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Pontes AP, van der Wal S, Ranamalla SR, Roelofs K, Tomuta I, Creemers LB, Rip J. Cell uptake and intracellular trafficking of bioreducible poly(amidoamine) nanoparticles for efficient mRNA translation in chondrocytes. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1290871. [PMID: 38026902 PMCID: PMC10668025 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1290871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Disulfide-containing poly(amidoamine) (PAA) is a cationic and bioreducible polymer, with potential use as a nanocarrier for mRNA delivery in the treatment of several diseases including osteoarthritis (OA). Successful transfection of joint cells with PAA-based nanoparticles (NPs) was shown previously, but cell uptake, endosomal escape and nanoparticle biodegradation were not studied in detail. In this study, C28/I2 human chondrocytes were transfected with NPs co-formulated with a PEG-polymer coating and loaded with EGFP mRNA for confocal imaging of intracellular trafficking and evaluation of transfection efficiency. Compared with uncoated NPs, PEG-coated NPs showed smaller particle size, neutral surface charge, higher colloidal stability and superior transfection efficiency. Furthermore, endosomal entrapment of these PEG-coated NPs decreased over time and mRNA release could be visualized both in vitro and in live cells. Importantly, cell treatment with modulators of the intracellular reducing environment showed that glutathione (GSH) concentrations affect translation of the mRNA payload. Finally, we applied a D-optimal experimental design to test different polymer-to-RNA loading ratios and dosages, thus obtaining an optimal formulation with up to ≈80% of GFP-positive cells and without toxic effects. Together, the biocompatibility and high transfection efficiency of this system may be a promising tool for intra-articular delivery of therapeutical mRNA in OA treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Saketh R. Ranamalla
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Iuliu Hațieganu”, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | | | - Ioan Tomuta
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Iuliu Hațieganu”, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Laura B. Creemers
- Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Jaap Rip
- 20Med Therapeutics BV, Leiden, Netherlands
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2
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Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Osteoarthritis. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14122639. [PMID: 36559133 PMCID: PMC9788411 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14122639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative musculoskeletal disorder affecting the whole synovial joint and globally impacts more than one in five individuals aged 40 and over, representing a huge socioeconomic burden. Drug penetration into and retention within the joints are major challenges in the development of regenerative therapies for OA. During the recent years, polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) have emerged as promising drug carrier candidates due to their biodegradable properties, nanoscale structure, functional versatility, and reproducible manufacturing, which makes them particularly attractive for cartilage penetration and joint retention. In this review, we discuss the current development state of natural and synthetic PNPs for drug delivery and OA treatment. Evidence from in vitro and pre-clinical in vivo studies is used to show how disease pathology and key cellular pathways of joint inflammation are modulated by these nanoparticle-based therapies. Furthermore, we compare the biodegradability and surface modification of these nanocarriers in relation to the drug release profile and tissue targeting. Finally, the main challenges for nanoparticle delivery to the cartilage are discussed, as a function of disease state and physicochemical properties of PNPs such as size and surface charge.
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3
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D'Souza A, Burch A, Dave KM, Sreeram A, Reynolds MJ, Dobbins DX, Kamte YS, Zhao W, Sabatelle C, Joy GM, Soman V, Chandran UR, Shiva SS, Quillinan N, Herson PS, Manickam DS. Microvesicles transfer mitochondria and increase mitochondrial function in brain endothelial cells. J Control Release 2021; 338:505-526. [PMID: 34450196 PMCID: PMC8526414 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We have demonstrated, for the first time that microvesicles, a sub-type of extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from hCMEC/D3: a human brain endothelial cell (BEC) line transfer polarized mitochondria to recipient BECs in culture and to neurons in mice acute brain cortical and hippocampal slices. This mitochondrial transfer increased ATP levels by 100 to 200-fold (relative to untreated cells) in the recipient BECs exposed to oxygen-glucose deprivation, an in vitro model of cerebral ischemia. We have also demonstrated that transfer of microvesicles, the larger EV fraction, but not exosomes resulted in increased mitochondrial function in hypoxic endothelial cultures. Gene ontology and pathway enrichment analysis of EVs revealed a very high association to glycolysis-related processes. In comparison to heterotypic macrophage-derived EVs, BEC-derived EVs demonstrated a greater selectivity to transfer mitochondria and increase endothelial cell survival under ischemic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anisha D'Souza
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Amelia Burch
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Kandarp M Dave
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Michael J Reynolds
- Heart, Lung, Blood Vascular Institute, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, PA, USA
| | - Duncan X Dobbins
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Yashika S Kamte
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Wanzhu Zhao
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Courtney Sabatelle
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Gina M Joy
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Vishal Soman
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, PA, USA
| | - Uma R Chandran
- Department of Biomedical Informatics, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, PA, USA
| | - Sruti S Shiva
- Heart, Lung, Blood Vascular Institute, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, PA, USA; Department of Pharmacology & Chemical Biology, Pittsburgh Heart Lung Blood Vascular Institute, University of Pittsburgh Medical School, PA, USA
| | - Nidia Quillinan
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Paco S Herson
- Department of Anesthesiology, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Devika S Manickam
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences and School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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4
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Disulfide-functional poly(amido amine)s with tunable degradability for gene delivery. J Control Release 2016; 244:357-365. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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5
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Taranejoo S, Liu J, Verma P, Hourigan K. A review of the developments of characteristics of PEI derivatives for gene delivery applications. J Appl Polym Sci 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/app.42096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shahrouz Taranejoo
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria Australia 3800
- Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering/Fluids Laboratory for Aeronautical and Industrial Research; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria Australia 3800
| | - Jun Liu
- Stem Cell and Genetic Engineering Group; Department of Materials Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Monash University Melbourne; Victoria Australia 3800
| | - Paul Verma
- Stem Cell and Genetic Engineering Group; Department of Materials Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Monash University Melbourne; Victoria Australia 3800
- Turretfield Research Center South Australian Research and Development Institute; Adelaide South Australia Australia 5350
| | - Kerry Hourigan
- Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering/Fluids Laboratory for Aeronautical and Industrial Research; Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Monash University; Melbourne Victoria Australia 3800
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6
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Li H, Jiang H, Zhao M, Fu Y, Sun X. Intracellular redox potential-responsive micelles based on polyethylenimine-cystamine-poly(ε-caprolactone) block copolymer for enhanced miR-34a delivery. Polym Chem 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4py01623h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A novel polymer polyethylenimine-cystamine-poly(ε-caprolactone) with intracellular redox potential-responsive cleavable ability was synthesized and fabricated the micelles as smart gene vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanmei Li
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery Systems
- Ministry of Education
- West China School of Pharmacy
- Sichuan University Chengdu No. 17
- Chengdu
| | - Hao Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery Systems
- Ministry of Education
- West China School of Pharmacy
- Sichuan University Chengdu No. 17
- Chengdu
| | - Mengnan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery Systems
- Ministry of Education
- West China School of Pharmacy
- Sichuan University Chengdu No. 17
- Chengdu
| | - Yao Fu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery Systems
- Ministry of Education
- West China School of Pharmacy
- Sichuan University Chengdu No. 17
- Chengdu
| | - Xun Sun
- Key Laboratory of Drug Targeting and Drug Delivery Systems
- Ministry of Education
- West China School of Pharmacy
- Sichuan University Chengdu No. 17
- Chengdu
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7
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Ma Y, Chen B, He N, Chen G, Li L, Wu C. Revisiting Complexation between DNA and Polyethylenimine: Does the Disulfide Linkage Play a Critical Role in Promoting Gene Delivery? Macromol Biosci 2014; 14:1807-15. [DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201400253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2014] [Revised: 08/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yongzheng Ma
- Department of Chemistry; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Shatin N. T. Hong Kong
| | - Baizhu Chen
- Department of Chemistry; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Shatin N. T. Hong Kong
| | - Ning He
- Department of Chemistry; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Shatin N. T. Hong Kong
| | - Gaojian Chen
- Department of Chemistry; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Shatin N. T. Hong Kong
| | - Lianwei Li
- The Hefei National Laboratory of Physical Science at Microscale, Department of Chemical Physics; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 China
| | - Chi Wu
- Department of Chemistry; The Chinese University of Hong Kong; Shatin N. T. Hong Kong
- The Hefei National Laboratory of Physical Science at Microscale, Department of Chemical Physics; University of Science and Technology of China; Hefei Anhui 230026 China
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8
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Stryjewska A, Kiepura K, Librowski T, Lochyński S. Biotechnology and genetic engineering in the new drug development. Part II. Monoclonal antibodies, modern vaccines and gene therapy. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 65:1086-101. [PMID: 24399705 DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71467-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies, modern vaccines and gene therapy have become a major field in modern biotechnology, especially in the area of human health and fascinating developments achieved in the past decades are impressive examples of an interdisciplinary interplay between medicine, biology and engineering. Among the classical products from cells one can find viral vaccines, monoclonal antibodies, and interferons, as well as recombinant therapeutic proteins. Gene therapy opens up challenging new areas. In this review, a definitions of these processes are given and fields of application and products, as well as the future prospects, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Stryjewska
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, PL 50-370 Wrocław, Poland. ;
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Kim CW, Toita R, Kang JH, Li K, Lee EK, Zhao GX, Funamoto D, Nobori T, Nakamura Y, Mori T, Niidome T, Katayama Y. Stabilization of cancer-specific gene carrier via hydrophobic interaction for a clear-cut response to cancer signaling. J Control Release 2013; 170:469-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2013.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 05/09/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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10
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Wang W, Fang C, Wang X, Chen Y, Wang Y, Feng W, Yan C, Zhao M, Peng S. Modifying mesoporous silica nanoparticles to avoid the metabolic deactivation of 6-mercaptopurine and methotrexate in combinatorial chemotherapy. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:6249-6253. [PMID: 23680872 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr00227f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Mesoporous silica nanoparticles with amino and thiol groups (MSNSN) were prepared and covalently modified with methotrexate and 6-mercaptopurine to form 6-MP-MSNSN-MTX. In the presence of DTT, 6-MP-MSNSN-MTX gradually releases 6-MP. In rat plasma, 6-MP-MSNSN-MTX effectively inhibits the metabolic deactivation of 6-MP and MTX. 6-MP-MSNSN-MTX could be an agent for long-acting chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Wang
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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11
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Yu ZQ, Yan JJ, You YZ, Zhou QH. Bioreducible and acid-labile poly(amido amine)s for efficient gene delivery. Int J Nanomedicine 2012; 7:5819-32. [PMID: 23209367 PMCID: PMC3511192 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s37334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular processes, including endosomal escape and intracellular release, are efficiency-determining steps in achieving successful gene delivery. It has been found that the presence of acid-labile units in polymers can facilitate endosomal escape and that the presence of reducible units in polymers can lead to intracellular release. In this study, poly(amido amine)s with both bioreducible and acid-labile properties were synthesized to improve gene delivery compared with single-responsive carriers. Transfection and cytotoxicity were evaluated in three cell lines. The complexes of DNA with dual-responsive polymers showed higher gene transfection efficiency than single-responsive polymers and polyethylenimine. At the same time, these polymers were tens of times less cytotoxic than polyethylenimine. Therefore, a polymer that is both reducible and acid-labile is a promising material for efficient and biocompatible gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Qiang Yu
- Chinese Academy of Sciences, Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, People's Republic of China
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12
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Li J, Zhu Y, Hazeldine ST, Firestine SM, Oupický D. Cyclam-based polymeric copper chelators for gene delivery and potential PET imaging. Biomacromolecules 2012; 13:3220-7. [PMID: 23004346 DOI: 10.1021/bm3009999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
A series of reducible polycationic copper chelators (RPCs) based on 1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane (cyclam) were synthesized by Michael addition. Molecular weight of the polycations was controlled by reaction stoichiometry and reaction conditions, resulting in polymers with molecular weights ranging from 4400 to 13 800. The cyclam moieties in the polycations retained their ability to form complexes with Cu(II). The presence of disulfide bonds in the polycations resulted in substantially lower cytotoxicity than control 25 kDa poly(ethyleneimine). RPC as well as their complexes with Cu(II) exhibited high transfection activity in vitro. The reported polycationic Cu(II) chelates represent promising nucleic acid delivery vectors with potential for future theranostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
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13
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Guo R, Li LL, Zhao WH, Chen YX, Wang XZ, Fang CJ, Feng W, Zhang TL, Ma X, Lu M, Peng SQ, Yan CH. The intracellular controlled release from bioresponsive mesoporous silica with folate as both targeting and capping agent. NANOSCALE 2012; 4:3577-3583. [PMID: 22543578 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr30425b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A smart mesoporous silica nanocarrier with intracellular controlled release is fabricated, with folic acid as dual-functional targeting and capping agent. The folate not only improves the efficiency of the nanocarrier internalized by the cancer cells, but also blocks the pores of the mesoporous silica to eliminate premature leakage of the drug. With disulfide bonds as linkers to attach the dual-functional folate within the surface of mesoporous silica, the controlled release can be triggered in the presence of reductant dithiothreitol (DTT) or glutathione (GSH). The cellular internalization via folate-receptor-mediated endocytosis and the intracellular controlled release of highly toxic anticancer drug DOX were demonstrated with an in vitro HeLa cell culture, indicating an efficient cancer-targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Guo
- School of Chemical Biology and Pharmaceutics, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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14
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Wohl BM, Engbersen JF. Responsive layer-by-layer materials for drug delivery. J Control Release 2012; 158:2-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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15
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Kim HJ, Oba M, Pittella F, Nomoto T, Cabral H, Matsumoto Y, Miyata K, Nishiyama N, Kataoka K. PEG-detachable cationic polyaspartamide derivatives bearing stearoyl moieties for systemic siRNA delivery toward subcutaneous BxPC3 pancreatic tumor. J Drug Target 2011; 20:33-42. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2011.632010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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16
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Shirazi RS, Ewert KK, Leal C, Majzoub RN, Bouxsein NF, Safinya CR. Synthesis and characterization of degradable multivalent cationic lipids with disulfide-bond spacers for gene delivery. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2011; 1808:2156-66. [PMID: 21640069 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2010] [Revised: 04/04/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapy provides powerful new approaches to curing a large variety of diseases, which are being explored in ongoing worldwide clinical trials. To overcome the limitations of viral gene delivery systems, synthetic nonviral vectors such as cationic liposomes (CLs) are desirable. However, improvements of their efficiency at reduced toxicity and a better understanding of their mechanism of action are required. We present the efficient synthesis of a series of degradable multivalent cationic lipids (CMVLn, n=2 to 5) containing a disulfide bond spacer between headgroup and lipophilic tails. This spacer is designed to be cleaved in the reducing milieu of the cytoplasm and thus decrease lipid toxicity. Small angle X-ray scattering demonstrates that the initially formed lamellar phase of CMVLn-DNA complexes completely disappears when reducing agents such as DTT or the biologically relevant reducing peptide glutathione are added to mimic the intracellular milieu. The CMVLs (n=3 to 5) exhibit reduced cytotoxicity and transfect mammalian cells with efficiencies comparable to those of highly efficient non-degradable analogs and benchmark commercial reagents such as Lipofectamine 2000. Thus, our results demonstrate that degradable disulfide spacers may be used to reduce the cytotoxicity of synthetic nonviral gene delivery carriers without compromising their transfection efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahau S Shirazi
- Chemistry and Biochemistry Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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17
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Abstract
Bioreducible polymers, which possess mainly disulfide linkages in the polymer structures, have appeared as ideal gene delivery carriers due to the high stability in extracellular physiological condition and bioreduction-triggered release of genetic materials, as well as decreased cytotoxicity because intracellular cytosol is a reducing environment containing high level of reducing molecules such as glutathione. This review will describe the initiation and recent advances in the development of bioreducible polymers for gene delivery, which includes reducibly cross-linked PEIs, polypeptides, polyion complex micelles, and poly(amido amine)s. There have been extensive researches performed to exhibit great gene delivery efficacy but still several important issues about pharmacokinetics or safety should be answered thoroughly for further rational design of bioreducible polymers having potentials in human gene delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-il Kim
- Department of Biosystems and Biomaterials Science and Engineering, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Wan Kim
- Center for Controlled Chemical Delivery, Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, College of Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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18
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Disulfide-based poly(amido amine)s for siRNA delivery: effects of structure on siRNA complexation, cellular uptake, gene silencing and toxicity. Pharm Res 2010; 28:1013-22. [PMID: 21181546 PMCID: PMC3073045 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-010-0344-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Purpose RNA interference (RNAi) is a process by which small interfering RNAs (siRNA) induce sequence-specific gene silencing. Therefore, siRNA is an emerging promise as a novel therapeutic. In order to realize the high expectations for therapeutic applications, efficient delivery systems for siRNA are necessary. Methods In this study, a new series of biodegradable poly(amido amine)s with disulfide linkages in the backbone was synthesized out of N,N′-cystaminebisacrylamide (CBA), 4-amino-1-butanol (ABOL) and ethylene diamine (EDA). Effects of different percentages of butanolic side chains and protonatable fragments in the main chain on siRNA complexation, cellular uptake, gene silencing and toxicity were investigated. Results Incorporation of EDA in the polymer resulted in increased siRNA condensation. Efficient siRNA condensation was shown to be necessary for cellular uptake; however, excess of polymer decreased siRNA uptake for polymers with high amounts of EDA. Silencing efficiency did not correlate with uptake, since silencing increased with increasing w/w ratio for all polymers. More than 80% knockdown was found for polyplexes formed with polymers containing 25% or 50% EDA, which was combined with low cytotoxicity. Conclusions Poly(amido amine)s with minor fractions of protonatable fragments in the main chain are promising carriers for delivery of siRNA. Electronic Supplementary Material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11095-010-0344-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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19
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Kang HC, Kang HJ, Bae YH. A reducible polycationic gene vector derived from thiolated low molecular weight branched polyethyleneimine linked by 2-iminothiolane. Biomaterials 2010; 32:1193-203. [PMID: 21071079 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.08.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2010] [Accepted: 08/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
To improve transfection efficiency and reduce the cytotoxicity of polymeric gene vectors, reducible polycations (RPC) were synthesized from low molecular weight (MW) branched polyethyleneimine (bPEI) via thiolation and oxidation. RPC (RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa)) possessed MW of 5 kDa-80 kDa, and 50%-70% of the original proton buffering capacity of bPEI(0.8 kDa) was preserved in the final product. The cytotoxicity of RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa) was 8-19 times less than that of the gold standard of polymeric transfection reagents, bPEI(25 kDa). Although bPEI(0.8 kDa) exhibited poor gene condensing capacities (∼2 μm at a weight ratio (WR) of 40), RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa) effectively condensed plasmid DNA (pDNA) at a WR of 2. Moreover, RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa)/pDNA (WR ≥2) formed 100-200 nm-sized particles with positively charged surfaces (20-35 mV). In addition, the results of the present study indicated that thiol/polyanions triggered the release of pDNA from RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa)/pDNA via the fragmentation of RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa) and ion-exchange. With negligible polyplex-mediated cytotoxicity, the transfection efficiencies of RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa)/pDNA were approximately 1200-1500-fold greater than that of bPEI(0.8 kDa)/pDNA and were equivalent or superior (∼7-fold) to that of bPEI(25 kDa)/pDNA. Interestingly, the distribution of high MW RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa)/pDNA in the nucleus of the cell was higher than that of low MW RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa)/pDNA. Thus, the results of the present study suggest that RPC-bPEI(0.8 kDa) has the potential to effectively deliver genetic materials with lower levels of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Chang Kang
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, The University of Utah, 421 Wakara way, Suite 318, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA
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20
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Rahbek UL, Nielsen AF, Dong M, You Y, Chauchereau A, Oupicky D, Besenbacher F, Kjems J, Howard KA. Bioresponsive hyperbranched polymers for siRNA and miRNA delivery. J Drug Target 2010; 18:812-20. [PMID: 20979442 DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2010.527982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
This work presents the novel use of reducible hyperbranched (rHB) polymers for delivery of RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics. Cationic poly(amido amine) hyperbranched polymers that contain different contents of reducible disulfide to nonreducible linkages (0%, 17%, 25%, and 50%) were used to form interpolyelectrolyte polyplexes with siRNA and precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed rHB complexes of ∼100 nm in size, which exhibited redox-activated disassembly in the presence of dithiothreitol (DTT). The complexes were avidly internalized and showed no cellular toxicity in an endogenous enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP) expressing H1299 human lung cancer cell line. The highest specific EGFP gene silencing (∼75%) was achieved with rHB (17%)/siRNA complexes at a weight-to-weight (w/w) ratio of 40 that correlated with the ability for this polymer to successfully transfect pre-miRNA. Evaluation of temporal silencing levels over 72 h revealed incremental knockdown that reached a maximum at 72 h for the rHB (50%) complexes, in contrast to maximum knockdown at 24 h that remained relatively consistent, thereafter, for the rHB (17%), rHB (25%), and non-rHB complexes. The role of particle disassembly for intracellular targeting and modulation of gene silencing addressed in this work are important considerations in the development of this and other next-generation delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrik L Rahbek
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), University of Aarhus, Aarhus C, Denmark
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Park KM, Lee DW, Sarkar B, Jung H, Kim J, Ko YH, Lee KE, Jeon H, Kim K. Reduction-sensitive, robust vesicles with a non-covalently modifiable surface as a multifunctional drug-delivery platform. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2010; 6:1430-1441. [PMID: 20564485 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201000293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The design and synthesis of a novel reduction-sensitive, robust, and biocompatible vesicle (SSCB[6]VC) are reported, which is self-assembled from an amphiphilic cucurbit[6]uril (CB[6]) derivative that contains disulfide bonds between hexaethylene glycol units and a CB[6] core. The remarkable features of SSCB[6]VC include: 1) facile, non-destructive, non-covalent, and modular surface modification using exceptionally strong host-guest chemistry; 2) high structural stability; 3) facile internalization into targeted cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis, and 4) efficient triggered release of entrapped drugs in a reducing environment such as cytoplasm. Furthermore, a significantly increased cytotoxicity of the anticancer drug doxorubicin to cancer cells is demonstrated using doxorubicin-loaded SSCB[6]VC, the surface of which is decorated with functional moieties such as a folate-spermidine conjugate and fluorescein isothiocyanate-spermidine conjugate as targeting ligand and fluorescence imaging probe, respectively. SSCB[6]VC with such unique features can be used as a highly versatile multifunctional platform for targeted drug delivery, which may find useful applications in cancer therapy. This novel strategy based on supramolecular chemistry and the unique properties of CB[6] can be extended to design smart multifunctional materials for biomedical applications including gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyeng Min Park
- National Creative Research Initiative Center for Smart Supramolecules (CSS) Department of Chemistry and Division of Advanced Materials Science Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH) Pohang 790-784, Republic of Korea
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Jiang X, Zheng Y, Chen HH, Leong KW, Wang TH, Mao HQ. Dual-sensitive micellar nanoparticles regulate DNA unpacking and enhance gene-delivery efficiency. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2010; 22:2556-2560. [PMID: 20440698 PMCID: PMC3000804 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200903933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Jiang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218 (USA)
| | - Yiran Zheng
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218 (USA)
| | - Hunter H. Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21231 (USA)
| | - Kam W. Leong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708 (USA)
| | - Tza-Huei Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21231 (USA), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218 (USA)
| | - Hai-Quan Mao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Whitaker Biomedical Engineering Institute, Johns Hopkins University, 206 Maryland Hall, Baltimore, MD 21218 (USA)
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Chong SF, Chandrawati R, Städler B, Park J, Cho J, Wang Y, Jia Z, Bulmus V, Davis TP, Zelikin AN, Caruso F. Stabilization of polymer-hydrogel capsules via thiol-disulfide exchange. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2009; 5:2601-2610. [PMID: 19771568 DOI: 10.1002/smll.200900906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Polymer hydrogels are used in diverse biomedical applications including drug delivery and tissue engineering. Among different chemical linkages, the natural and reversible thiol-disulfide interconversion is extensively explored to stabilize hydrogels. The creation of macro-, micro-, and nanoscale disulfide-stabilized hydrogels commonly relies on the use of oxidizing agents that may have a detrimental effect on encapsulated cargo. Herein an oxidization-free approach to create disulfide-stabilized polymer hydrogels via a thiol-disulfide exchange reaction is reported. In particular, thiolated poly(methacrylic acid) is used and the conditions of polymer crosslinking in solution and on colloidal porous and solid microparticles are established. In the latter case, removal of the core particles yields stable, hollow, disulfide-crosslinked hydrogel capsules. Further, a procedure is developed to achieve efficient disulfide crosslinking of multilayered polymer films to obtain stable, liposome-loaded polymer-hydrogel capsules that contain functional enzymatic cargo within the liposomal subcompartments. This approach is envisaged to facilitate the development of biomedical applications of hydrogels, specifically those including fragile cargo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siow-Feng Chong
- Centre for Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
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Abstract
A series of reducible hyperbranched poly(amido amine)s (RHB) with high transfection efficiency were designed and synthesized as nonviral gene delivery vectors. The polycations were synthesized by Michael addition copolymerization of N,N-dimethylaminodipropylenetriamine (DMDPTA) and two bisacrylamide monomers N,N'-hexamethylene bisacrylamide (HMBA) and N,N'-cystamine bisacrylamide (CBA). The density of disulfide linkages in the synthesized hyperbranched polymers was tuned by varying the feed molar ratio of the bisacrylamide monomers. The results demonstrate that disulfide content in RHB controls the molecular weight of the polycation degradation products, ease of polyplex disassembly, polycation cytotoxicity, and polyplex transfection activity. Due to their lower cytotoxicity, polyplexes based on reducible polycations could be used safely in a wider range of DNA doses than nonreducible controls. As a result, significantly increased transfection activity is achieved with optimized formulations of reducible polyplexes compared with nonreducible controls.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chao Wu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - David Oupický
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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Bauhuber S, Hozsa C, Breunig M, Göpferich A. Delivery of nucleic acids via disulfide-based carrier systems. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2009; 21:3286-3306. [PMID: 20882498 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200802453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Nucleic acids are not only expected to assume a pivotal position as "drugs" in the treatment of genetic and acquired diseases, but could also act as molecular cues to control the microenvironment during tissue regeneration. Despite this promise, the efficient delivery of nucleic acids to their side of action is still the major hurdle. One among many prerequisites for a successful carrier system for nucleic acids is high stability in the extracellular environment, accompanied by an efficient release of the cargo in the intracellular compartment. A promising strategy to create such an interactive delivery system is to exploit the redox gradient between the extra- and intracellular compartments. In this review, emphasis is placed on the biological rationale for the synthesis of redox sensitive, disulfide-based carrier systems, as well as the extra- and intracellular processing of macromolecules containing disulfide bonds. Moreover, the basic synthetic approaches for introducing disulfide bonds into carrier molecules, together with examples that demonstrate the benefit of disulfides at the individual stages of nucleic acid delivery, will be presented.
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Effect of innate glutathione levels on activity of redox-responsive gene delivery vectors. J Control Release 2009; 141:77-84. [PMID: 19720098 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2009] [Revised: 08/03/2009] [Accepted: 08/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Redox-responsive polyplexes represent a promising class of non-viral gene delivery vectors. The reducible disulfide bonds in the polyplexes undergo intracellular reduction owing to the presence of high concentrations of reduced glutathione (GSH). Available evidence suggests improved transfection activity of redox-sensitive polyplexes upon artificial modulation of intracellular GSH. This study investigates the effect of innate differences in GSH concentration in a panel of human pancreatic cancer cell lines on activity of reducible polyplexes of the four major classes of nucleic acid therapeutics: plasmid DNA (pDNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AON) and siRNA. In general, reducible polyplexes of linear poly(amido amines) (PAA) show improved activity compared to non-reducible polyplexes of PAA. Results demonstrate that increased GSH levels are associated with improved transfection of mRNA polyplexes but no clear trend is observed for pDNA, AON and siRNA polyplexes.
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Lin C, Engbersen JFJ. The role of the disulfide group in disulfide-based polymeric gene carriers. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2009; 6:421-39. [DOI: 10.1517/17425240902878010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Blacklock J, You YZ, Zhou QH, Mao G, Oupický D. Gene delivery in vitro and in vivo from bioreducible multilayered polyelectrolyte films of plasmid DNA. Biomaterials 2008; 30:939-50. [PMID: 19013638 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 10/16/2008] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Layer-by-layer (LbL) films were assembled on flexible stainless steel substrate using plasmid DNA and reducible hyperbranched poly(amido amine) (RHB) polycation. The films were characterized by XPS and their disassembly in reducing conditions confirmed by ellipsometry. Fibroblast and smooth muscle cell attachment and proliferation on DNA/RHB films were indistinguishable from those on control DNA/poly(ethylenimine) (PEI) films. In vitro transfection activity was evaluated using reporter plasmids encoding for secreted alkaline phosphatase (SEAP) and green fluorescent protein (GFP). DNA/RHB films showed higher and longer lasting transfection activity than control DNA/PEI films using SEAP plasmid. It was revealed through the use of GFP plasmid that DNA/RHB films transfected almost the entire cell population growing on the films. In vivo transfection activity was evaluated by subcutaneously implanting a stainless steel substrate coated with the DNA/RHB films containing SEAP plasmid DNA and measuring the levels of SEAP secreted into the blood circulation of rats. It was found that the plasma levels of SEAP peaked at approximately 160 ng SEAP/mL five days post-implantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenifer Blacklock
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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Manickam DS, Hirata A, Putt DA, Lash LH, Hirata F, Oupický D. Overexpression of Bcl-2 as a proxy redox stimulus to enhance activity of non-viral redox-responsive delivery vectors. Biomaterials 2008; 29:2680-8. [PMID: 18377980 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2008.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 03/13/2008] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Redox-sensitive non-viral delivery systems exploit intracellular reducing environment to improve the efficacy of the delivery of nucleic acids by selectively releasing the cargo in the subcellular space. Bcl-2 overexpression is frequently observed in human cancers and is closely associated with increased resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. One of the biochemical alterations accompanying Bcl-2 overexpression is the increase in cellular glutathione (GSH) levels. In this study, we hypothesize that such increase of GSH concentration will selectively enhance the transfection activity of redox-sensitive delivery systems in cells overexpressing Bcl-2. Transfection studies were conducted in MCF-7 mammary carcinoma cells and MCF-7 clones overexpressing Bcl-2. It was confirmed that Bcl-2 overexpression resulted in the expected increase in GSH concentration. Redox-sensitive complexes containing plasmid DNA, mRNA, antisense oligodeoxynucleotides, and siRNA exhibited selectively increased activity in cells overexpressing Bcl-2 compared to non-redox complexes. The effect of Bcl-2 overexpression on the selective enhancement of transfection was highly dependent on the type of the delivered nucleic acid, and was most pronounced for mRNA. This study shows that Bcl-2 overexpression can serve as a proxy redox stimulus to enhance the activity of all major classes of potential nucleic acid therapeutics, when delivered using redox-sensitive vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devika S Manickam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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Rahbek UL, Howard KA, Oupicky D, Manickam DS, Dong M, Nielsen AF, Hansen TB, Besenbacher F, Kjems J. Intracellular siRNA and precursor miRNA trafficking using bioresponsive copolypeptides. J Gene Med 2008; 10:81-93. [DOI: 10.1002/jgm.1120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
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Howard KA, Kjems J. Polycation-based nanoparticle delivery for improved RNA interference therapeutics. Expert Opin Biol Ther 2007; 7:1811-22. [PMID: 18034647 DOI: 10.1517/14712598.7.12.1811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Small-interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated silencing of genes implicated in disease by the process of RNA interference offers a novel genetic medicine approach. Polymeric nanoparticles (or polyplexes) formed by self-assembly of polycations with siRNA can be used for site-specific delivery, cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking as a strategy to improve the therapeutic potential of siRNA. This review describes the application of polyplexes for in vivo delivery of synthetic siRNA with focus given to systemic and mucosal routes and in vivo requirements. Issues including use of stimuli-responsive systems for intracellular trafficking of siRNA are discussed as part of necessary future directives towards the development of RNA-based clinical therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A Howard
- University of Aarhus, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO) and Department of Molecular Biology, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark.
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You YZ, Manickam DS, Zhou QH, Oupický D. Reducible poly(2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate): synthesis, cytotoxicity, and gene delivery activity. J Control Release 2007; 122:217-225. [PMID: 17574292 PMCID: PMC2063492 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2007.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2007] [Accepted: 04/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Reducible polycations represent promising carriers of therapeutic nucleic acids. Oligomers of 2-dimethylaminoethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) containing terminal thiol groups were synthesized by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization using difunctional chain transfer agent. Reducible poly(DMAEMA) (rPDMAEMA) was synthesized by oxidation of the terminal thiol groups, forming a polymer with disulfide bonds in the backbone. Physico-chemical properties of DNA polyplexes of rPDMAEMA were evaluated by dynamic and static light scattering methods, revealing lower structural density and DNA content than control PDMAEMA polyplexes. Cytotoxicity and transfection activity of rPDMAEMA-based DNA polyplexes were evaluated in vitro. In comparison with control PDMAEMA, only minimum toxic effects of rPDMAEMA were observed in a panel of cell lines. Transfection activity was tested in B16F10 mouse melanoma and six human pancreatic cancer cell lines. rPDMAEMA polyplexes showed a comparable or better activity than control PDMAEMA polyplexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye-Zi You
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | | | - Qing-Hui Zhou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - David Oupický
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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