Brain targeting of resveratrol through intranasal lipid vesicles labelled with gold nanoparticles: in vivo evaluation and bioaccumulation investigation using computed tomography and histopathological examination

Revolutionizing neurotherapeutics: Nanocarriers unveiling the potential of phytochemicals in Alzheimer's disease

Neurological disorders pose a huge worldwide challenge to the healthcare system, necessitating innovative strategies for targeted drug delivery to the central nervous system. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an untreatable neurodegenerative condition characterized by dementia and alterations in a patient's physiological and mental states. Since ancient times, medicinal plants have been an important source of bioactive phytochemicals with immense therapeutic potential. This review investigates new and safer alternatives for prevention and treatment of disease related to inevitable side effects associated with synthetic compounds. This review examines how nanotechnology can help in enhancing the delivery of neuroprotective phytochemicals in AD. Nevertheless, despite their remarkable neuroprotective properties, these natural products often have poor therapeutic efficacy due to low bioavailability, limited solubility and imperfect blood brain barrier (BBB) penetration. Nanotechnology produces personalized drug delivery systems which are necessary for solving such problems. In overcoming these challenges, nanotechnology might be employed as a way forward whereby customized medication delivery systems would be established as a result. The use of nanocarriers in the design and application of important phytochemicals is highlighted by this review, which indicate potential for revolutionizing neuroprotective drug delivery. We also explore the complications and possibilities of using nanocarriers to supply nutraceuticals and improve patients' standard of living, and preclinical as well as clinical investigations displaying that these techniques are effective in mitigating neurodegenerative diseases. In order to fight brain diseases and improve patient's health, scientists and doctors can employ nanotechnology with its possible therapeutic interventions.

Cholinesterase Inhibition and Antioxidative Capacity of New Heteroaromatic Resveratrol Analogs: Synthesis and Physico-Chemical Properties

The targeted compounds in this research, resveratrol analogs 1-14, were synthesized as mixtures of isomers by the Wittig reaction using heterocyclic triphenylphosphonium salts and various benzaldehydes. The planned compounds were those possessing the trans-configuration as the biologically active trans-resveratrol. The pure isomers were obtained by repeated column chromatography in various isolated yields depending on the heteroaromatic ring. It was found that butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) was more sensitive to the heteroaromatic resveratrol analogs than acetylcholinesterase (AChE), except for 6, the methylated thiophene derivative with chlorine, which showed equal inhibition toward both enzymes. Compounds 5 and 8 achieved the highest BChE inhibition with IC50 values of 22.9 and 24.8 μM, respectively. The same as with AChE and BChE, methylated thiophene subunits of resveratrol analogs showed better enzyme inhibition than unmethylated ones. Two antioxidant spectrophotometric methods, DPPH and CUPRAC, were applied to determine the antioxidant potential of new heteroaromatic resveratrol analogs. The molecular docking of these compounds was conducted to visualize the ligand-active site complexes' structure and identify the non-covalent interactions responsible for the complex's stability, which influence the inhibitory potential. As ADME properties are crucial in developing drug product formulations, they have also been addressed in this work. The potential genotoxicity is evaluated by in silico studies for all compounds synthesized.

Assembly of In-Situ Gel Containing Nano-Spanlastics of an Angiotensin II Inhibitor as a Novel Epitome for Hypertension Management: Factorial Design Optimization, In-vitro Gauging, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics Appraisal

More than 1 billion people worldwide suffer from hypertension; therefore, hypertension management has been categorized as a global health priority. Losartan potassium (LP) is an antihypertensive drug with a limited oral bioavailability of about 33% since it undergoes the initial metabolic cycle. Thus, nasal administration is a unique route to overcome first-pass metabolism. The investigation focused on the potential effects of LP-loaded spanlastic vesicles (SNVs) on LP pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetic parameters, utilizing a thin-film hydration methodology established on a 3122 full factorial design. Entrapment efficiency (EE%) ranged from 39.8 ± 3.87.8 to 83.8 ± 2.92% for LP-SNVs. Vesicle size (VS) varied from 205.5 ± 6.5.10 to 445.1 ± 13.52 nm, and the percentage of LP released after 8 h (Q8h) ranged from 30.8 ± 3.10 to 68.8 ± 1.45%. LP permeated through the nasal mucosa during 24 h and flocculated from 194.1 ± 4.90 to 435.3 ± 13.53 µg/cm2. After twenty-four hours, the optimal LP-SNVs in-situ gel showed 2.35 times more permeation through the nasal mucosa than the LP solution. It also lowered systolic blood pressure, so it is thought to be better than the reference formulation in terms of pharmacodynamics. The pharmacokinetics studies demonstrated that the intranasal LP-SNVs gel boosted its bioavailability approximately 6.36 times compared to the oral LP solution. Our research showed that intranasal LP-SNVs could be a good nanoplatform because they are well-tolerated and have possible pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics.

Gold Nanoparticles: Tunable Characteristics and Potential for Nasal Drug Delivery

A general procedure to prepare gold nanourchins (GNUs) via a seed-mediated method was followed using dopamine hydrochloride as a reducing agent and silver nitrate salt (AgNO3) as a shape-directing agent. The novelty of this study comes from the successful incorporation of the prepared gold urchins as an aqueous suspension in a nasal pressurized metered dose inhaler (pMDI) formulation and the investigation of their potential for olfactory targeting for direct nose-to-brain drug delivery (NTBDD). The developed pMDI formulation was composed of 0.025% w/w GNUs, 2% w/w Milli-Q water, and 2% w/w EtOH, with the balance of the formulation being HFA134a propellant. Particle integrity and aerosolization performance were examined using an aerosol exposure system, whereas the nasal deposition profile was tested in a sectioned anatomical replica of human nasal airways. The compatibility of the gold dispersion with the nasal epithelial cell line RPMI 2650 was also investigated in this study. Colloidal gold was found to be stable following six-month storage at 4 °C and during the lyophilization process utilizing a pectin matrix for complete re-dispersibility in water. The GNUs were intact and discrete following atomization via a pMDI, and 13% of the delivered particles were detected beyond the nasal valve, the narrowest region in the nasal cavity, out of which 5.6% was recovered from the olfactory region. Moreover, the formulation was found to be compatible with the human nasal epithelium cell line RPMI 2650 and excellent cell viability was observed. The formulated GNU-HFA-based pMDI is a promising approach for intranasal drug delivery, including deposition in the olfactory region, which could be employed for NTBDD applications.

In-depth Mechanism, Challenges, and Opportunities of Delivering Therapeutics in Brain Using Intranasal Route

Central nervous system-related disorders have become a continuing threat to human life and the current statistic indicates an increasing trend of such disorders worldwide. The primary therapeutic challenge, despite the availability of therapies for these disorders, is to sustain the drug's effective concentration in the brain while limiting its accumulation in non-targeted areas. This is attributed to the presence of the blood-brain barrier and first-pass metabolism which limits the transportation of drugs to the brain irrespective of popular and conventional routes of drug administration. Therefore, there is a demand to practice alternative routes for predictable drug delivery using advanced drug delivery carriers to overcome the said obstacles. Recent research attracted attention to intranasal-to-brain drug delivery for promising targeting therapeutics in the brain. This review emphasizes the mechanisms to deliver therapeutics via different pathways for nose-to-brain drug delivery with recent advancements in delivery and formulation aspects. Concurrently, for the benefit of future studies, the difficulties in administering medications by intranasal pathway have also been highlighted.

Latest advances and clinical application prospects of resveratrol therapy for neurocognitive disorders

Neurocognitive disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, vascular dementia, and postoperative cognitive dysfunction, are non-psychiatric brain syndromes in which a significant decline in cognitive function causes great trauma to the mental status of the patient. The lack of effective treatments for neurocognitive disorders imposes a considerable burden on society, including a substantial economic impact. Over the past few decades, the identification of resveratrol, a natural plant compound, has provided researchers with an opportunity to formulate novel strategies for the treatment of neurocognitive disorders. This is because resveratrol effectively protects the brain of those with neurocognitive disorders by targeting some mechanisms such as inflammation and oxidative stress. This article reviews the status of recent research investigating the use of resveratrol for the treatment of different neurocognitive disorders. By examining the possible mechanisms of action of resveratrol and the shared mechanisms of different neurocognitive disorders, treatments for neurocognitive disorders may be further clarified.

Versatile Nanoparticulate Systems as a Prosperous Platform for Targeted Nose-Brain Drug Delivery

The intranasal route has proven to be a reliable and promising route for delivering therapeutics to the central nervous system (CNS), averting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and avoiding extensive first-pass metabolism of some drugs, with minimal systemic exposure. This is considered to be the main problem associated with other routes of drug delivery such as oral, parenteral, and transdermal, among other administration methods. The intranasal route maximizes drug bioavailability, particularly those susceptible to enzymatic degradation such as peptides and proteins. This review will stipulate an overview of the intranasal route as a channel for drug delivery, including its benefits and drawbacks, as well as different mechanisms of CNS drug targeting using nanoparticulate drug delivery systems devices; it also focuses on pharmaceutical dosage forms such as drops, sprays, or gels via the nasal route comprising different polymers, absorption promoters, CNS ligands, and permeation enhancers.

Nanotechnology-based Nose-to-brain Delivery in Epilepsy: A NovelApproach to Diagnosis and Treatment

Epilepsy is a serious neurological disease, and scientists have a significant challenge in developing a noninvasive treatment for the treatment of epilepsy. The goal is to provide novel ideas for improving existing and future anti-epileptic medications. The injection of nano treatment via the nose to the brain is being considered as a possible seizure control method. Various nasal medicine nanoformulations have the potential to cure epilepsy. Investigations with a variety of nose-to-brain dosing methods for epilepsy treatment have yielded promising results. After examining global literature on nanotechnology and studies, the authors propose nasal administration with nanoformulations as a means to successfully treat epilepsy. The goal of this review is to look at the innovative application of nanomedicine for epilepsy treatment via nose-to-brain transfer, with a focus on the use of nanoparticles for load medicines. When nanotechnology is combined with the nose to brain approach, treatment efficacy can be improved through site specific delivery. Furthermore, this technique of administration decreases adverse effects and patient noncompliance encountered with more traditional procedures.

Intranasal Drug Delivery by Nanotechnology: Advances in and Challenges for Alzheimer's Disease Management

Alzheimer's disease, a progressive neurodegenerative condition, is characterized by a gradual decline in cognitive functions. Current treatment approaches primarily involve the administration of medications through oral, parenteral, and transdermal routes, aiming to improve cognitive function and alleviate symptoms. However, these treatments face limitations, such as low bioavailability and inadequate permeation. Alternative invasive methods, while explored, often entail discomfort and require specialized assistance. Therefore, the development of a non-invasive and efficient delivery system is crucial. Intranasal delivery has emerged as a potential solution, although it is constrained by the unique conditions of the nasal cavity. An innovative approach involves the use of nano-carriers based on nanotechnology for intranasal delivery. This strategy has the potential to overcome current limitations by providing enhanced bioavailability, improved permeation, effective traversal of the blood-brain barrier, extended retention within the body, and precise targeting of the brain. The comprehensive review focuses on the advancements in designing various types of nano-carriers, including polymeric nanoparticles, metal nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, nanoemulsions, Quantum dots, and dendrimers. These nano-carriers are specifically tailored for the intranasal delivery of therapeutic agents aimed at combatting Alzheimer's disease. In summary, the development and utilization of intranasal delivery systems based on nanotechnology show significant potential in surmounting the constraints of current Alzheimer's disease treatment strategies. Nevertheless, it is essential to acknowledge regulatory as well as toxicity concerns associated with this route; meticulous consideration is required when engineering a carrier. This comprehensive review underscores the potential to revolutionize Alzheimer's disease management and highlights the importance of addressing regulatory considerations for safe and effective implementations. Embracing this strategy could lead to substantial advancements in the field of Alzheimer's disease treatment.

Nanoparticles loaded with natural medicines for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that disrupts cognitive function and severely affects the quality of life. Existing drugs only improve cognitive function and provide temporary relief of symptoms but do not stop or delay disease progression. Recently, natural medicines, especially Chinese herbal medicines, have gained attention in the treatment of AD due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. However, conventional oral dosage forms lack brain specificity and have side effects that lead to poor patient compliance. Utilizing nanomedicine is a promising approach to improve brain specificity, bioavailability, and patient compliance. This review evaluates recent advances in the treatment of AD with nanoparticles containing various natural medicines. This review highlights that nanoparticles containing natural medicines are a promising strategy for the treatment of AD. It is believed that this technology can be translated into the clinic, thereby providing opportunities for AD patients to participate in social activities.

Nanovesicular-Mediated Intranasal Drug Therapy for Neurodegenerative Disease

Numerous neurodegenerative conditions, such as Alzheimer's, Huntington's, Parkinson's, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and glioblastoma multiform are now becoming significant concerns of global health. Formulation-related issues, physiological and anatomical barriers, post-administration obstacles, physical challenges, regulatory limitations, environmental hurdles, and health and safety issues have all hindered successful delivery and effective outcomes despite a variety of treatment options. In the current review, we covered the intranasal route, an alternative strategic route targeting brain for improved delivery across the BBB. The trans-nasal pathway is non-invasive, directing therapeutics directly towards brain, circumventing the barrier and reducing peripheral exposure. The delivery of nanosized vesicles loaded with drugs was also covered in the review. Nanovesicle systems are organised in concentric bilayered lipid membranes separated with aqueous layers. These carriers surmount the disadvantages posed by intranasal delivery of rapid mucociliary clearance and enzymatic degradation, and enhance retention of drug to reach the site of target. In conclusion, the review covers in-depth conclusions on numerous aspects of formulation of drug-loaded vesicular system delivery across BBB, current marketed nasal devices, significant jeopardies, potential therapeutic aids, and current advancements followed by future perspectives.

Intranasal Nanotransferosomal Gel for Quercetin Brain Targeting: I. Optimization, Characterization, Brain Localization, and Cytotoxic Studies

Numerous neurological disorders have a pathophysiology that involves an increase in free radical production in the brain. Quercetin (QER) is a nutraceutical compound that shields the brain against oxidative stress-induced neurodegeneration. Nonetheless, its low oral bioavailability diminishes brain delivery. Therefore, the current study aimed to formulate QER-loaded transferosomal nanovesicles (QER-TFS) in situ gel for QER brain delivery via the intranasal route. This study explored the impacts of lipid amount, edge activator (EA) amount, and EA type on vesicle diameter, entrapment, and cumulative amount permeated through nasal mucosa (24 h). The optimum formulation was then integrated into a thermosensitive gel after its physical and morphological characteristics were assessed. Assessments of the optimized QER-TFS showed nanometric vesicles (171.4 ± 3.4 nm) with spherical shapes and adequate entrapment efficiency (78.2 ± 2.8%). The results of short-term stability and high zeta potential value (-32.6 ± 1.4 mV) of QER-TFS confirmed their high stability. Compared with the QER solution, the optimized QER-TFS in situ gel formulation exhibited sustained release behavior and augmented nasal mucosa permeability. CT scanning of rat brains demonstrated the buildup of gold nanoparticles (GNPs) in the brains of all treatment groups, with a greater level of GNPs noted in the rats given the transferosomal gel. Additionally, in vitro studies on PCS-200-014 cells revealed minimal cytotoxicity of QER-TFS in situ gel. Based on these results, the developed transferosomal nanovesicles may be a suitable nanocarrier for QER brain targeting through the intranasal route.

Formulation and Evaluation of Pravastatin Sodium-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles: In vitro-in vivo Studies Assessment

Purpose

Pravastatin sodium (PVS) is a hypolipidemic drug which suffers from extensive first-pass metabolism and short half-life. Poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) is considered a promising carrier to improve its hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective activities.

Methods

PVS-loaded PLGA nanoparticles (PVS-PLGA-NPs) were prepared by double emulsion method using a full 3² factorial design. The in vitro release and the physical stability studies of the optimized PVS-PLGA-NPs (F5) were performed. Finally, both hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective activities of the optimized F5 NPs were studied and compared to PVS solution.

Results

All the studied physical parameters of the prepared NPs were found in the accepted range. The particle size (PS) ranged from 90 ± 0.125 nm to 179.33 ± 4.509 nm, the poly dispersity index (PDI) ranged from 0.121 ± 0.018 to 0.158 ± 0.014. The optimized NPs (F5) have the highest entrapment efficiency (EE%) (51.7 ± 5%), reasonable PS (168.4 ± 2.506 nm) as well as reasonable zeta potential (ZP) (-28.3 ± 1.18mv). Solid-state characterization indicated that PVS is well entrapped into NPs. All NPs have distinct spherical shape with smooth surface. The prepared NPs showed a controlled release profile. F5 showed good stability at 4 ± 2°C during the whole storage period of 3 months. In vivo study and histopathological examination indicated that F5 NPs showed significant increase in PVS hypolipidemic as well as hepatoprotective activity compared to PVS solution.

Conclusion

The PVS-PLGA-NPs could be considered a promising model to evade the first-pass effect and showed improvement in the hypolipidemic and hepatoprotective activities compared to PVS solution.

Asiatic Acid Fabricated Nanoconstructs to Mitigate Amyloid Beta1-42 Induced Injury in SH-SY5Y Cells In-Vitro and Ameliorates Cognitive Impairment by Dual Cholinesterase Inhibition and Attenuation of Oxidative Stress In-Vivo

PURPOSE

Asiatic acid (AA) is reported for its neuroprotective potential in Alzheimer's disease (AD). This present work aimed to develop AA loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (AAN) for targeting the delivery of AA into the brain and ameliorating the cognitive deficits in AD rats.

METHODS

AAN was optimized using the Box-Behnken design, considering 3 factors (soya lecithin, tween 80, and high pressure homogenizer (HPH) pressure) as independent variables while particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP) and entrapment efficiency (EE) were dependent variables. Cytotoxicity assay and internalization studies of AAN were evaluated in SH-SY5Y cells and further neuroprotective efficiency on intracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) aggregation was evaluated in Aβ _1-42 treated cells with thioflavin T (ThT). The behavioral acquisition effects were evaluated in Aβ _1-42 (5 µg/ 5 µL, intracerebroventricular (ICV), unilateral) induced AD model followed by the histology and quantification of neurotransmitters levels.

RESULTS

The optimized AAN revealed desired PS (44.1 ± 12.4 nm), ZP (- 47.1 ± 0.017 mv) and EE (73.41 ± 2.53%) for brain targeting delivery of AA. In-vitro, AAN exhibited better neuroprotective potential than AA suspension (AAS). AA content was 1.28 folds and 2.99 folds heightened in plasma and brain respectively after the i.p. administration of AAN as compared to AAS. The results of pharmacodynamic studies manifested the AAN treatment significantly (p < 0.05) ameliorated the cognitive deficits.

CONCLUSIONS

Hence, developed AAN has neuroprotective potential and should be further considered as an unconventional platform in preclinical model for the management of AD.

Drug delivery to the brain via the nasal route of administration: exploration of key targets and major consideration factors

Background

Cranial nerve-related diseases such as brain tumors, Alzheimer's disease, and epilepsy are serious diseases that continue to threaten human. Brain-related diseases are increasing worldwide, including in the United States and Korea, and these increases are closely related to the exposure to harmful substances and excessive stress caused by rapid industrialization and environmental pollution. Drug delivery to the brain is very important for the effective prevention and treatment of brain-related diseases. However, due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier and the extensive first-pass metabolism effect, the general routes of administration such as oral and intravenous routes have limitations in drug delivery to the brain. Therefore, as an alternative, the nasal-brain drug delivery route is attracting attention as a route for effective drug delivery to the brain.

Areas covered

This review includes physiological factors, advantages, limitations, current application status, especially in clinical applications, and the necessary factors for consideration in formulation development related to nasal-brain drug delivery.

Expert opinion

The nasal-brain drug delivery route has the advantage of enhancing drug delivery to the brain locally, mainly through the olfactory route rather than the systemic circulation. The nasal-brain lymphatic system has recently attracted attention, and it has been implied that the delivery of anticancer drugs to the brain nervous system is possible effectively. However, there are limitations such as low drug permeability, as well as nasal mucosa and the mucociliary system, as obstacles in nasal-brain drug delivery. Therefore, to overcome the limitations of nasal-brain drug delivery, the use of nanocarriers and mucoadhesive agents is being attempted. However, very few drugs have been officially approved for clinical application via the nasal-brain drug delivery route. This is probably because the understanding of and related studies on nasal-brain drug delivery are limited. In this review, we tried to explore the major considerations and target factors in drug delivery through the nasal-brain route based on physiological knowledge and formulation research information. This will help to provide a mechanistic understanding of drug delivery through the nasal-brain route and bring us one step closer to developing effective formulations and drugs in consideration of the key factors for nasal-brain drug delivery.

Free radical biology in neurological manifestations: mechanisms to therapeutics interventions

Recent advancements and growing attention about free radicals (ROS) and redox signaling enable the scientific fraternity to consider their involvement in the pathophysiology of inflammatory diseases, metabolic disorders, and neurological defects. Free radicals increase the concentration of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in the biological system through different endogenous sources and thus increased the overall oxidative stress. An increase in oxidative stress causes cell death through different signaling mechanisms such as mitochondrial impairment, cell-cycle arrest, DNA damage response, inflammation, negative regulation of protein, and lipid peroxidation. Thus, an appropriate balance between free radicals and antioxidants becomes crucial to maintain physiological function. Since the 1brain requires high oxygen for its functioning, it is highly vulnerable to free radical generation and enhanced ROS in the brain adversely affects axonal regeneration and synaptic plasticity, which results in neuronal cell death. In addition, increased ROS in the brain alters various signaling pathways such as apoptosis, autophagy, inflammation and microglial activation, DNA damage response, and cell-cycle arrest, leading to memory and learning defects. Mounting evidence suggests the potential involvement of micro-RNAs, circular-RNAs, natural and dietary compounds, synthetic inhibitors, and heat-shock proteins as therapeutic agents to combat neurological diseases. Herein, we explain the mechanism of free radical generation and its role in mitochondrial, protein, and lipid peroxidation biology. Further, we discuss the negative role of free radicals in synaptic plasticity and axonal regeneration through the modulation of various signaling molecules and also in the involvement of free radicals in various neurological diseases and their potential therapeutic approaches. The primary cause of free radical generation is drug overdosing, industrial air pollution, toxic heavy metals, ionizing radiation, smoking, alcohol, pesticides, and ultraviolet radiation. Excessive generation of free radicals inside the cell R1Q1 increases reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, which causes oxidative damage. An increase in oxidative damage alters different cellular pathways and processes such as mitochondrial impairment, DNA damage response, cell cycle arrest, and inflammatory response, leading to pathogenesis and progression of neurodegenerative disease other neurological defects.

Neuroprotective Potential of Intranasally Delivered Sulforaphane-Loaded Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Against Cisplatin-Induced Neurotoxicity

Cisplatin (CIS) is a platinum-based chemotherapeutic drug that is widely used to treat cancer. However, its therapeutic efficiency is limited due to its potential to provoke neurotoxicity. Sulforaphane (SF) is a natural phytochemical that demonstrated several protective activities. Iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe₃O₄-NPs) could be used as drug carriers. This study aimed to explore the nanotoxic influence of SF-loaded within Fe₃O₄-NPs (N.SF), and to compare the neuroprotective potential of both N.SF and SF against CIS-induced neurotoxicity. N.SF or SF was administrated intranasally for 5 days before and 3 days after a single dose of CIS (12 mg/kg/week, i.p.) on the 6^th day. Neuromuscular coordination was assessed using hanging wire and tail-flick tests. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities and markers of oxidative stress were measured in the brain. In addition, the brain iron (Fe) content was estimated. CIS significantly induced a significant increase in AChE activities and lipid peroxides, and a significant decrement in glutathione (GSH) and nitric oxide (NO) contents. CIS elicited impaired neuromuscular function and thermal hyperalgesia. CIS-induced brains displayed a significant reduction in Fe content. Histopathological examination of different brain regions supported the biochemical and behavioral results. Contradict, treatment of CIS-rats with either N.SF or SF significantly decreased AChE activity, mitigated oxidative stress, and ameliorated the behavioral outcome. The histopathological features supported our results. Collectively, N.SF demonstrated superior neuroprotective activities on the behavioral, biochemical, and histopathological (striatum and cerebral cortex) aspects. N.SF could be regarded as a promising “pre-clinical” neuroprotective agent. Furthermore, this study confirmed the safe toxicological profile of Fe₃O₄-NPs.

Involvement of Resveratrol against Brain Cancer: A Combination Strategy with a Pharmaceutical Approach

A brain tumor (BT) is a condition in which there is growth or uncontrolled development of the brain cells, which usually goes unrecognized or is diagnosed at the later stages. Since the mechanism behind BT is not clear, and the various physiological conditions are difficult to diagnose, the success rate of BT is not very high. This is the central issue faced during drug development and clinical trials with almost all types of neurodegenerative disorders. In the first part of this review, we focus on the concept of brain tumors, their barriers, and the types of delivery possible to target the brain cells. Although various treatment methods are available, they all have side effects or toxic effects. Hence, in the second part, a correlation was made between the use of resveratrol, a potent antioxidant, and its advantages for brain diseases. The relationship between brain disease and the blood–brain barrier, multi-drug resistance, and the use of nanomedicine for treating brain disorders is also mentioned. In short, a hypothetical concept is given with a background investigation into the use of combination therapy with resveratrol as an active ingredient, the possible drug delivery, and its formulation-based approach.

Natural Product-based Nanomedicine: Recent Advances and Issues for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) affects the elderly and is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration caused by different pathologies. The most significant challenges in treating AD include the inability of medications to reach the brain because of its poor solubility, low bioavailability, and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Additionally, current evidence suggests the disruption of BBB plays an important role in the pathogenesis of AD. One of the critical challenges in treating AD is the ineffective treatments and their severe adverse effects. Nanotechnology offers an alternative approach to facilitate the treatment of AD by overcoming the challenges in drug transport across the BBB. Various nanoparticles (NP) loaded with natural products were reported to aid in drug delivery for the treatment of AD. The nano-sized entities of NP are great platforms for incorporating active materials from natural products into formulations that can be delivered effectively to the intended action site without compromising the material's bioactivity. The review highlights the applications of medicinal plants, their derived components, and various nanomedicinebased approaches for the treatment of AD. The combination of medicinal plants and nanotechnology may lead to new theragnostic solutions for the treatment of AD in the future.

Benefits and limitations of nanomedicine treatment of brain cancers and age-dependent neurodegenerative disorders

The treatment of central nervous system (CNS) malignancies, including brain cancers, is limited by a number of obstructions, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB), the heterogeneity and high invasiveness of tumors, the inaccessibility of tissues for early diagnosis and effective surgery, and anti-cancer drug resistance. Therapies employing nanomedicine have been shown to facilitate drug penetration across the BBB and maintain biodistribution and accumulation of therapeutic agents at the desired target site. The application of lipid-, polymer-, or metal-based nanocarriers represents an advanced drug delivery system for a growing group of anti-cancer chemicals. The nanocarrier surface is designed to contain an active ligand (cancer cell marker or antibody)-binding structure which can be modified to target specific cancer cells. Glioblastoma, ependymoma, neuroblastoma, medulloblastoma, and primary CNS lymphomas were recently targeted by easily absorbed nanocarriers. The metal- (such as transferrin drug-loaded systems), polymer- (nanocapsules and nanospheres), or lipid- (such as sulfatide-containing nanoliposomes)-based nano-vehicles were loaded with apoptosis- and/or ferroptosis-stimulating agents and demonstrated promising anti-cancer effects. This review aims to discuss effective nanomedicine approaches designed to overcome the current limitations in the therapy of brain cancers and age-dependent neurodegenerative disorders. To accent current obstacles for successful CNS-based cancer therapy, we discuss nanomedicine perspectives and limitations of nanodrug use associated with the specificity of nervous tissue characteristics and the effects nanocarriers have on cognition.

Therapeutic nanotechnologies for Alzheimer's disease: a critical analysis of recent trends and findings

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is an irreversible neurodegenerative disease for which no disease modifying therapies are presently available. Besides the identification of pathological targets, AD presents numerous clinical and pharmacological challenges such as efficient active delivery to the central nervous system, cell targeting, and long-term dosing. Nanoparticles have been explored to overcome some of these challenges as drug delivery vehicles or drugs themselves. However, early promises have failed to materialize as no nanotechnology-based product has been able to reach the market and very few have moved past preclinical stages. In this review, we perform a critical analysis of the past decade's research on nanomedicine-based therapies for AD at the preclinical and clinical stages. The main obstacles to nanotechnology products and the most promising approaches were also identified, including renewed promise with gene editing, gene modulation, and vaccines.

Intranasal Delivery of Functionalized Polymeric Nanomaterials to the Brain

Intravenous delivery of nanomaterials containing therapeutic agents and various cargos for treating neurological disorders is often constrained by low delivery efficacy due to difficulties in passing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanoparticles (NPs) administered intranasally can move along olfactory and trigeminal nerves so that they do not need to pass through the BBB, allowing non-invasive, direct access to selective neural pathways within the brain. Hence, intranasal (IN) administration of NPs can effectively deliver drugs and genes into targeted regions of the brain, holding potential for efficacious disease treatment in the central nervous system (CNS). In this review, current methods for delivering conjugated NPs to the brain are primarily discussed. Distinctive potential mechanisms of therapeutic nanocomposites delivered via IN pathways to the brain are then discussed. Recent progress in developing functional NPs for applications in multimodal bioimaging, drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutics is also reviewed. This review is then concluded by discussing existing challenges, new directions, and future perspectives in IN delivery of nanomaterials.

Direct nose to the brain nanomedicine delivery presents a formidable challenge

This advanced review describes the anatomical and physiological barriers and mechanisms impacting nanomedicine translocation from the nasal cavity directly to the brain. There are significant physiological and anatomical differences in the nasal cavity, olfactory area, and airflow reaching the olfactory epithelium between humans and experimentally studied species that should be considered when extrapolating experimental results to humans. Mucus, transporters, and tight junction proteins present barriers to material translocation across the olfactory epithelium. Uptake of nanoparticles through the olfactory mucosa and translocation to the brain can be intracellular via cranial nerves (intraneuronal) or other cells of the olfactory epithelium, or extracellular along cranial nerve pathways (perineural) and surrounding blood vessels (perivascular, the glymphatic system). Transport rates vary greatly among the nose to brain pathways. Nanomedicine physicochemical properties (size, surface charge, surface coating, and particle stability) can affect uptake efficiency, which is usually less than 5%. Incorporation of therapeutic agents in nanoparticles has been shown to produce pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic benefits. Assessment of adverse effects has included olfactory mucosa toxicity, ciliotoxicity, and olfactory bulb and brain neurotoxicity. The results have generally suggested the investigated nanomedicines do not present significant toxicity. Research needs to advance the understanding of nanomedicine translocation and its drug cargo after intranasal administration is presented. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Neurological Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.

Self-Assembling Drug Formulations with Tunable Permeability and Biodegradability

This review focuses on key topics in the field of drug delivery related to the design of nanocarriers answering the biomedicine criteria, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and the ability to overcome biological barriers. For these reasons, much attention is paid to the amphiphile-based carriers composed of natural building blocks, lipids, and their structural analogues and synthetic surfactants that are capable of self-assembly with the formation of a variety of supramolecular aggregates. The latter are dynamic structures that can be used as nanocontainers for hydrophobic drugs to increase their solubility and bioavailability. In this section, biodegradable cationic surfactants bearing cleavable fragments are discussed, with ester- and carbamate-containing analogs, as well as amino acid derivatives received special attention. Drug delivery through the biological barriers is a challenging task, which is highlighted by the example of transdermal method of drug administration. In this paper, nonionic surfactants are primarily discussed, including their application for the fabrication of nanocarriers, their surfactant-skin interactions, the mechanisms of modulating their permeability, and the factors controlling drug encapsulation, release, and targeted delivery. Different types of nanocarriers are covered, including niosomes, transfersomes, invasomes and chitosomes, with their morphological specificity, beneficial characteristics and limitations discussed.

Superparamagnetic iron oxide loaded chitosan coated bilosomes for magnetic nose to brain targeting of resveratrol

The objective of this study was to improve effectiveness of resveratrol (RES) through brain targeting by the intranasal olfactory mucosa for the treatment Alzheimer's disease (AD). To attain this, chitosan coated bilosomes (non ionic surfactant vesicles stabilized by bile salts, loaded with RES and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) were prepared and incorporated into sodium alginate/PVP wafers. In vitro characterization of bilosomes including colloidal characteristics, entrapment efficiency and in vitro release was carried out. Hydration capacity, porosity percentage, morphology and in vitro release for selected wafer formulation were also investigated. Particle size of selected bilosomes, CS coated bilosome and SPION bilosomes was 208, 238 and 243 nm, respectively and they provided sustained RES release for 24 h. Both formulations were loaded in wafers and intra-nasally administered in mice with lipopolysaccharide induced AD model. Neurobehavioral tests, AD markers analysis, RT-PCR, western blotting and histopathological evaluation of the dissected brains were carried out. Results revealed the superiority of SPION bilosomes over conventional bilosomes and RES suspension in improving cognitive and memory functions, reduction of pro-inflammatory markers levels and down regulation of expression of NF-κB and P38. This may be attributed to enhanced RES therapeutic effects upon nanoencapsulation, loading into wafers, nasal administration and enhanced targeting the application of an external magnetic field.

The Tragedy of Alzheimer's Disease: Towards Better Management via Resveratrol-Loaded Oral Bilosomes

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease where oxidative stress plays a major role as a key pathologic factor. The study aims to develop resveratrol (RES)-loaded bilosomes for oral use, aiming to enhance RES bioavailability. RES-loaded bilosomes were prepared using the thin-film hydration technique. The effect of different formulation variables viz. the number of extrusion cycles, drug concentration and the effect of pH of the medium and cholesterol addition on the physicochemical properties of the prepared bilosomes was investigated. Results revealed the successful entrapment of RES into bilosomes. An optimized formula was selected, showing the lowest particle size (189 ± 2.14), acceptable PDI (0.116) and entrapment efficiency (76.2 ± 1.36). In vivo studies on a streptozotocin-induced animal model of AD showed the preeminence of bilosomes over traditional drug suspension to enhance mice memory via Y-maze and Morris water maze tests. Moreover, mice treated with the optimized formula exhibited decreased COX2, IL-6, amyloid-beta peptide and Tau protein levels compared to the drug suspension. Immuno-histochemical analysis revealed a significant decrease of glial fibrillary acidic protein values and microglial cell count in mice treated with bilosomes. Finally, it could be advocated that RES-loaded bilosomes could be a promising drug delivery system to control AD.

Nano-lipidic formulation and therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease via intranasal route

AIM

The inability of drug molecules to cross the 'Blood-Brain Barrier' restrict the effective treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Lipid nanocarriers have proven to be a novel paradigm in brain targeting of bioactive by facilitating suitable therapeutic concentrations to be attained in the brain.

METHODS

The relevant information regarding the title of this review article was collected from the peer-reviewed published articles. Also, the physicochemical properties, and their in vitro and in vivo evaluations were presented in this review article.

RESULTS

Administration of lipid-based nano-carriers have abilities to target the brain, improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties of drugs, and mitigate the side effects of encapsulated therapeutic active agents.

CONCLUSION

Unlike oral and other routes, the Intranasal route promises high bioavailability, low first-pass effect, better pharmacokinetic properties, bypass of the systemic circulation, fewer incidences of unwanted side effects, and direct delivery of anti-AD drugs to the brain via circumventing 'Blood-Brain Barrier'.

Potential Role of Nanoparticles in Treating the Accumulation of Amyloid-Beta Peptide in Alzheimer's Patients

The disorder of Alzheimer's is marked by progressive pathophysiological neurodegeneration. The amino acid peptides in the amyloid plaques found in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are known as amyloid-beta (Aβ). Current treatments are not curative, and the effects associated with AD are reduced. Improving treatment results involved the targeting of drugs at optimum therapeutic concentration. Nanotechnology is seen as an unconventional, modern technology that plays a key role in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Using nanoparticles, molecular detection, effective drug targeting, and their combination offer high sensitivity. The aim of this review is to shed light on the function and successful role of nanoparticles to resolve Aβ aggregation and thus to help cure Alzheimer's disease. The analysis divides these nanoparticles into three categories: polymer, lipid, and gold nanoparticles. A thorough comparison was then made between the nanoparticles, which are used according to their role, properties, and size in the procedure. The nanoparticles can prevent the accumulation of Aβ during the efficient delivery of the drug to the cells to treat Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, this comparison demonstrated the ability of these nanoparticles to deal efficiently with Alzheimer's disease. The role of these nanoparticles varied from delivering the drug to brain cells to dealing with the disease-causing peptide.

The Influence of Size and Chemical Composition of Silver and Gold Nanoparticles on in vivo Toxicity with Potential Applications to Central Nervous System Diseases

The physicochemical and optical properties of silver nanoparticles (SNPs) and gold nanoparticles (GNPs) have allowed them to be employed for various biomedical applications, including delivery, therapy, imaging, and as theranostic agents. However, since they are foreign body systems, they are usually redistributed and accumulated in some vital organs, which can produce toxic effects; therefore, this a crucial issue that should be considered for potential clinical trials. This review aimed to summarize the reports from the past ten years that have used SNPs and GNPs for in vivo studies on the diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases and those related to the central nervous system, emphasizing their toxicity as a crucial topic address. The article focuses on the effect of the nanoparticle´s size and chemical composition as relevant parameters for in vivo toxicity. At the beginning of this review, the general toxicity and distribution studies are discussed separately for SNPs and GNPs. Subsequently, this manuscript analyzes the principal applications of both kinds of nanoparticles for glioma, neurodegenerative, and other brain diseases, and discusses the advances in clinical trials. Finally, we analyze research prospects towards clinical applications for both types of metallic nanoparticles.

Direct Conjugation of Resveratrol on Hydrophilic Gold Nanoparticles: Structural and Cytotoxic Studies for Biomedical Applications

Strongly hydrophilic gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), functionalized with citrate and L-cysteine, were synthetized and used as Resveratrol (RSV) vehicle to improve its bioavailability. Two different conjugation procedures were investigated: the first by adding RSV during AuNPs synthesis (1) and the second by adding RSV after AuNPs synthesis (2). The two different conjugated systems, namely AuNPs@RSV1 and AuNPs@RSV2 respectively, showed good loading efficiency (η%): η1 = 80 ± 5% for AuNPs@RSV1 and η2 = 20 ± 3% for AuNPs@RSV2. Both conjugated systems were investigated by means of Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), confirming hydrophilic behavior and nanodimension (<2RH> 1 = 45 ± 12 nm and <2RH> 2 = 170 ± 30 nm). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR), Synchrotron Radiation induced X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (SR-XPS) and Near Edge X-ray Absorption Fine Structure (NEXAFS) techniques were applied to deeply understand the hooking mode of RSV on AuNPs surface in the two differently conjugated systems. Moreover, the biocompatibility of AuNPs and AuNPs@RSV1 was evaluated in the concentration range 1.0-45.5 µg/mL by assessing their effect on breast cancer cell vitality. The obtained data confirmed that, at the concentration used, AuNPs do not induce cell death, whereas AuNPs@RSV1 maintains the same anticancer effects as the unconjugated RSV.

Intranasal Delivery of Nanoformulations: A Potential Way of Treatment for Neurological Disorders

Although the global prevalence of neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, glioblastoma, epilepsy, and multiple sclerosis is steadily increasing, effective delivery of drug molecules in therapeutic quantities to the central nervous system (CNS) is still lacking. The blood brain barrier (BBB) is the major obstacle for the entry of drugs into the brain, as it comprises a tight layer of endothelial cells surrounded by astrocyte foot processes that limit drugs’ entry. In recent times, intranasal drug delivery has emerged as a reliable method to bypass the BBB and treat neurological diseases. The intranasal route for drug delivery to the brain with both solution and particulate formulations has been demonstrated repeatedly in preclinical models, including in human trials. The key features determining the efficacy of drug delivery via the intranasal route include delivery to the olfactory area of the nares, a longer retention time at the nasal mucosal surface, enhanced penetration of the drugs through the nasal epithelia, and reduced drug metabolism in the nasal cavity. This review describes important neurological disorders, challenges in drug delivery to the disordered CNS, and new nasal delivery techniques designed to overcome these challenges and facilitate more efficient and targeted drug delivery. The potential for treatment possibilities with intranasal transfer of drugs will increase with the development of more effective formulations and delivery devices.

Nanosized nasal emulgel of resveratrol: preparation, optimization, in vitro evaluation and in vivo pharmacokinetic study

Nano-emulgel has become one of the most significant controlled release systems, which has the advantages of both gels and nano-emulsions. This work aims at the formulation of nasal nano-emulgel for resveratrol, employing carbopol 934 and poloxamer 407 as the gelling agents. The optimum nano-emulsion was determined through further characterization of the selected system. The nasal nano-emulgel was prepared and tested for the in vitro release, the release kinetics, FTIR, ex vivo permeation, nasal mucosa toxicity, and in vivo pharmacokinetic study. The optimum nano-emulsion consisted of Tween 20, Capryol 90, and Transcutol at a ratio of (54.26: 23.81: 21.93%v/v), and it exhibited transmittance of 100%, resveratrol solubility of 159.9 ± 6.4 mg/mL, globule size of 30.65 nm. The in vitro resveratrol released from nano-emulsion and nasal nano-emulgel was 96.17 ± 4.43% and 78.53 ± 4.7%, respectively. Ex vivo permeation was sustained during 12 h up to 63.95 ± 4.7%. The histopathological study demonstrated that the formula is safe and tolerable to the nasal mucosa. C_max and AUC _(0-∞) of resveratrol obtained after nasal administration of nasal nano-emulgel was 2.23 and 8.05 times, respectively. Similarly, T_max was increased up to 3.67 ± 0.82 h. The optimized nasal nano-emulgel established intranasal safety and bioavailability enhancement so it is considered as a well-designed system to target the brain.