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Smith AC, Ahmed RU, Weber KA, Negahdar M, Gibson D, Boakye M, Rejc E. Spinal cord lesion MRI and behavioral outcomes in a miniature pig model of spinal cord injury: exploring preclinical potential through an ad hoc comparison with human SCI. Spinal Cord Ser Cases 2024; 10:44. [PMID: 38977671 PMCID: PMC11231227 DOI: 10.1038/s41394-024-00658-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024] Open
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN prospective case series of Yucatan miniature pig spinal cord contusion injury model with comparison to human cases of spinal cord injury (SCI). OBJECTIVES to describe magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measures of spinal cord lesion severity along with estimates of lateral corticospinal tracts spared neural tissue in both a less severe and more severe contusion SCI model, as well as to describe their corresponding behavioral outcome changes. SETTING University laboratory setting. METHODS Following a more severe and less severe SCI, each pig underwent spinal cord MRI to measure lesion characteristics, along with locomotor and urodynamics outcomes testing. RESULTS In the pig with more severe SCI, locomotor and urodynamic outcomes were poor, and both the spinal cord lesion volume and damage estimates to the lateral corticospinal tracts were large. Conversely, in the pig with less severe SCI, locomotor and urodynamic outcomes were favorable, with the spinal cord lesion volume and damage estimates to the lateral corticospinal tracts being less pronounced. For two human cases matched on estimates of damage to the lateral corticospinal tract regions, the clinical presentations were similar to the pig outcomes, with more limited mobility and more limited bladder functional independence in the more severe case. CONCLUSIONS Our initial findings contribute valuable insights to the emergent field of MRI-based evaluation of spinal cord lesions in pig models, offering a promising avenue for understanding and potentially improving outcomes in spinal cord injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew C Smith
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Aurora, CO, USA.
| | - Rakib Uddin Ahmed
- University of Louisville School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Kenneth A Weber
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - MohammadJavad Negahdar
- University of Louisville School of Medicine, Department of Radiology, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Destiny Gibson
- University of Louisville School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Maxwell Boakye
- University of Louisville School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Enrico Rejc
- University of Udine, Department of Medicine, Udine, Italy
- Kessler Foundation, West Orange, NJ, USA
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2
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Wathen CA, Ghenbot YG, Ozturk AK, Cullen DK, O’Donnell JC, Petrov D. Porcine Models of Spinal Cord Injury. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2202. [PMID: 37626699 PMCID: PMC10452184 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11082202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 07/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Large animal models of spinal cord injury may be useful tools in facilitating the development of translational therapies for spinal cord injury (SCI). Porcine models of SCI are of particular interest due to significant anatomic and physiologic similarities to humans. The similar size and functional organization of the porcine spinal cord, for instance, may facilitate more accurate evaluation of axonal regeneration across long distances that more closely resemble the realities of clinical SCI. Furthermore, the porcine cardiovascular system closely resembles that of humans, including at the level of the spinal cord vascular supply. These anatomic and physiologic similarities to humans not only enable more representative SCI models with the ability to accurately evaluate the translational potential of novel therapies, especially biologics, they also facilitate the collection of physiologic data to assess response to therapy in a setting similar to those used in the clinical management of SCI. This review summarizes the current landscape of porcine spinal cord injury research, including the available models, outcome measures, and the strengths, limitations, and alternatives to porcine models. As the number of investigational SCI therapies grow, porcine SCI models provide an attractive platform for the evaluation of promising treatments prior to clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor A. Wathen
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (C.A.W.); (Y.G.G.); (A.K.O.); (D.K.C.); (J.C.O.)
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Yohannes G. Ghenbot
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (C.A.W.); (Y.G.G.); (A.K.O.); (D.K.C.); (J.C.O.)
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Ali K. Ozturk
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (C.A.W.); (Y.G.G.); (A.K.O.); (D.K.C.); (J.C.O.)
| | - D. Kacy Cullen
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (C.A.W.); (Y.G.G.); (A.K.O.); (D.K.C.); (J.C.O.)
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - John C. O’Donnell
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (C.A.W.); (Y.G.G.); (A.K.O.); (D.K.C.); (J.C.O.)
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration & Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz VA Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Dmitriy Petrov
- Center for Brain Injury & Repair, Department of Neurosurgery, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (C.A.W.); (Y.G.G.); (A.K.O.); (D.K.C.); (J.C.O.)
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3
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Alves-Sampaio A, Del-Cerro P, Collazos-Castro JE. Composite Fibrin/Carbon Microfiber Implants for Bridging Spinal Cord Injury: A Translational Approach in Pigs. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11102. [PMID: 37446280 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241311102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomaterials may enhance neural repair after spinal cord injury (SCI) and testing their functionality in large animals is essential to achieve successful clinical translation. This work developed a porcine contusion/compression SCI model to investigate the consequences of myelotomy and implantation of fibrin gel containing biofunctionalized carbon microfibers (MFs). Fourteen pigs were distributed in SCI, SCI/myelotomy, and SCI/myelotomy/implant groups. An automated device was used for SCI. A dorsal myelotomy was performed on the lesion site at 1 day post-injury for removing cloths and devitalized tissue. Bundles of MFs coated with a conducting polymer and cell adhesion molecules were embedded in fibrin gel and used to bridge the spinal cord cavity. Reproducible lesions of about 1 cm in length were obtained. Myelotomy and lesion debridement caused no further neural damage compared to SCI alone but had little positive effect on neural regrowth. The MFs/fibrin gel implant facilitated axonal sprouting, elongation, and alignment within the lesion. However, the implant also increased lesion volume and was ineffective in preventing fibrosis, thus precluding functional neural regeneration. Our results indicate that myelotomy and lesion debridement can be advantageously used for implanting MF-based scaffolds. However, the implants need refinement and pharmaceuticals will be necessary to limit scarring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Alves-Sampaio
- Neural Repair and Biomaterials Laboratory, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos (SESCAM), Finca La Peraleda S-N, 45071 Toledo, Spain
| | - Patricia Del-Cerro
- Neural Repair and Biomaterials Laboratory, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos (SESCAM), Finca La Peraleda S-N, 45071 Toledo, Spain
| | - Jorge E Collazos-Castro
- Neural Repair and Biomaterials Laboratory, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos (SESCAM), Finca La Peraleda S-N, 45071 Toledo, Spain
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4
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Ahmed RU, Knibbe CA, Wilkins F, Sherwood LC, Howland DR, Boakye M. Porcine spinal cord injury model for translational research across multiple functional systems. Exp Neurol 2023; 359:114267. [PMID: 36356636 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2022.114267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Animal models are necessary to identify pathological changes and help assess therapeutic outcomes following spinal cord injury (SCI). Small animal models offer value in research in terms of their easily managed size, minimal maintenance requirements, lower cost, well-characterized genomes, and ability to power research studies. However, despite these benefits, small animal models have neurologic and anatomical differences that may influence translation of results to humans and thus limiting the success of their use in preclinical studies as a direct pipeline to clinical studies. Large animal models, offer an attractive intermediary translation model that may be more successful in translating to the clinic for SCI research. This is largely due to their greater neurologic and anatomical similarities to humans. The physical characteristics of pig spinal cord, gut microbiome, metabolism, proportions of white to grey matter, bowel anatomy and function, and urinary system are strikingly similar and provide great insight into human SCI conditions. In this review, we address the variety of existing porcine injury models and their translational relevance, benefits, and drawbacks in modeling human systems and functions for neurophysiology, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal and urodynamic functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakib Uddin Ahmed
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA.
| | - Chase A Knibbe
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Felicia Wilkins
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Leslie C Sherwood
- Comparative Medicine Research Unit, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Dena R Howland
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA; Robley Rex VA Medical Center, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Maxwell Boakye
- Department of Neurological Surgery and Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
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Hu CK, Chen MH, Wang YH, Sun JS, Wu CY. Integration of multiple prognostic predictors in a porcine spinal cord injury model: A further step closer to reality. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1136267. [PMID: 36970513 PMCID: PMC10030512 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1136267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating neurological disorder with an enormous impact on individual's life and society. A reliable and reproducible animal model of SCI is crucial to have a deeper understanding of SCI. We have developed a large-animal model of spinal cord compression injury (SCI) with integration of multiple prognostic factors that would have applications in humans. Methods Fourteen human-like sized pigs underwent compression at T8 by implantation of an inflatable balloon catheter. In addition to basic neurophysiological recording of somatosensory and motor evoked potentials, we introduced spine-to-spine evoked spinal cord potentials (SP-EPs) by direct stimulation and measured them just above and below the affected segment. A novel intraspinal pressure monitoring technique was utilized to measure the actual pressure on the cord. The gait and spinal MRI findings were assessed in each animal postoperatively to quantify the severity of injury. Results We found a strong negative correlation between the intensity of pressure applied to the spinal cord and the functional outcome (P < 0.0001). SP-EPs showed high sensitivity for real time monitoring of intraoperative cord damage. On MRI, the ratio of the high-intensity area to the cross-sectional of the cord was a good predictor of recovery (P < 0.0001). Conclusion Our balloon compression SCI model is reliable, predictable, and easy to implement. By integrating SP-EPs, cord pressure, and findings on MRI, we can build a real-time warning and prediction system for early detection of impending or iatrogenic SCI and improve outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Kai Hu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, College of Biological Science and Technology, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Hong Chen
- Graduate Institute of Nanomedical and Medical Engineering, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wang Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Horng Wang
- Department of Pet Healthcare, Yuanpei University of Medical Technology, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Sheng Sun
- Trauma and Emergency Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung City, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, China Medical University, Yingcai Campus, Taichung City, Taiwan
- College of Biomedical Engineering, China Medical University, Yingcai Campus, Taichung City, Taiwan
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Yu Wu
- Department of Electronics Engineering and Institute of Electronics, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
- *Correspondence: Chung-Yu Wu
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Weber-Levine C, Hersh AM, Jiang K, Routkevitch D, Tsehay Y, Perdomo-Pantoja A, Judy BF, Kerensky M, Liu A, Adams M, Izzi J, Doloff JC, Manbachi A, Theodore N. Porcine Model of Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review. Neurotrauma Rep 2022; 3:352-368. [PMID: 36204385 PMCID: PMC9531891 DOI: 10.1089/neur.2022.0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disease with limited effective treatment options. Animal paradigms are vital for understanding the pathogenesis of SCI and testing potential therapeutics. The porcine model of SCI is increasingly favored because of its greater similarity to humans. However, its adoption is limited by the complexities of care and range of testing parameters. Researchers need to consider swine selection, injury method, post-operative care, rehabilitation, behavioral outcomes, and histology metrics. Therefore, we systematically reviewed full-text English-language articles to evaluate study characteristics used in developing a porcine model and summarize the interventions that have been tested using this paradigm. A total of 63 studies were included, with 33 examining SCI pathogenesis and 30 testing interventions. Studies had an average sample size of 15 pigs with an average weight of 26 kg, and most used female swine with injury to the thoracic cord. Injury was most commonly induced by weight drop with compression. The porcine model is amenable to testing various interventions, including mean arterial pressure augmentation (n = 7), electrical stimulation (n = 6), stem cell therapy (n = 5), hypothermia (n = 2), biomaterials (n = 2), gene therapy (n = 2), steroids (n = 1), and nanoparticles (n = 1). It is also notable for its clinical translatability and is emerging as a valuable pre-clinical study tool. This systematic review can serve as a guideline for researchers implementing and testing the porcine SCI model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carly Weber-Levine
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew M. Hersh
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kelly Jiang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Denis Routkevitch
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Yohannes Tsehay
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Brendan F. Judy
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Max Kerensky
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Ann Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Melanie Adams
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Jessica Izzi
- Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Joshua C. Doloff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Amir Manbachi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Nicholas Theodore
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Barras ED, Hampton CE, Takawira C, Taguchi T, Nourbakhsh A, Lopez MJ. Hemodynamic Changes in Response to Hyperacute Spinal Trauma in a Swine Model. Comp Med 2021; 72:30-37. [PMID: 34814974 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-21-000067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Acute spinal cord injury (ASCI) is a devastating event that can have severe hemodynamic consequences, depending on location and severity of the lesion. Knowledge of hyperacute hemodynamic changes is important for researchers using porcine models of thoracic ASCI. The goal of this study was to determine the hyperacute hemodynamic changes observed after ASCI when using pigs as their own controls. Five Yucatan gilts were anesthetized, and a dorsal laminectomy performed at T10-T12. Standardized blunt trauma was applied for 5 consecutive min, and hemodynamic variables were collected 5 min before ASCI, and at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 20, 30, 60, 80 and 120 min after ASCI. Arterial blood gas samples were collected at 60 min and 10 min before, and at 30 min and between 120 and 240 min after ASCI. Parametric data were analyzed using a mixed effects model with time point as the fixed factor and subject as the random factor. We found no effect on heart rate, pulse pressure, SpO2, EtCO2, and respiratory rate between baseline and timepoints after ASCI. Diastolic arterial pressure, mean arterial pressure, and systolic arterial pressure fell significantly by 18%, 16%, and 15%, respectively, at 2 min after ASCI. However, none of the decrements in arterial pressures resulted in hypotension at any time point. Heart rate did not change significantly after ASCI. Blood glucose progressively increased to 50% above baseline between 120 and 240 minutes after ASCI. Low-thoracic ASCI caused a consistent and statistically significant but clinically minor hyperacute decrease in arterial pressures (-15%) that did not produce hypotension or metabolic changes suggestive of tissue hypoperfusion. Our findings using this model suggest that mean arterial pressures should be maintained above 85 mm Hg prior to spinal trauma in order to avoid hypotensive states after ASCI.
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8
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Assunção Silva RC, Pinto L, Salgado AJ. Cell transplantation and secretome based approaches in spinal cord injury regenerative medicine. Med Res Rev 2021; 42:850-896. [PMID: 34783046 DOI: 10.1002/med.21865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The axonal growth-restrictive character of traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) makes finding a therapeutic strategy a very demanding task, due to the postinjury events impeditive to spontaneous axonal outgrowth and regeneration. Considering SCI pathophysiology complexity, it has been suggested that an effective therapy should tackle all the SCI-related aspects and provide sensory and motor improvement to SCI patients. Thus, the current aim of any therapeutic approach for SCI relies in providing neuroprotection and support neuroregeneration. Acknowledging the current SCI treatment paradigm, cell transplantation is one of the most explored approaches for SCI with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) being in the forefront of many of these. Studies showing the beneficial effects of MSC transplantation after SCI have been proposing a paracrine action of these cells on the injured tissues, through the secretion of protective and trophic factors, rather than attributing it to the action of cells itself. This manuscript provides detailed information on the most recent data regarding the neuroregenerative effect of the secretome of MSCs as a cell-free based therapy for SCI. The main challenge of any strategy proposed for SCI treatment relies in obtaining robust preclinical evidence from in vitro and in vivo models, before moving to the clinics, so we have specifically focused on the available vertebrate and mammal models of SCI currently used in research and how can SCI field benefit from them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita C Assunção Silva
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's e PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.,BnML, Behavioral and Molecular Lab, Braga, Portugal
| | - Luísa Pinto
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's e PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal.,BnML, Behavioral and Molecular Lab, Braga, Portugal
| | - António J Salgado
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho, Campus de Gualtar, Braga, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's e PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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Gao J, Khang M, Liao Z, Detloff M, Lee JS. Therapeutic targets and nanomaterial-based therapies for mitigation of secondary injury after spinal cord injury. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2021; 16:2013-2028. [PMID: 34402308 PMCID: PMC8411395 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2021-0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) and the resulting neurological trauma commonly result in complete or incomplete neurological dysfunction and there are few effective treatments for primary SCI. However, the following secondary SCI, including the changes of microvasculature, inflammatory response and oxidative stress around the injury site, may provide promising therapeutic targets. The advances of nanomaterials hold promise for delivering therapeutics to alleviate secondary SCI and promote functional recovery. In this review, we highlight recent achievements of nanomaterial-based therapy, specifically targeting blood-spinal cord barrier disruption, mitigation of the inflammatory response and lightening of oxidative stress after spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Gao
- Department of Bioengineering, Drug Design, Development & Delivery (4D) Laboratory, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, Peking Union Medical College Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100730, China
| | - Minkyung Khang
- Department of Bioengineering, Drug Design, Development & Delivery (4D) Laboratory, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Zhen Liao
- Department of Bioengineering, Drug Design, Development & Delivery (4D) Laboratory, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
| | - Megan Detloff
- Department of Neurobiology & Anatomy, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA
| | - Jeoung Soo Lee
- Department of Bioengineering, Drug Design, Development & Delivery (4D) Laboratory, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
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Züchner M, Escalona MJ, Teige LH, Balafas E, Zhang L, Kostomitsopoulos N, Boulland JL. How to generate graded spinal cord injuries in swine - tools and procedures. Dis Model Mech 2021; 14:dmm049053. [PMID: 34464444 PMCID: PMC8419714 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.049053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a medically, psychologically and socially disabling condition. A large body of our knowledge on the basic mechanisms of SCI has been gathered in rodents. For preclinical validation of promising therapies, the use of animal models that are closer to humans has several advantages. This has promoted the more-intensive development of large-animal models for SCI during the past decade. We recently developed a multimodal SCI apparatus for large animals that generated biomechanically reproducible impacts in vivo. It is composed of a spring-load impactor and support systems for the spinal cord and the vertebral column. We now present the functional outcome of farm pigs and minipigs injured with different lesion strengths. There was a correlation between the biomechanical characteristics of the impact, the functional outcome and the tissue damage observed several weeks after injury. We also provide a detailed description of the procedure to generate such a SCI in both farm pigs and minipigs, in the hope to ease the adoption of the swine model by other research groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Züchner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0372 Oslo, Norway
| | - Manuel J. Escalona
- Department for Immunology, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0372 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lena Hammerlund Teige
- Department for Immunology, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0372 Oslo, Norway
| | - Evangelos Balafas
- Center of Clinical Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of Academy of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Lili Zhang
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Nikolaos Kostomitsopoulos
- Center of Clinical Experimental Surgery and Translational Research, Biomedical Research Foundation of Academy of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Jean-Luc Boulland
- Department for Immunology, Oslo University Hospital, Rikshospitalet, 0372 Oslo, Norway
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11
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Cerro PD, Barriga-Martín A, Vara H, Romero-Muñoz LM, Rodríguez-De-Lope Á, Collazos-Castro JE. Neuropathological and Motor Impairments after Incomplete Cervical Spinal Cord Injury in Pigs. J Neurotrauma 2021; 38:2956-2977. [PMID: 34121450 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2020.7587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans, primates, and rodents with cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) show permanent sensorimotor dysfunction of the upper/forelimb as consequence of axonal damage and local neuronal death. This work aimed at characterizing a model of cervical SCI in domestic pigs in which hemisection with excision of 1 cm of spinal cord was performed to reproduce the loss of neural tissue observed in human neuropathology. Posture and motor control were assessed over 3 months by scales and kinematics of treadmill locomotion. Histological measurements included lesion length, atrophy of the adjacent spinal cord segments, and neuronal death. In some animals, the retrograde neural tracer aminostilbamidine was injected in segments caudal to the lesion to visualize propriospinal projection neurons. Neuronal loss extended for 4-6 mm from the lesion borders and was more severe in the ipsilateral, caudal spinal cord stump. Axonal Wallerian degeneration was observed caudally and rostrally, associated with marked atrophy of the white matter in the spinal cord segments adjacent to the lesion. The pigs showed chronic monoplegia or severe monoparesis of the foreleg ipsilateral to the lesion, whereas the trunk and the other legs had postural and motor impairments that substantially improved during the first month post-lesion. Adaptations of the walking cycle such as those reported for rats and humans ameliorated the negative impact of focal neurological deficits on locomotor performance. These results provide a baseline of behavior and histology in a porcine model of cervical spinal cord hemisection that can be used for translational research in SCI therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Del Cerro
- Neural Repair Laboratory, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, Toledo, Spain.,Program in Neuroscience, Autonoma de Madrid University, Madrid, Spain
| | - Andrés Barriga-Martín
- Orthopedic Surgery and Traumatology, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, Toledo, Spain
| | - Hugo Vara
- Neural Repair Laboratory, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, Toledo, Spain
| | - Luis M Romero-Muñoz
- Orthopedic Surgery and Traumatology, Hospital Nacional de Parapléjicos, Toledo, Spain
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Sutherland TC, Ricafrente A, Gomola K, O'Brien BA, Gorrie CA. Neonatal Rats Exhibit a Predominantly Anti-Inflammatory Response following Spinal Cord Injury. Dev Neurosci 2021; 43:18-26. [PMID: 33789288 DOI: 10.1159/000514612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been reported that children may respond better than adults to a spinal cord injury (SCI) of similar severity. There are known biomechanical differences in the developing spinal cord that may contribute to this "infant lesion effect," but the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Using immunohistochemistry, we have previously demonstrated a different injury progression and immune cell response after a mild thoracic contusion SCI in infant rats, as compared to adult rats. Here, we investigated the acute inflammatory responses using flow cytometry and ELISA at 1 h, 24 h, and 1 week after SCI in neonatal (P7) and adult (9 weeks) rats, and locomotor recovery was examined for 6 weeks after injury. Adult rats exhibited a pronounced pro-inflammatory response characterized by neutrophils and M1-like macrophage infiltration and Th1 cytokine secretion. Neonatal rats exhibited a decreased pro-inflammatory response characterized by a higher proportion of M2-like macrophages and reduced Th1 cytokine responses, as compared to adults. These results suggest that the initial inflammatory response to SCI is predominantly anti-inflammatory in very young animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa C Sutherland
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alison Ricafrente
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Katarina Gomola
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Bronwyn A O'Brien
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Catherine A Gorrie
- School of Life Sciences, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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13
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Cellular therapy for treatment of spinal cord injury in Zebrafish model. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:1787-1800. [PMID: 33459959 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-06126-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury is a serious problem with a high rate of morbidity and mortality for all persons, especially young people (15-25 years old). Due to the large burden and the costs incurred on the government, finding the best therapeutic approach is necessary. In this respect, treatment strategies based on the disease mechanism can be effective. After the first trauma of spinal cord cascades, cellular events happen one after the other known as secondary trauma. The mechanism of secondary events of spinal cord injury could be helpful for target therapy as trying to stop the secondary trauma. Herein, some medical and surgical therapy has been introduced and cell therapy strategy was considered as a recent method. Actually, cell therapy is defined as the application of different cells including mesenchymal stem cells, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and some others to replace or reconstruct the damaged tissues and restore their functions. However, as a newly emerged therapeutic method, cell therapy should be used through various subclinical studies in animal models to assess the efficacy of the treatment under controlled conditions. In this review, the role of Zebrafish as a recommended model has been discussed and combinatory approach as the probably most useful treatment has been suggested.
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14
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Benasson I, Wagnac E, Diotalevi L, Moore D, Mac-Thiong JM, Petit Y. Gait analysis of a post induced traumatic spinal cord injury porcine model. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2020; 2020:3803-3806. [PMID: 33018829 DOI: 10.1109/embc44109.2020.9175280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Porcine model constitutes a potential translational model to study traumatic spinal cord injuries (TSCI) considering its recent use in numerous studies. Recovery of the animal is currently monitored through a qualitative evaluation of the gait. Adding a quantitative evaluation might help to better assess the functional recovery of the animal. In this study, a new controlled method involving the use of an electro-magnetic actuator was used on a pig to induce a TSCI. Chronic monitoring was done using a quantitative analysis of the gait. Results show both, the injury of the pig and its functional recovery. This large animal model will help to provide a better understanding of injury and recovery mechanisms and thus could constitute a strong preclinical model for future therapeutic studies.Clinical Relevance- Methodology and results from this study would provide a better insight on the functional recovery after traumatic spinal cord injuries.
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Uranues S, Bretthauer G, Tomasch G, Rafolt D, Nagele-Moser D, Berghold A, Kleinert R, Justich I, Waldert J, Koch H. A New Synthetic Conduit for the Treatment of Peripheral Nerve Injuries. World J Surg 2020; 44:3373-3382. [PMID: 32514775 PMCID: PMC7458941 DOI: 10.1007/s00268-020-05620-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peripheral nerve defects (PND) often cause lifelong physical disability, and the available treatment options are often not satisfactory. PND are usually bridged with an autologous nerve transplant or a nerve guidance conduit (NGC), when coaptation as preferred technique is not possible. The aim of this experimental study was to determine the effectiveness of a novel NGC for regeneration in the treatment of PND. MATERIALS AND METHODS A conduit made of gelatin with an innovative interior structure was tested for the repair of a 6-mm gap versus direct microsurgical suture repair without gap. RESULTS We found that bridging the defect with this conduit was as effective as direct microsurgical coaptation without a defect. CONCLUSIONS This nerve conduit, effective in bridging neural defects, appears as an alternative to autologous nerve grafts, avoiding the problems related to nerve graft harvesting, host-donor differences in diameter, mismatches in number and pattern of fascicles, cross-sectional shape and area, and morbidity of the donor area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selman Uranues
- Section for Surgical Research, Department of Surgery, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 29, 8036, Graz, Austria.
| | - Georg Bretthauer
- Institute for Automation and Applied Informatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Gordana Tomasch
- Section for Surgical Research, Department of Surgery, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 29, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Dietmar Rafolt
- Center for Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering, Medical University of Vienna, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Doris Nagele-Moser
- Section for Surgical Research, Department of Surgery, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 29, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Andrea Berghold
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Documentation, Medical University of Graz, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Reinhold Kleinert
- Institute of Pathology, Medical University of Graz, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Ivo Justich
- Clinical Division of Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Medical University of Graz, 8036, Graz, Austria
| | - Jörg Waldert
- State Hospital for Neurology and Psychiatrics, 8055, Graz, Austria
| | - Horst Koch
- Clinical Division of Plastic, Aesthetic and Reconstructive Surgery, Medical University of Graz, 8036, Graz, Austria
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16
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Liang Z, Lei T, Wang S, Zuo X, Li K, Song J, Sun J, Zhang J, Zheng Q, Kang X, Ma Y, Hu X, Ding T, Wang Z. Photobiomodulation by diffusing optical fiber on spinal cord: A feasibility study in piglet model. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2020; 13:e201960022. [PMID: 31670897 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201960022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies on spinal cord injury (SCI) have confirmed that percutaneous photobiomodulation (PBM) therapy can ameliorate immunoinflammatory responses at sites of injury, accelerate nerve regeneration, suppress glial scar formation and promote the subsequent recovery of locomotor function. The current study was performed to evaluate a large-animal model employing implanted optical fibers to accurately irradiate targeted spinal segments. The method's feasibility and irradiation parameters that do not cause phototoxic reaction were determined, and the methodology of irradiating the spinal cord with near-infrared light was investigated in detail. A diffusing optical fiber was implanted above the T9 spinal cord of Bama miniature pigs and used to transfer near-infrared light (810 nm) onto the spinal cord surface. After daily irradiation with 200, 300, 500 or 1000 mW for 14 days, both sides of the irradiated area of the spinal cord were assessed for temperature changes. The condition of the spinal cord and the position of optical fiber were investigated by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and different parameters indicating temperature increases or phototoxicity were measured on the normal spinal cord surface due to light irradiation (ie, heat shock responses, inflammatory reactions and neuronal apoptosis), and the animals' lower-limb neurological function and gait were assessed during the irradiation process. The implanted device was stable inside the freely moving animals, and light energy could be directly projected onto the spinal cord surface. The screening of different irradiation parameters preliminary showed that direct irradiation onto the spinal cord surface at 200 and 300 mW did not significantly increase the temperature, stress responses, inflammatory reactions and neural apoptosis, whereas irradiation at 500 mW slightly increased these parameters, and irradiation at 1000 mW induced a significant temperature increase, heat shock, inflammation and apoptosis responses. HE staining of spinal cord tissue sections did not reveal any significant structural changes of the tissues compared to the control group, and the neurological function and gait of all irradiated animals were normal. In this study, we established an in-vivo optical fiber implantation method, which might be safe and stable and could be used to directly project light energy onto the spinal cord surface. This study might provide a new perspective for clinical applications of PBM in acute SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuowen Liang
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tao Lei
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuang Wang
- Institute of Photonics and Photon-Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaoshuang Zuo
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Kun Li
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiwei Song
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiakai Sun
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jiawei Zhang
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Qiao Zheng
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xiaowei Kang
- Department of Radiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yangguang Ma
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Xueyu Hu
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Tan Ding
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
| | - Zhe Wang
- Xijing Orthopaedics Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China
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17
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Differences in Morphometric Measures of the Uninjured Porcine Spinal Cord and Dural Sac Predict Histological and Behavioral Outcomes after Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurotrauma 2019; 36:3005-3017. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.5930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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18
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Züchner M, Lervik A, Kondratskaya E, Bettembourg V, Zhang L, Haga HA, Boulland JL. Development of a Multimodal Apparatus to Generate Biomechanically Reproducible Spinal Cord Injuries in Large Animals. Front Neurol 2019; 10:223. [PMID: 30941086 PMCID: PMC6433700 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Rodents are widespread animal models in spinal cord injury (SCI) research. They have contributed to obtaining important information. However, some treatments only tested in rodents did not prove efficient in clinical trials. This is probably a result of significant differences in the physiology, anatomy, and complexity between humans and rodents. To bridge this gap in a better way, a few research groups use pig models for SCI. Here we report the development of an apparatus to perform biomechanically reproducible SCI in large animals, including pigs. We present the iterative process of engineering, starting with a weight-drop system to ultimately produce a spring-load impactor. This device allows a graded combination of a contusion and a compression injury. We further engineered a device to entrap the spinal cord and prevent it from escaping at the moment of the impact. In addition, it provides identical resistance around the cord, thereby, optimizing the inter-animal reproducibility. We also present other tools to straighten the vertebral column and to ease the surgery. Sensors mounted on the impactor provide information to assess the inter-animal reproducibility of the impacts. Further evaluation of the injury strength using neurophysiological recordings, MRI scans, and histology shows consistency between impacts. We conclude that this apparatus provides biomechanically reproducible spinal cord injuries in pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Züchner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Andreas Lervik
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Elena Kondratskaya
- Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vanessa Bettembourg
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Lili Zhang
- Institute for Experimental Medical Research, Oslo University Hospital and University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Henning A Haga
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jean-Luc Boulland
- Norwegian Center for Stem Cell Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
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19
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Guest JD, Moore SW, Aimetti AA, Kutikov AB, Santamaria AJ, Hofstetter CP, Ropper AE, Theodore N, Ulich TR, Layer RT. Internal decompression of the acutely contused spinal cord: Differential effects of irrigation only versus biodegradable scaffold implantation. Biomaterials 2018; 185:284-300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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20
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Santamaria AJ, Benavides FD, Padgett KR, Guada LG, Nunez-Gomez Y, Solano JP, Guest JD. Dichotomous Locomotor Recoveries Are Predicted by Acute Changes in Segmental Blood Flow after Thoracic Spinal Contusion Injuries in Pigs. J Neurotrauma 2018; 36:1399-1415. [PMID: 30284945 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2018.6087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroimaging facilitates the translation of animal pre-clinical research to human application. The large porcine spinal cord is useful for testing invasive interventions. Ideally, the safety and efficacy of a delayed intervention is tested in pigs that have recovered sufficiently after spinal cord injury (SCI) to allow either deterioration or improvement of function to be detected. We set out to create moderate severity T9 injuries in Yucatan minipigs by conducting a bridging study adapting methods previously developed in infant piglets. The injury severity was varied according to two pneumatic impactor parameters: the piston compression depth into tissue or the velocity. To stratify locomotor recovery, a 10-point scale used in prior piglet studies was redefined through longitudinal observations of spontaneous recovery. Using hindlimb body weight support to discriminate injury severity, we found that end-point recovery was strongly bimodal to either non-weight-bearing plegia with reciprocating leg movements (<5/10) or recovery of weight bearing that improved toward a ceiling effect (≥ 8/10). No intermediate recovery animals were observed at 2 months post-injury. The ability of intra-operative ultrasound and acute magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to provide immediate predictive feedback regarding tissue and vascular changes following SCI was assessed. There was an inverse association between locomotor outcome and early gray matter hemorrhage on MRI and ultrasound. Epicenter blood flow following contusion predicted recovery or non-recovery of weight-bearing. The depth of the dorsal cerebrospinal fluid space, which varied between animals, influenced injury severity and confounded the results in this fixed-stroke paradigm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea J Santamaria
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Francisco D Benavides
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Kyle R Padgett
- 2 Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Luis G Guada
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Yohjan Nunez-Gomez
- 3 Department of Pediatrics Critical Care, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Juan P Solano
- 3 Department of Pediatrics Critical Care, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - James D Guest
- 1 The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida.,4 Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
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21
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Nardone R, Florea C, Höller Y, Brigo F, Versace V, Lochner P, Golaszewski S, Trinka E. Rodent, large animal and non-human primate models of spinal cord injury. ZOOLOGY 2017; 123:101-114. [PMID: 28720322 DOI: 10.1016/j.zool.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In this narrative review we aimed to assess the usefulness of the different animal models in identifying injury mechanisms and developing therapies for humans suffering from spinal cord injury (SCI). Results obtained from rodent studies are useful but, due to the anatomical, molecular and functional differences, confirmation of these findings in large animals or non-human primates may lead to basic discoveries that cannot be made in rodent models and that are more useful for developing treatment strategies in humans. SCI in dogs can be considered as intermediate between rodent models and human clinical trials, but the primate models could help to develop appropriate methods that might be more relevant to humans. Ideally, an animal model should meet the requirements of availability and repeatability as well as reproduce the anatomical features and the clinical pathological changing process of SCI. An animal model that completely simulates SCI in humans does not exist. The different experimental models of SCI have advantages and disadvantages for investigating the different aspects of lesion development, recovery mechanisms and potential therapeutic interventions. The potential advantages of non-human primate models include genetic similarities, similar caliber/length of the spinal cord as well as biological and physiological responses to injury which are more similar to humans. Among the potential disadvantages, high operating costs, infrastructural requirements and ethical concerns should be considered. The translation from experimental repair strategies to clinical applications needs to be investigated in future carefully designed studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Nardone
- Department of Neurology, Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria; Department of Neurology, Franz Tappeiner Hospital, Via Rossini 5, I-39012, Merano, Italy; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Cristina Florea
- Department of Neurology, Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Yvonne Höller
- Department of Neurology, Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Francesco Brigo
- Department of Neurology, Franz Tappeiner Hospital, Via Rossini 5, I-39012, Merano, Italy; Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, Section of Clinical Neurology, University of Verona, Piazzale L.A. Scuro, I-37134 Verona, Italy
| | - Viviana Versace
- Department of Neurorehabilitation, Hospital of Vipiteno, Via Santa Margherita 24, I-39049, Italy
| | - Piergiorgio Lochner
- Department of Neurology, Saarland University Medical Center, Kirrberger-Str. 100, D-66421 Homburg, Germany
| | - Stefan Golaszewski
- Department of Neurology, Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Eugen Trinka
- Department of Neurology, Christian Doppler Klinik, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria; Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center, Paracelsus Medical University, Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, A-5020, Salzburg, Austria
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22
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Petteys RJ, Spitz SM, Syed H, Rice RA, Sarabia-Estrada R, Goodwin CR, Sciubba DM, Freedman BA. Design and testing of a controlled electromagnetic spinal cord impactor for use in large animal models of acute traumatic spinal cord injury. J Clin Neurosci 2017; 43:229-234. [PMID: 28539210 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2017.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes debilitating neurological dysfunction and has been observed in warfighters injured in IED blasts. Clinical benefit of SCI treatment remains elusive and better large animal models are needed to assess treatment options. Here, we describe a controlled electromagnetic spinal cord impactor for use in large animal models of SCI. METHODS A custom spinal cord impactor and platform were fabricated for large animals (e.g., pig, sheep, dog, etc.). Impacts were generated by a voice coil actuator; force and displacement were measured with a load cell and potentiometer respectively. Labview (National Instruments, Austin, TX) software was used to control the impact cycle and import force and displacement data. Software finite impulse response (FIR) filtering was employed for all input data. Silicon tubing was used a surrogate for spinal cord in order to test the device; repeated impacts were performed at 15, 25, and 40 Newtons. RESULTS Repeated impacts demonstrated predictable results at each target force. The average duration of impact was 71.2 ±6.1ms. At a target force of 40N, the output force was 41.5 ±0.7N. With a target of 25N, the output force was 23.5 ±0.6N; a target of 15Newtons revealed an output force of 15.2 ±1.4N. The calculated acceleration range was 12.5-21.2m/s2. CONCLUSIONS This custom spinal cord impactor reliably delivers precise impacts to the spinal cord and will be utilized in future research to study acute traumatic SCI in a large animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory J Petteys
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA; Division of Neurosurgery, William Beaumont Army Medical Center, El Paso, TX, USA.
| | - Steven M Spitz
- Department of Neurosurgery, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Hasan Syed
- Department of Neurosurgery, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - R Andrew Rice
- Department of Neurosurgery, Georgetown University Hospital, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Rachel Sarabia-Estrada
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - C Rory Goodwin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Daniel M Sciubba
- Department of Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Brett A Freedman
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Mayo Clinic School of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
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23
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Schomberg DT, Miranpuri GS, Chopra A, Patel K, Meudt JJ, Tellez A, Resnick DK, Shanmuganayagam D. Translational Relevance of Swine Models of Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurotrauma 2017; 34:541-551. [DOI: 10.1089/neu.2016.4567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Dominic T. Schomberg
- Biomedical and Genomic Research Group, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Gurwattan S. Miranpuri
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Abhishek Chopra
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Kush Patel
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Jennifer J. Meudt
- Biomedical and Genomic Research Group, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin
| | | | - Daniel K. Resnick
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Dhanansayan Shanmuganayagam
- Biomedical and Genomic Research Group, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Wisconsin
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24
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Sutherland TC, Mathews KJ, Mao Y, Nguyen T, Gorrie CA. Differences in the Cellular Response to Acute Spinal Cord Injury between Developing and Mature Rats Highlights the Potential Significance of the Inflammatory Response. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 10:310. [PMID: 28133446 PMCID: PMC5233684 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2016.00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
There exists a trend for a better functional recovery from spinal cord injury (SCI) in younger patients compared to adults, which is also reported for animal studies; however, the reasons for this are yet to be elucidated. The post injury tissue microenvironment is a complex milieu of cells and signals that interact on multiple levels. Inflammation has been shown to play a significant role in this post injury microenvironment. Endogenous neural progenitor cells (NPC), in the ependymal layer of the central canal, have also been shown to respond and migrate to the lesion site. This study used a mild contusion injury model to compare adult (9 week), juvenile (5 week) and infant (P7) Sprague-Dawley rats at 24 h, 1, 2, and 6 weeks post-injury (n = 108). The innate cells of the inflammatory response were examined using counts of ED1/IBA1 labeled cells. This found a decreased inflammatory response in the infants, compared to the adult and juvenile animals, demonstrated by a decreased neutrophil infiltration and macrophage and microglial activation at all 4 time points. Two other prominent cellular contributors to the post-injury microenvironment, the reactive astrocytes, which eventually form the glial scar, and the NPC were quantitated using GFAP and Nestin immunohistochemistry. After SCI in all 3 ages there was an obvious increase in Nestin staining in the ependymal layer, with long basal processes extending into the parenchyma. This was consistent between age groups early post injury then deviated at 2 weeks. The GFAP results also showed stark differences between the mature and infant animals. These results point to significant differences in the inflammatory response between infants and adults that may contribute to the better recovery indicated by other researchers, as well as differences in the overall injury progression and cellular responses. This may have important consequences if we are able to mirror and manipulate this response in patients of all ages; however much greater exploration in this area is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa C Sutherland
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Kathryn J Mathews
- Discipline of Biomedical Sciences and Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Yilin Mao
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Tara Nguyen
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
| | - Catherine A Gorrie
- Neural Injury Research Unit, School of Medical and Molecular Bioscience, University of Technology Sydney Ultimo, NSW, Australia
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Kwon BK, Streijger F, Hill CE, Anderson AJ, Bacon M, Beattie MS, Blesch A, Bradbury EJ, Brown A, Bresnahan JC, Case CC, Colburn RW, David S, Fawcett JW, Ferguson AR, Fischer I, Floyd CL, Gensel JC, Houle JD, Jakeman LB, Jeffery ND, Jones LAT, Kleitman N, Kocsis J, Lu P, Magnuson DSK, Marsala M, Moore SW, Mothe AJ, Oudega M, Plant GW, Rabchevsky AS, Schwab JM, Silver J, Steward O, Xu XM, Guest JD, Tetzlaff W. Large animal and primate models of spinal cord injury for the testing of novel therapies. Exp Neurol 2015; 269:154-68. [PMID: 25902036 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Large animal and primate models of spinal cord injury (SCI) are being increasingly utilized for the testing of novel therapies. While these represent intermediary animal species between rodents and humans and offer the opportunity to pose unique research questions prior to clinical trials, the role that such large animal and primate models should play in the translational pipeline is unclear. In this initiative we engaged members of the SCI research community in a questionnaire and round-table focus group discussion around the use of such models. Forty-one SCI researchers from academia, industry, and granting agencies were asked to complete a questionnaire about their opinion regarding the use of large animal and primate models in the context of testing novel therapeutics. The questions centered around how large animal and primate models of SCI would be best utilized in the spectrum of preclinical testing, and how much testing in rodent models was warranted before employing these models. Further questions were posed at a focus group meeting attended by the respondents. The group generally felt that large animal and primate models of SCI serve a potentially useful role in the translational pipeline for novel therapies, and that the rational use of these models would depend on the type of therapy and specific research question being addressed. While testing within these models should not be mandatory, the detection of beneficial effects using these models lends additional support for translating a therapy to humans. These models provides an opportunity to evaluate and refine surgical procedures prior to use in humans, and safety and bio-distribution in a spinal cord more similar in size and anatomy to that of humans. Our results reveal that while many feel that these models are valuable in the testing of novel therapies, important questions remain unanswered about how they should be used and how data derived from them should be interpreted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian K Kwon
- University of British Columbia, ICORD, Room 6196, Blusson Spinal Cord Centre, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1 M9, Canada.
| | - Femke Streijger
- University of British Columbia, ICORD, Room 6196, Blusson Spinal Cord Centre, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1 M9, Canada.
| | - Caitlin E Hill
- Burke Medical Research Institute/Weill Cornell Medical College, 785 Mamaroneck Ave., White Plains, NY 10605, USA.
| | | | - Mark Bacon
- International Spinal Research Trust, International Spinal Research Trust, Bramley Business Centre, Station Road, Bramley, Guildford, Surrey GU5 0AZ, UK.
| | - Michael S Beattie
- University of California at San Francisco, 1001 Potrero Ave., Bldg 1 Rm 101, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA.
| | - Armin Blesch
- Heidelberg University Hospital, Spinal Cord Injury Center, Germany.
| | - Elizabeth J Bradbury
- King's College London, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Wolfson Wing, Hodgkin Building, Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London SE1 1UL, UK.
| | - Arthur Brown
- University of Western Ontario, Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, 1151 Richmond Street, North, N6A 5B7, Canada.
| | - Jacqueline C Bresnahan
- University of California at San Francisco, 1001 Potrero Ave., Bldg 1 Rm 101, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA.
| | - Casey C Case
- Asterias Biotherapeutics, 230 Constitution Drive, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA.
| | - Raymond W Colburn
- Acorda Therapeutics, Acorda Therapeutics, Inc., 420 Saw Mill River Road, Ardsley, NY 10502, USA.
| | - Samuel David
- Centre for Research in Neuroscience, Research Institute of the McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, Quebec H3G 1A4, Canada.
| | - James W Fawcett
- University of Cambridge, John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 0PY, UK.
| | - Adam R Ferguson
- University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), Brain and Spinal Injury Center (BASIC), Department of Neurological Surgery, USA.
| | - Itzhak Fischer
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Dept. of Neurobiology and Anatomy, 2900 Queen Lane, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA.
| | - Candace L Floyd
- University of Alabama at Birmingham, 529C Spain Rehabilitation Center, 1717 6th Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35249, USA.
| | - John C Gensel
- University of Kentucky, Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, B463 Biomedical & Biological Sciences Research Building (BBSRB), 741 S. Limestone, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
| | - John D Houle
- Drexel University College of Medicine, Spinal Cord Research Center, Philadelphia, PA 19129, USA.
| | - Lyn B Jakeman
- National Institutes of Health/NINDS, 6001 Executive Blvd. North, Bethesda, MD 20852, USA.
| | - Nick D Jeffery
- Iowa State University, Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
| | | | - Naomi Kleitman
- Craig H. Neilsen Foundation, 16830 Ventura Blvd. Suite 352, Encino, CA 91436, USA.
| | - Jeffery Kocsis
- Yale University and VA CT Healthcare System, Neuroscience Center (127A), VA CT Healthcare Center, 950 Campbell Ave., West Haven, CT 06516, USA.
| | - Paul Lu
- VA-San Diego Healthcare System, University of California at San Diego, BMF2, Room 2126, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92093-0626, USA.
| | - David S K Magnuson
- University of Louisville School of Medicine, 511 S. Floyd St., MDR Rm 616, USA.
| | - Martin Marsala
- University of California, San Diego, Department of Anesthesiology SCRM, Room 4009, 2880 Torrey Pines Scenic Dr., La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
| | - Simon W Moore
- InVivo Therapeutics Corporation, One Kendall Square, Suite B14402, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Andrea J Mothe
- Toronto Western Research Institute, Krembil Discovery Tower, 60 Leonard Ave. , 7KD-406, Toronto ON M5T 2S8, Canada.
| | - Martin Oudega
- University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, LPLC, 1095 NW 14 Terrace, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
| | - Giles W Plant
- Stanford University, Lorry I. Lokey Stem Cell Research Building, Stanford University, 265 Campus Drive, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | | | | | - Jerry Silver
- Case Western Reserve University, Dept. of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, 2109 Adelbert Rd., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| | - Oswald Steward
- University of California Irvine, Reeve-Irvine Research Center, Department of Anatomy & Neurobiology, University of California Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Xiao-Ming Xu
- Indiana University School of Medicine, 320 W. 15th St., Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
| | | | - Wolfram Tetzlaff
- University of British Columbia, ICORD, Room 6196, Blusson Spinal Cord Centre, 818 West 10th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1 M9, Canada.
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Kortelainen J, Vipin A, Mir H, Thakor N, Al-Nashash H, All A. Effect of isoflurane on somatosensory evoked potentials in a rat model. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2014; 2014:4286-4289. [PMID: 25570940 DOI: 10.1109/embc.2014.6944572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Somatosensory evoked potentials (SEPs) are widely used in the clinic as well as research to study the functional integrity of the different parts of sensory pathways. However, most general anesthetics, such as isoflurane, are known to suppress SEPs, which might affect the interpretation of the signals. In animal studies, the usage of anesthetics during SEP measurements is inevitable due to which detailed effect of these drugs on the recordings should be known. In this paper, the effect of isoflurane on SEPs was studied in a rat model. Both time and frequency properties of the cortical recordings generated by stimulating the tibial nerve of rat's hindlimb were investigated at three different isoflurane levels. While the anesthetic agent is shown to generally suppress the amplitude of the SEP, the effect was found to be nonlinear influencing more substantially the latter part of waveform. This finding will potentially help us in future work aiming at separating the effects of anesthetics on SEP from those due to injury in the ascending neural pathways.
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Zurita M, Aguayo C, Bonilla C, Rodriguez A, Vaquero J. Perilesional intrathecal administration of autologous bone marrow stromal cells achieves functional improvement in pigs with chronic paraplegia. Cytotherapy 2013; 15:1218-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2013.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2013] [Revised: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Sullivan S, Friess SH, Ralston J, Smith C, Propert KJ, Rapp PE, Margulies SS. Improved behavior, motor, and cognition assessments in neonatal piglets. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30:1770-9. [PMID: 23758416 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2013.2913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The alterations of animal behavior after traumatic brain injury (TBI) can be subtle, and their quantitative characterization can present significant methodological challenges. Meeting these challenges is a critical need, because quantitative measures are required in studies that compare the efficacy of different clinical interventions. We developed a battery of assessments to quantify behavioral, motor, and cognitive changes in neonatal piglets with good sensitivity and specificity to the detection of persistent deficits that correlate with axonal injury severity after a rapid non-impact head rotation with a diffuse pattern of axonal injury. The battery of measures developed included open field behaviors of sniffing and moving a toy, locomotion measures of Lempel-Ziv complexity and the probability of remaining in the current location, and a novel metric for evaluating motor performance. Our composite porcine disability score was able to detect brain injury with a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 85.7% at day +4 post-injury for n=8 injured and n=7 sham piglets and significantly correlated with the percent axonal injury in these animals (day +4: ρ=0.76, p=0.0011). A significant improvement over our previous assessments, this new porcine disability score has potential use in a wide variety of porcine disease and injury models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Sullivan
- 1 Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Lee DH, Lee JK. Animal models of axon regeneration after spinal cord injury. Neurosci Bull 2013; 29:436-44. [PMID: 23893429 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-013-1365-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
With advances in genetic and imaging techniques, investigating axon regeneration after spinal cord injury in vivo is becoming more common in the literature. However, there are many issues to consider when using animal models of axon regeneration, including species, strains and injury models. No single particular model suits all types of experiments and each hypothesis being tested requires careful selection of the appropriate animal model. in this review, we describe several commonly-used animal models of axon regeneration in the spinal cord and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Do-Hun Lee
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
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Lee JHT, Jones CF, Okon EB, Anderson L, Tigchelaar S, Kooner P, Godbey T, Chua B, Gray G, Hildebrandt R, Cripton P, Tetzlaff W, Kwon BK. A novel porcine model of traumatic thoracic spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2013; 30:142-59. [PMID: 23316955 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2012.2386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) researchers have predominately utilized rodents and mice for in vivo SCI modeling and experimentation. From these small animal models have come many insights into the biology of SCI, and a growing number of novel treatments that promote behavioral recovery. It has, however, been difficult to demonstrate the efficacy of such treatments in human clinical trials. A large animal SCI model that is an intermediary between rodent and human SCI may be a valuable translational research resource for pre-clinically evaluating novel therapies, prior to embarking upon lengthy and expensive clinical trials. Here, we describe the development of such a large animal model. A thoracic spinal cord injury at T10/11 was induced in Yucatan miniature pigs (20-25 kg) using a weight drop device. Varying degrees of injury severity were induced by altering the height of the weight drop (5, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 cm). Behavioral recovery over 12 weeks was measured using a newly developed Porcine Thoracic Injury Behavior Scale (PTIBS). This scale distinguished locomotor recovery among animals of different injury severities, with strong intra-observer and inter-observer reliability. Histological analysis of the spinal cords 12 weeks post-injury revealed that animals with the more biomechanically severe injuries had less spared white matter and gray matter and less neurofilament immunoreactivity. Additionally, the PTIBS scores correlated strongly with the extent of tissue sparing through the epicenter of injury. This large animal model of SCI may represent a useful intermediary in the testing of novel pharmacological treatments and cell transplantation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae H T Lee
- International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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The pig model of chronic paraplegia: A challenge for experimental studies in spinal cord injury. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 97:288-303. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2011] [Revised: 01/22/2012] [Accepted: 04/17/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Jones CF, Lee JHT, Kwon BK, Cripton PA. Development of a large-animal model to measure dynamic cerebrospinal fluid pressure during spinal cord injury. J Neurosurg Spine 2012; 16:624-35. [DOI: 10.3171/2012.3.spine11970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Object
Spinal cord injury (SCI) often results in considerable permanent neurological impairment, and unfortunately, the successful translation of effective treatments from laboratory models to human patients is lacking. This may be partially attributed to differences in anatomy, physiology, and scale between humans and rodent models. One potentially important difference between the rodent and human spinal cord is the presence of a significant CSF volume within the intrathecal space around the human cord. While the CSF may “cushion” the spinal cord, pressure waves within the CSF at the time of injury may contribute to the extent and severity of the primary injury. The objective of this study was to develop a model of contusion SCI in a miniature pig and establish the feasibility of measuring spinal CSF pressure during injury.
Methods
A custom weight-drop device was used to apply thoracic contusion SCI to 17 Yucatan miniature pigs. Impact load and velocity were measured. Using fiber optic pressure transducers implanted in the thecal sac, CSF pressures resulting from 2 injury severities (caused by 50-g and 100-g weights released from a 50-cm height) were measured.
Results
The median peak impact loads were 54 N and 132 N for the 50-g and 100-g injuries, respectively. At a nominal 100 mm from the injury epicenter, the authors observed a small negative pressure peak (median −4.6 mm Hg [cranial] and −5.8 mm Hg [caudal] for 50 g; −27.6 mm Hg [cranial] and −27.2 mm Hg [caudal] for 100 g) followed by a larger positive pressure peak (median 110.5 mm Hg [cranial] and 77.1 mm Hg [caudal] for 50 g; 88.4 mm Hg [cranial] and 67.2 mm Hg [caudal] for 100 g) relative to the preinjury pressure. There were no significant differences in peak pressure between the 2 injury severities or the caudal and cranial transducer locations.
Conclusions
A new model of contusion SCI was developed to measure spinal CSF pressures during the SCI event. The results suggest that the Yucatan miniature pig is an appropriate model for studying CSF, spinal cord, and dura interactions during injury. With further development and characterization it may be an appropriate in vivo largeanimal model of SCI to answer questions regarding pathological changes, therapeutic safety, or treatment efficacy, particularly where humanlike dimensions and physiology are important.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire F. Jones
- 1Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Laboratory, Departments of Mechanical Engineering and Orthopaedics,
- 2International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
| | - Jae H. T. Lee
- 2International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
| | - Brian K. Kwon
- 2International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
- 3Combined Neurosurgical and Orthopaedic Spine Program, Department of Orthopaedics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Peter A. Cripton
- 1Orthopaedic and Injury Biomechanics Laboratory, Departments of Mechanical Engineering and Orthopaedics,
- 2International Collaboration on Repair Discoveries, and
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Conrad MS, Dilger RN, Nickolls A, Johnson RW. Magnetic resonance imaging of the neonatal piglet brain. Pediatr Res 2012; 71:179-84. [PMID: 22258129 DOI: 10.1038/pr.2011.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Appeal for the domestic pig as a preclinical model for neurodevelopmental research is increasing. One limitation, however, is lack of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) methods for brain volume quantification in the neonatal piglet. The purpose of this study was to develop and validate MRI methods for estimating brain volume in piglets. RESULTS The results showed that MRI and manual segmentation reliably estimated the changes in volume of different brain regions in 2- and 5-wk-old piglets. Substantial increases in the volumes of all brain regions examined were evident during the 3-wk period. DISCUSSION MRI can provide accurate estimates of brain region volume during the neonatal period in piglets. A piglet model that can be used in longitudinal studies may be useful for investigating how experimental (e.g., nutrition, infection) factors affect brain growth and development. METHODS Anatomic MRI data (non-longitudinal) were acquired 2- and 5-wk-old piglets using a three--dimensional T1-weighted magnetization-prepared gradient echo (MPRAGE) sequence on a MAGNETOM Trio 3T imager. Manual segmentation was performed for volume estimates of total brain, cortical, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellar, and -hippocampal regions. The MRI-based hippocampal volume estimates in 2- and 5-wk-old piglets were validated using histological techniques and the Cavalieri method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Conrad
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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Navarro R, Juhas S, Keshavarzi S, Juhasova J, Motlik J, Johe K, Marsala S, Scadeng M, Lazar P, Tomori Z, Schulteis G, Beattie M, Ciacci JD, Marsala M. Chronic spinal compression model in minipigs: a systematic behavioral, qualitative, and quantitative neuropathological study. J Neurotrauma 2012; 29:499-513. [PMID: 22029501 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2011.2076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of the present study was to develop a porcine spinal cord injury (SCI) model, and to describe the neurological outcome and characterize the corresponding quantitative and qualitative histological changes at 4-9 months after injury. Adult Gottingen-Minnesota minipigs were anesthetized and placed in a spine immobilization frame. The exposed T12 spinal segment was compressed in a dorso-ventral direction using a 5-mm-diameter circular bar with a progressively increasing peak force (1.5, 2.0, or 2.5 kg) at a velocity of 3 cm/sec. During recovery, motor and sensory function were periodically monitored. After survival, the animals were perfusion fixed and the extent of local SCI was analyzed by (1) post-mortem MRI analysis of dissected spinal cords, (2) qualitative and quantitative analysis of axonal survival at the epicenter of injury, and (3) defining the presence of local inflammatory changes, astrocytosis, and schwannosis. Following 2.5-kg spinal cord compression the animals demonstrated a near complete loss of motor and sensory function with no recovery over the next 4-9 months. Those that underwent spinal cord compression with 2 kg force developed an incomplete injury with progressive partial neurological recovery characterized by a restricted ability to stand and walk. Animals injured with a spinal compression force of 1.5 kg showed near normal ambulation 10 days after injury. In fully paralyzed animals (2.5 kg), MRI analysis demonstrated a loss of spinal white matter integrity and extensive septal cavitations. A significant correlation between the magnitude of loss of small and medium-sized myelinated axons in the ventral funiculus and neurological deficits was identified. These data, demonstrating stable neurological deficits in severely injured animals, similarities of spinal pathology to humans, and relatively good post-injury tolerance of this strain of minipigs to spinal trauma, suggest that this model can successfully be used to study therapeutic interventions targeting both acute and chronic stages of SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman Navarro
- Neuroregeneration Laboratory, Department of Anesthesiology, University of California, San Diego (UCSD), San Diego, California, USA
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Reier PJ, Lane MA, Hall ED, Teng YD, Howland DR. Translational spinal cord injury research: preclinical guidelines and challenges. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2012; 109:411-33. [PMID: 23098728 PMCID: PMC4288927 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52137-8.00026-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Advances in the neurobiology of spinal cord injury (SCI) have prompted increasing attention to opportunities for moving experimental strategies towards clinical applications. Preclinical studies are the centerpiece of the translational process. A major challenge is to establish strategies for achieving optimal translational progression while minimizing potential repetition of previous disappointments associated with clinical trials. This chapter reviews and expands upon views pertaining to preclinical design reported in recently published opinion surveys. Subsequent discussion addresses other preclinical considerations more specifically related to current and potentially imminent cellular and pharmacological approaches to acute/subacute and chronic SCI. Lastly, a retrospective and prospective analysis examines how guidelines currently under discussion relate to select examples of past, current, and future clinical translations. Although achieving definition of the "perfect" preclinical scenario is difficult to envision, this review identifies therapeutic robustness and independent replication of promising experimental findings as absolutely critical prerequisites for clinical translation. Unfortunately, neither has been fully embraced thus far. Accordingly, this review challenges the notion "everything works in animals and nothing in humans", since more rigor must first be incorporated into the bench-to-bedside translational process by all concerned, whether in academia, clinical medicine, or corporate circles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Reier
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Florida College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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Neurological, Functional, and Biomechanical Characteristics After High-Velocity Behind Armor Blunt Trauma of the Spine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 71:1680-8. [DOI: 10.1097/ta.0b013e318231bce7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Comparison of carbamylated erythropoietin-FC fusion protein and recombinant human erythropoietin during porcine aortic balloon occlusion-induced spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury. Intensive Care Med 2011; 37:1525-33. [PMID: 21779851 DOI: 10.1007/s00134-011-2303-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) attenuated ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury-induced spinal cord damage. Since carbamylated EPO derivatives are stated to be devoid of rhEPO side effects, we tested the hypothesis that a newly developed carbamylated EPO-FC fusion protein (cEPO-FC) would compare favorably with rhEPO. METHODS Anesthetized and mechanically ventilated pigs randomly received cEPO-FC (50 μg kg(-1)), rhEPO (5,000 IU kg(-1)) or vehicle (n = 9 per group) 30 min prior to 30 min of aortic occlusion and over the 4 h of reperfusion. During aortic occlusion, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was maintained at 80-120% of baseline values by esmolol, nitroglycerin, and adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP). During reperfusion, noradrenaline was titrated to keep MAP at pre-ischemic levels. Spinal cord function was assessed by motor evoked potentials (MEP) and lower limb reflexes. Tissue damage was evaluated using hematoxylin and eosin, Nissl, and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining. Plasma levels of interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and 8-isoprostanes were measured as markers of systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. RESULTS While only cEPO-FC restored MEP amplitude to values close to pre-occlusion levels, both cEPO-FC and rhEPO comparably restored lower limb reflexes and reduced the percentage of damaged neurons. Infiltration of mononuclear inflammatory cells was moderate without intergroup difference; positive TUNEL staining was barely detectable in any group. I/R injury increased blood cytokine levels without intergroup difference, whereas both cEPO-FC and rhEPO significantly lowered 8-isoprostane levels. CONCLUSIONS In a porcine model of aortic balloon occlusion-induced spinal cord I/R injury, cEPO-FC and rhEPO comparably protected against ischemic spinal cord dysfunction and neuronal damage. This effect coincided with attenuated oxidative stress.
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Guest J, Benavides F, Padgett K, Mendez E, Tovar D. Technical aspects of spinal cord injections for cell transplantation. Clinical and translational considerations. Brain Res Bull 2011; 84:267-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2010.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2010] [Revised: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 11/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Acute Changes in Systemic Hemodynamics and Serum Vasopressin After Complete Cervical Spinal Cord Injury in Piglets. Neurocrit Care 2010; 13:132-40. [DOI: 10.1007/s12028-010-9364-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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