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Liu C, Ruan F, Chen Z, Han J, Ding X, Han C, Ye L, Yang C, Yu Y, Zuo Z, He C. Phenanthrene-induced hyperuricemia with intestinal barrier damage and the protective role of theabrownin: Modulation by gut microbiota-mediated bile acid metabolism. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 949:174923. [PMID: 39047823 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Hyperuricemia is prevalent globally and potentially linked to environmental pollution. As a typical persistent organic pollutant, phenanthrene (Phe) poses threats to human health through biomagnification. Although studies have reported Phe-induced toxicities to multiple organs, its impact on uric acid (UA) metabolism remains unclear. In this study, data mining on NHANES 2001-2016 indicated a positive correlation between Phe exposure and the occurrence of hyperuricemia in population. Subsequently, adolescent Balb/c male mice were orally exposed to Phe at a dosage of 10 mg/kg bw every second day for 7 weeks, resulting in dysfunction of intestinal UA excretion and disruption of the intestinal barrier. Utilizing intestinal organoids, 16S rRNA sequencing of gut microbiota, and targeted metabolomic analysis, we further revealed that an imbalance in bile acid metabolism derived from gut microbiota might mediate the intestinal barrier damage. Additionally, the tea extract theabrownin (TB) effectively improved Phe-induced hyperuricemia and intestinal dysfunction at a dose of 320 mg/kg bw per day. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that Phe exposure is positively associated with hyperuricemia and intestinal damage, which provides new insights into the toxic effects induced by Phe. Furthermore, the present study proposes that supplementation with TB would be a healthy and effective improvement strategy for patients with hyperuricemia and intestinal injury caused by environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changqian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Fengkai Ruan
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Zhiyuan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Jianrong Han
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Xiaoyan Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Changshun Han
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Lingxiao Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Chunyan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Yi Yu
- Department of Nephrology, Fujian Clinical Research Center for Chronic Glomerular Disease, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China
| | - Zhenghong Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China; Department of Endocrinology, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Chengyong He
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Life Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361102, China; Department of Endocrinology, Xiang'an Hospital of Xiamen University, School of Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine and Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.
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Yin X, Tong Q, Wang J, Wei J, Qin Z, Wu Y, Zhang R, Guan B, Qiu H. The impact of altered dietary adenine concentrations on the gut microbiota in Drosophila. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1433155. [PMID: 39161604 PMCID: PMC11330887 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1433155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota influences host metabolism and health, impacting diseases. Research into how diet affects gut microbiome dynamics in model organisms is crucial but underexplored. Herein, we examined how dietary adenine affects uric acid levels and the gut microbiota over five generations of Drosophila melanogaster. Wild-type W1118 flies consumed diets with various adenine concentrations (GC: 0%, GL: 0.05%, and GH: 0.10%), and their gut microbiota were assessed via Illumina MiSeq sequencing. Adenine intake significantly increased uric acid levels in the GH group > the GC group. Despite no significant differences in the alpha diversity indices, there were significant disparities in the gut microbiota health index (GMHI) and dysbiosis index (MDI) among the groups. Adenine concentrations significantly altered the diversity and composition of the gut microbiota. High adenine intake correlated with increased uric acid levels and microbial population shifts, notably affecting the abundances of Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. The gut microbiota phenotypes included mobile elements, gram-positive bacteria, biofilm-forming bacteria, and gram-negative bacteria. The significantly enriched KEGG pathways included ageing, carbohydrate metabolism, and the immune system. In conclusion, adenine intake increases uric acid levels, alters gut microbiota, and affects KEGG pathways in Drosophila across generations. This study highlights the impact of dietary adenine on uric acid levels and the gut microbiota, providing insights into intergenerational nutritional effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianglin Yin
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Qing Tong
- School of Biology and Agriculture, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jingtao Wang
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Jinfeng Wei
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Zhenbo Qin
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Yujie Wu
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Ruidi Zhang
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Baosheng Guan
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
| | - Hongbin Qiu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
- School of Public Health, Jiamusi University, Heilongjiang, China
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Li H, Shen N, Ren J, Yang S, Chen Y, Gao Z. Biotransformation characteristics of urate-lowering probiotic fermented apple juice and potential regulatory mechanisms for ameliorating hyperuricemia via mediating gut microbiota and metabolic pathways. Food Chem 2024; 460:140462. [PMID: 39032298 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Hyperuricemia has evolved into a global public health concern, and applying probiotics fermented apple juice holds promise for alleviating this condition. This study aimed to investigate the biotransformation and metabolic features of urate-lowering probiotics sequentially fermented dealcoholized apple juice (PSFA), and assess its ameliorative effects and potential mechanisms on hyperuricemia mice. Results showed that CICC 6074 and 20,292 possessed excellent purine, nucleotide and nucleoside degradation and acid and bile salt resistance; sequential fermentation decreased the fructose in apple juice, and viable counts reached 3.76 × 108 CFU/mL. Histopathological analysis showed that PSFA ameliorated kidney damage in hyperuricemia mice. Furthermore, PSFA significantly reduced Urea, Creatinine and Uric acid levels in hyperuricemia mice; and inhibited xanthine oxidase activity and the expression of pro-inflammatory factors. Importantly, PSFA reversed gut microbiota dysbiosis and raised the abundance of beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillush, Faecalibaculum and Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group). KEGG and COG functional prediction results revealed that the potential mechanism of PSFA to ameliorate hyperuricemia may be lipid metabolism and glycolysis pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongcai Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100 Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Ning Shen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100 Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiani Ren
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100 Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuang Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100 Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yue Chen
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100 Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenpeng Gao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, 712100 Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.
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Yu H, Lou Z, Wu T, Wan X, Huang H, Wu Y, Li B, Tu Y, He P, Liu J. Mechanisms of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) in ameliorating hyperuricemia: insights into gut microbiota and intestinal function in a mouse model. Food Funct 2024; 15:6068-6081. [PMID: 38757391 DOI: 10.1039/d4fo01606h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), a prominent bioactive compound found in tea, offers numerous health benefits. Previous studies have highlighted its potential in mitigating hyperuricemia. In this study, hyperuricemic mice induced by potassium oxonate (PO) were treated with EGCG or the anti-hyperuricemia medication allopurinol (AP) to investigate the mechanisms underlying their anti-hyperuricemic effects. The results demonstrated that both EGCG and AP significantly reduced serum uric acid (UA) levels. Further analysis revealed that EGCG promoted the expression of UA secretion transporter genes (Oat1 and Oct1) while inhibiting the expression of UA reabsorption transporter genes (Urat1 and Glut9) in the kidney. By 16S rDNA sequencing, EGCG, but not AP, was found to alter the composition of the gut microbiota. Notably, EGCG induced significant changes in the relative abundance of specific bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Faecalibaculum, and Bifidobacterium, which displayed high correlations with serum UA levels and UA-related gene expression. Metabolomic analysis suggested that EGCG-induced modifications in bacterial metabolites might contribute to the alleviation of hyperuricemia. Transcriptomic analysis of the intestinal epithelium identifies 191 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in EGCG-treated mice, including 8 purine-related genes. This study elucidates the anti-hyperuricemic mechanisms of EGCG, particularly its influence on the gut microbiota and gene expression in the intestinal epithelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haonan Yu
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Zhenyou Lou
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Tingbo Wu
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Xiaochun Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Tea Plant Biology and Utilization, Anhui Agricultural University, 130 Changjiang West Road, Hefei 230036, Anhui, P.R. China
| | - Haitao Huang
- Tea Research Institute, Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Yuanyuan Wu
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Bo Li
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Youying Tu
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Puming He
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
| | - Junsheng Liu
- Department of Tea Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, Zhejiang, P. R. China.
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Jia X, Chen Q, Wu H, Liu H, Jing C, Gong A, Zhang Y. Exploring a novel therapeutic strategy: the interplay between gut microbiota and high-fat diet in the pathogenesis of metabolic disorders. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1291853. [PMID: 38192650 PMCID: PMC10773723 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1291853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
In the past two decades, the rapid increase in the incidence of metabolic diseases, including obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, hypertension, and hyperuricemia, has been attributed to high-fat diets (HFD) and decreased physical activity levels. Although the phenotypes and pathologies of these metabolic diseases vary, patients with these diseases exhibit disease-specific alterations in the composition and function of their gut microbiota. Studies in germ-free mice have shown that both HFD and gut microbiota can promote the development of metabolic diseases, and HFD can disrupt the balance of gut microbiota. Therefore, investigating the interaction between gut microbiota and HFD in the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases is crucial for identifying novel therapeutic strategies for these diseases. This review takes HFD as the starting point, providing a detailed analysis of the pivotal role of HFD in the development of metabolic disorders. It comprehensively elucidates the impact of HFD on the balance of intestinal microbiota, analyzes the mechanisms underlying gut microbiota dysbiosis leading to metabolic disruptions, and explores the associated genetic factors. Finally, the potential of targeting the gut microbiota as a means to address metabolic disturbances induced by HFD is discussed. In summary, this review offers theoretical support and proposes new research avenues for investigating the role of nutrition-related factors in the pathogenesis of metabolic disorders in the organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaokang Jia
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Qiliang Chen
- School of Basic Medicine, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
| | - Huiwen Wu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Hongbo Liu
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Chunying Jing
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Aimin Gong
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- The Affiliated TCM Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China
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Cao X, Cai J, Zhang Y, Liu C, Song M, Xu Q, Liu Y, Yan H. Biodegradation of Uric Acid by Bacillus paramycoides-YC02. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1989. [PMID: 37630550 PMCID: PMC10460076 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11081989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
High serum uric acid levels, known as hyperuricemia (HUA), are associated with an increased risk of developing gout, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other metabolic syndromes. In this study, a promising bacterial strain capable of biodegrading uric acid (UA) was successfully isolated from Baijiu cellar mud using UA as the sole carbon and energy source. The bacterial strain was identified as Bacillus paramycoides-YC02 through 16S rDNA sequence analysis. Under optimal culture conditions at an initial pH of 7.0 and 38 °C, YC02 completely biodegraded an initial UA concentration of 500 mg/L within 48 h. Furthermore, cell-free extracts of YC02 were found to catalyze and remove UA. These results demonstrate the strong biodegradation ability of YC02 toward UA. To gain further insight into the mechanisms underlying UA biodegradation by YC02, the draft genome of YC02 was sequenced using Illumina HiSeq. Subsequent analysis revealed the presence of gene1779 and gene2008, which encode for riboflavin kinase, flavin mononucleotide adenylyl transferase, and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-dependent urate hydroxylase. This annotation was based on GO or the KEEG database. These enzymes play a crucial role in the metabolism pathway, converting vitamin B2 to FAD and subsequently converting UA to 5-hydroxyisourate (HIU) with the assistance of FAD. Notably, HIU undergoes a slow non-enzymatic breakdown into 2-oxo-4-hydroxy-4-carboxy-5-ureidoimidazoline (OHCU) and (S)-allantoin. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into the metabolism pathway of UA biodegradation by B. paramycoides-YC02 and offer a potential avenue for the development of bacterioactive drugs against HUA and gout.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Hai Yan
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China; (X.C.); (J.C.)
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Ikhsan I, Idroes R, Azharuddin A, Nasution R, Yusnaini R, Iqhrammullah M. Fatty Acid-Rich Extract from Holothuria atra for Hyperuricemia via Expressions Modulation of GLUT9a and GLUT9b in Rat Model. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28103981. [PMID: 37241722 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28103981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
An edible sea cucumber Holothuria atra has been hypothesized to have medicinal benefits against hyperuricemia owing to its bioactive compounds, including mono- and poly-unsaturated fatty acids. Herein, we aimed to investigate the fatty acids-rich extract produced from H. atra to treat hyperuricemic rats (Rattus novergicus). The extraction was carried out using n-hexane solvent and then administered to potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemic rats, with allopurinol acting as a positive control. The extract (50, 100, 150 mg/kg body weight) and allopurinol (10 mg/kg) were administered QD through an oral route using a nasogastric tube. Serum uric acid, creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and blood urea nitrogen of the abdominal aortic blood were investigated. Our results suggested that the extract was rich in polyunsaturated (arachidonic acid) and monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid), in which its administration of 150 mg/kg could significantly reduce serum uric acid (p < 0.001), AST (p = 0.001), and ALT (p = 0.0302). The anti-hyperuricemic activity could be associated with the modulation of GLUT9 by the H. atra extract. In conclusion, the n-hexane extract from H. atra is a potential serum uric acid-lowering agent targeting GLUT9, where further investigations are crucially warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ikhsan Ikhsan
- Graduate School of Mathematics and Applied Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
- Department of Surgery, Tgk. Chik Di Tiro General Hospital, Sigli 24116, Indonesia
| | - Rinaldi Idroes
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
| | - Azharuddin Azharuddin
- Department of Orthopedic and Traumatology, School of Medicine, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
- Department of Orthopedic and Traumatology, Dr. Zainoel Abidin Hospital, Banda Aceh 24415, Indonesia
| | - Rosnani Nasution
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
| | - Rika Yusnaini
- Graduate School of Mathematics and Applied Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia
- Department of Psychology and Nursing, Faculty of Medicine, Malikussaleh University, Lhokseumawe 24351, Indonesia
| | - Muhammad Iqhrammullah
- Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Muhammadiyah Aceh, Banda Aceh 23245, Indonesia
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Tong S, Zhang P, Cheng Q, Chen M, Chen X, Wang Z, Lu X, Wu H. The role of gut microbiota in gout: Is gut microbiota a potential target for gout treatment. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1051682. [PMID: 36506033 PMCID: PMC9730829 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1051682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Numerous studies have demonstrated that gut microbiota is essential for the host's health because it regulates the host's metabolism, endocrine, and immune systems. In recent years, increasing evidence has shown that gut microbiota plays a role in the onset and progression of gout. Changes in the composition and metabolism of the gut microbiota, result in abnormalities of uric acid degradation, increasing uric acid generation, releasing pro-inflammatory mediators, and intestinal barrier damage in developing gout. As a result, gout therapy that targets gut microbiota has drawn significant interest. This review summarized how the gut microbiota contributes to the pathophysiology of gout and how gout affects the gut microbiota. Additionally, this study explained how gut microbiota might serve as a unique index for the diagnosis of gout and how conventional gout treatment medicines interact with it. Finally, prospective therapeutic approaches focusing on gut microbiota for the prevention and treatment of gout were highlighted, which may represent a future avenue in gout treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Xiaoyong Lu
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyong Lu, ; Huaxiang Wu,
| | - Huaxiang Wu
- *Correspondence: Xiaoyong Lu, ; Huaxiang Wu,
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