of pulses for the preparation of foods, from the traditional use of raw-milled pulse flours, to purified pulse ingredients (e.g., protein), to more innovative pulse ingredients in which cellular arrangement and bioencapsulation of macronutrients are (partially) preserved.

Pulse Probiotic Superfood as Iron Status Improvement Agent in Active Women-A Review

Active women or women of reproductive age (15–49 years old) have a high risk of suffering from anaemia. Anaemia is not solely caused by iron deficiency, however, the approaches to improve iron status in both cases are greatly related. Improving the iron status of active women can be done by dietary intervention with functional food. This review aims to provide insights about the functional food role to increase iron absorption in active women and the potency of pulse probiotic superfood development in dry matrices. Results showed that the beneficial effect of iron status is significantly improved by the synergic work between probiotic and prebiotic. Furthermore, chickpeas and lentils are good sources of prebiotic and the consumption of pulses are related with 21st century people’s intention to eat healthy food. There are wide possibilities to develop functional food products incorporated with probiotics to improve iron status in active woman.