An integrated, quality by design (QbD) approach for design, development and optimization of orally disintegrating tablet formulation of carbamazepine

Development of Losartan Orally Disintegrating Tablets by Direct Compression: a Cost-Effective Approach to Improve Paediatric Patient's Compliance

The development of suitable dosage forms is essential for an effective pharmacological treatment in children. Orally disintegrating tablets (ODTs) are attractive dosage forms that avoid swallowing problems, ensure dosage accuracy and are easy to administer as they disintegrate in the oral cavity. This study aimed to develop ODTs containing losartan potassium (LP) for the treatment of arterial hypertension in children. The ODTs, produced by the cost-effective manufacturing process of direct compression, consisted of a mixture of diluent, superdisintegrant, glidant and lubricant. Five superdisintegrants (croscarmellose sodium, two grades of crospovidone, sodium starch glycolate and pregelatinized starch) were tested (at two concentrations), and combined with three diluents (mannitol, lactose and sorbitol). Thus, thirty formulations were evaluated based on disintegration time, hardness and friability. Two formulations, exhibiting the best results concerning disintegration time (< 30 s), hardness and friability (≤ 1.0%), were selected as the most promising ones for further evaluation. These ODTs presented favourable drug-excipient compatibility, tabletability and flow properties. The in vitro dissolution studies demonstrated 'very rapid' drug release. Preliminary stability studies highlighted the requirement of a protective packaging. All quality properties retained appropriate results after 12 months of storage in airtight containers. In conclusion, the ODTs were successfully developed and characterised, suggesting a potential means to accomplish a final prototype that enables an improvement in childhood arterial hypertension treatment.

Development and Optimization of Sildenafil Orodispersible Mini-Tablets (ODMTs) for Treatment of Pediatric Pulmonary Hypertension Using Response Surface Methodology

The availability of age-appropriate oral dosage forms for pediatric patients has remained a challenge. Orodispersible mini-tablets (ODMTs) are a promising delivery system for pediatric patients. The purpose of this work was the development and optimization of sildenafil ODMTs as a new dosage form for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension in children using a design-of-experiment (DoE) approach. A two-factor, three levels (32) full-factorial design was employed to obtain the optimized formulation. The levels of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC; 10–40% w/w) and partially pre-gelatinized starch (PPGS; 2–10% w/w) were set as independent formulation variables. In addition, mechanical strength, disintegration time (DT), and percent drug release were set as critical quality attributes (CQAs) of sildenafil ODMTs. Further, formulation variables were optimized using the desirability function. ANOVA analysis proved that MCC and PPGS had a significant (p < 0.05) impact on CQAs of sildenafil ODMTs with a pronounced influence of PPGS. The optimized formulation was achieved at low (10% w/w) and high (10% w/w) levels of MCC and PPGS, respectively. The optimized sildenafil ODMTs showed crushing strength of 4.72 ± 0.34 KP, friability of 0.71 ± 0.04%, DT of 39.11 ± 1.03 s, and sildenafil release of 86.21 ± 2.41% after 30 min that achieves the USP acceptance criteria for ODMTs. Validation experiments have shown that the acceptable prediction error (<5%) indicated the robustness of the generated design. In conclusion, sildenafil ODMTs have been developed as a suitable oral formulation for the treatment of pediatric pulmonary hypertension using the fluid bed granulation process and the DoE approach.

Control Strategy for Excipient Variability in the Quality by Design Approach Using Statistical Analysis and Predictive Model: Effect of Microcrystalline Cellulose Variability on Design Space

Although various quality by design (QbD) approaches have been used to establish a design space to obtain robust drug formulation and process parameters, the effect of excipient variability on the design space and drug product quality is unclear. In this study, the effect of microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) variability on drug product quality was examined using a design space for immediate-release tablets of amlodipine besylate. MCC variability was assessed by altering the manufacturer and grade. The formulation was developed by employing the QbD approach, which was optimized using a D-optimal mixture design. Using 36 different MCCs, the effect of MCC variability on the design space was assessed. The design space was shifted by different manufacturers and grades of MCC, which resulted in associations between the physicochemical properties of MCC and critical quality attributes (CQAs). The correlation between the physicochemical properties of MCCs and CQAs was assessed through a statistical analysis. A predictive model correlating the physicochemical properties of MCCs with dissolution was established using an artificial neural network (ANN). The ANN model accurately predicted dissolution with low absolute and relative errors. The present study described a comprehensive QbD approach, statistical analysis, and ANN to comprehend and manage the effect of excipient variability on the design space.

Downstream Processing of Itraconazole:HPMCAS Amorphous Solid Dispersion: From Hot-Melt Extrudate to Tablet Using a Quality by Design Approach

The downstream processing of hot-melt extruded amorphous solid dispersions (ASDs) into tablets is challenging due to the low tabletability of milled ASDs. Typically, the extrudate strand is sized before milling, as the strand cannot be fed directly into the milling system. At the lab scale, the strand can be sized by hand-cutting before milling. For scaling up, pelletizers or chill roll and flaker systems can be used to break strands. Due to the different techniques used, differences in milling and tablet compaction are to be expected. We present a systematic study of the milling and tableting of an extruded ASD of itraconazole with hypromellose acetate succinate (HPMCAS) as a carrier polymer. The strand was sized using different techniques at the end of the extruder barrel (hand-cutting, pelletizer, or chill roll and flaker) before being milled at varying milling speeds with varying screen sizes. The effects of these variables (sizing technology, milling speed, and screen size) on the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of the milled ASD, such as yield, mean particle size (D50), tablet compaction characteristics, and tablet dissolution, were established using response surface methodology. It was found that the CQAs varied according to sizing technology, with chill roll flakes showing the highest percentage yield, the lowest D50, and the highest tabletability and dissolution rate for itraconazole. Pearson correlation coefficient tests indicated D50 as the most important CQA related to tabletability and dissolution. For certain milling conditions, the milling of hand-cut filaments results in similar particle size distributions (PSDs) to the milling of pellets or chill roll flakes.

Development of Nafamostat Mesylate Immediate-Release Tablet by Drug Repositioning Using Quality-by-Design Approach

We aimed to develop nafamostat mesylate immediate-release tablets for the treatment of COVID-19 through drug repositioning studies of nafamostat mesylate injection. Nafamostat mesylate is a serine protease inhibitor known to inhibit the activity of the transmembrane protease, serine 2 enzyme that affects the penetration of the COVID-19 virus, thereby preventing the binding of the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor in vivo and the spike protein of the COVID-19 virus. The formulation was selected through a stability study after manufacturing by a wet granulation process and a direct tableting process to develop a stable nafamostat mesylate immediate-release tablet. Formulation issues for the selected processes were addressed using the design of experiments and quality-by-design approaches. The dissolution rate of the developed tablet was confirmed to be >90% within 30 min in the four major dissolutions, except in the pH 6.8 dissolution medium. Additionally, an in vivo pharmacokinetic study was performed in monkeys, and the pharmacokinetic profiles of nafamostat injections, oral solutions, and tablets were compared. The half-life during oral administration was confirmed to be significantly longer than the reported literature value of 8 min, and the bioavailability of the tablet was approximately 25% higher than that of the oral solution.

Quality-by-design in pharmaceutical development: From current perspectives to practical applications

Current pharmaceutical research directions tend to follow a systematic approach in the field of applied research and development. The concept of quality-by-design (QbD) has been the focus of the current progress of pharmaceutical sciences. It is based on, but not limited, to risk assessment, design of experiments and other computational methods and process analytical technology. These tools offer a well-organized methodology, both to identify and analyse the hazards that should be handled as critical, and are therefore applicable in the control strategy. Once implemented, the QbD approach will augment the comprehension of experts concerning the developed analytical technique or manufacturing process. The main activities are oriented towards the identification of the quality target product profiles, along with the critical quality attributes, the risk management of these and their analysis through in silico aided methods. This review aims to offer an overview of the current standpoints and general applications of QbD methods in pharmaceutical development.

Intratracheal Administration of Chloroquine-Loaded Niosomes Minimize Systemic Drug Exposure

Pulmonary administration provides a useful alternative to oral and invasive routes of administration while enhancing and prolonging the accumulation of drugs into the lungs and reducing systemic drug exposure. In this study, chloroquine, as a model drug, was loaded into niosomes for potential pulmonary administration either via dry powder inhalation or intratracheally. Chloroquine-loaded niosomes have been prepared and extensively characterized. Furthermore, drug-loaded niosomes were lyophilized and their flowing properties were evaluated by measuring the angle of repose, Carr's index, and Hausner ratio. The developed niosomes demonstrated a nanosized (100-150 nm) spherical morphology and chloroquine entrapment efficiency of ca. 24.5%. The FT-IR results indicated the incorporation of chloroquine into the niosomes, whereas in vitro release studies demonstrated an extended-release profile of the drug-loaded niosomes compared to the free drug. Lyophilized niosomes exhibited poor flowability that was not sufficiently improved after the addition of lactose or when cryoprotectants were exploited throughout the lyophilization process. In vivo, intratracheal administration of chloroquine-loaded niosomes in rats resulted in a drug concentration in the blood that was 10-fold lower than the oral administration of the free drug. Biomarkers of kidney and liver functions (i.e., creatinine, urea, AST, and ALT) following pulmonary administration of the drug-loaded nanoparticles were of similar levels to those of the control untreated animals. Hence, the use of a dry powder inhaler for administration of lyophilized niosomes is not recommended, whereas intratracheal administration might provide a promising strategy for pulmonary administration of niosomal dispersions while minimizing systemic drug exposure and adverse reactions.

Orally disintegrating tablet containing carbamazepine and levetiracetam: formulation and in vitro and in vivo characterization

This study aimed to prepare and characterize the orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) formulations containing the combination of levetiracetam (LEV) and carbamazepine (CBZ) (CBZ + LEV combination) for the treatment of epilepsy. The ODT formulations were prepared using the lyophilization (L) and direct compression (DC) methods. The flowability of the mixed powders used for DC formulation was evaluated. The quality control tests for the ODTs were performed. Also, the antiepileptic effects of pure drugs, their combination, and the suspension of CBZ + LEV-DC-ODT formulation were evaluated in the rats with pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced epilepsy model. The obtained results for the mixed powders of the DC formulation (angle of repose: 26.18 ± 0.794°; compressibility index: 15.24 ± 0.764%) suggest that the flow properties of the powder blend were suitable for the preparation of CBZ + LEV-ODT using DC method. The mean values of diameter and hardness of L-ODTs and DC-ODTs were found to be 16.87 mm and 16.18 mm and 11.96 N and 30.11 N, respectively. The friability of both formulations was <1%. Both formulations were disintegrated in seconds. Drugs in L-ODT had faster dissolution than those in DC-ODT. Compared to the seizure scores obtained for the groups treated with LEV or CBZ, generally, there was a higher decrease in seizure scores in the groups treated with CBZ + LEV combination or the suspension of CBZ + LEV-DC-ODTs. Consequently, the ODT formulations containing the CBZ + LEV combination might be beneficial in the treatment of epilepsy.

QbD enabled optimization of solvent shifting method for fabrication of PLGA-based nanoparticles for promising delivery of Capecitabine for antitumor activity

The key objective of the current research was to fabricate and optimize Capecitabine (Cap)-loaded [poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)] PLGA-based nanoparticles (NPs) by enabling quality by design (QbD) approach for enhancing antitumor activity by promising delivery of the drug at the colonic site. The current research was based on fabricating PLGA-based nanoparticles along with Eudragit S100 as enteric polymer employing solvent shifting method followed by optimization using QbD approach. This approach was found to be useful for understanding the multiple factors and their interaction influencing the product by utilizing Design of Experiment (DOE). Box-Behnken design (BBD) was adopted to achieve the required critical quality attributes (CQAs), i.e., minimizing particle size, maximizing entrapment efficiency, and minimizing PDI value. The optimized nanoparticles were lyophilized and characterized by FT-IR, DSC, TEM, DLS, MTT assay using HT-29 cell lines, and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies. The optimized PLGA-based nanoparticles were found to possess average particle size, PDI, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of 195 nm, 0.214, -6.65 mV, and 65%, respectively. TEM analysis revealed the spherical nature of nanoparticles. The FT-IR and DSC studies revealed no interaction. The bioavailability of Cap-loaded nanoparticles was found to be two fold increased than the pure drug, and also, it exhibited significantly more cytotoxic to tumor cells as compared to pure drug as confirmed by MTT assay. The optimized PLGA-based nanoparticles found to possess enhanced bioavailability and significantly more cytotoxic potential as compared to pure drug.

Material-Sparing Approach using Differential Scanning Calorimeter and Response Surface Methodology for Process Optimization of Hot-Melt Extrusion

The objective of the present investigations was to demonstrate the applicability of DSC combined with response surface methodology as a material-sparing tool for determination of the processing conditions for HME during initial stages of development. Mefenamic acid (MFA) and Eudragit EPO (EPO) were used as a model drug and the polymeric carrier, respectively. Initial screening was performed using film-casting, polarized light microscopy, and TGA analysis to determine the levels for the experimental design. A Box-Behnken design was used to study the effect of the independent parameters, viz. drug loading, heating rate, and processing temperature, on the dependent parameters, viz. residual crystallinity and drug degradation. The results showed a quadratic relationship between independent and dependent parameters. Based on the design space, MFA-EPO dispersions with 20% drug loading were prepared using HME and vacuum compression molding (VCM). Both the HME and VCM samples did not show any signs of residual crystallinity. However, degradation of MFA was observed in VCM sample and the HME filaments processed at 100 rpm, but not at 150 rpm. The results demonstrate that DSC has potential to be a material-sparing tool to optimize drug loading and processing temperature for HME and will help product development using HME cost-effective.

Employment of Quality by Design Approach via Response Surface Methodology to Optimize and Develop Modified-release Formulation of Hydrochlorothiazide

BACKGROUND

Heart attack predominantly occurs during the last phase of sleep and early morning hours, causing millions of death worldwide. Hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) is a recommended drug for the prevention of heart disease, but its long action (>4 h) dosage form is lacking in the commercial market and development of modified-release formulation may have industrial significance. Regulatory agencies emphasize Quality by Design based approach for product development to entrust quality in the product.

OBJECTIVE

The current research aimed to develop a quality product profile of HCTZ modifiedrelease tablets (MRT; ~14 h) by applying Response Surface Methodology using the computational QbD approach.

METHODS

Three independent factors were identified by qualitative and quantitative risk assessment. Statistical terms like p-value, lack of fit, the sum of square, R-squared value, model F value, and linear equations were determined. Graphical tools like normal plot of residual, residual vs predicted plot and box cox plot were used to verify the model selection. The graphical relationship among the critical, independent variables was represented using the Contour plot and 3-D surface plot. Design space was identified by designing an overlay plot using response surface design.

RESULTS

Excellent correlation was observed between actual and predicted values. Similarity Factor (F2) of reproducible trials was 78 and 79, and content uniformity was 100.9% and 100.4%. Average weight, hardness, thickness, diameter, and friability were within acceptable limits.

CONCLUSION

QbD approach, along with a quality risk management tool, provided an efficient and effective paradigm to build quality MRT of HCTZ.

Tailoring immediate release FDM 3D printed tablets using a quality by design (QbD) approach

The aims of this work were to produce immediate release printed tablets using fused deposition modelling (FDM) technique and to systematically explore the effects of different compositions on drug release by Quality by Design approach. Screening studies of various drug loadings and excipients were conducted by hot melt extrusion and FDM printing to set up the appropriate limit of each independent factor (critical material attribute, CMA) in Design of Experiment. This study demonstrated that the use of polymeric mixture containing different theophylline loadings (10, 30 and 60% w/w) in combination with multiple pharmaceutical polymers (hydroxy propyl cellulose (HPC), Eudragit® EPO, Kollidon® VA 64) and disintegrant (sodium starch glycolate) were successfully hot melt-extruded and FDM printed with no plasticizer. Rheological measurement was performed to understand the critical process parameters (CPP) while the mechanical property of extrudable and printable filaments was investigated by 3-point test for the formulation development. Surprisingly, HPC were found to be superior as a flexibility modifier in all printable filaments. A range of pharmaceutical characterizations were examined to ensure the critical quality attributes (CQA). Characteristic dissolution profiles were obtained. D-optimal mixture design of 17 formulations suggested that theophylline release was considerably affected by the combined action of different excipients and could predict the optimum formulation with the required quality target product profile (QTPP) in pharmacopoeia (85% release at 30 min). Therefore, this can be a useful platform to develop immediate release products for a specific group of patients commercially.

Quality by Design Applied Development of Immediate-Release Rabeprazole Sodium Dry-Coated Tablet

The aim of this study was to develop immediate-release oral rabeprazole sodium tablets with rapid efficacy and gastric stability for the treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease. Rabeprazole sodium is a commonly prescribed proton pump inhibitor; however, it is extremely unstable and degrades in acidic environments. Hence, it has been manufactured and supplied only in enteric-coated tablet form, while immediate-release (IR) formulations for this drug are very limited. In this study, we applied the quality by design (QbD) approach to formulate and optimize an IR dry-coated tablet containing rabeprazole sodium as an inner core with an outer sodium bicarbonate layer to stabilize the active pharmaceutical ingredient at gastric pH. We also investigated the stability of the pharmaceutical dosage form and its pharmacokinetic profile. The results show that the developed tablets are stable for approximately 12 months and have a high dissolution rate, greater than or equal to 90% at 30 min. Further, in vivo beagle pharmacokinetics confirmed that the newly developed IR tablet had an AUC_t which is bioequivalent to the existing delayed-release rabeprazole tablet; however, its T_max was 0.5 h, which is up to seven times faster than that of the existing tablet. Moreover, the IR tablet was found to immediately absorb in the stomach. Hence, the development of IR tablets can be used as a platform to overcome the technical and commercial limitations currently associated with various proton pump inhibitors used to treat patients with gastroesophageal reflux disease that require immediate therapeutic relief.

Paediatric Medicines - Regulatory Drivers, Restraints, Opportunities and Challenges

The investment in the pharmaceutical development of medicines for paediatric use represents a minority when compared to that one made for adult population. Which reasons lie behind this status quo? Which policies have been implemented to reverse such asymmetry? Is there room to new regulatory initiatives? The creation of regulations establishing the obligation to conduct paediatric trials was deemed necessary as a means of producing products of proven quality, safety and efficacy and, in addition, to set forth financial incentives for the pharmaceutical industry reduce this delay. The first regulatory initiatives were carried out by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) at the end of the 20^th century. Later on, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued the Paediatric Regulation, which has boosted a closer collaboration between both regulatory agencies. Along with the implemented legislation, pharmaceutical dosage forms, more adapted to the paediatric population have emerged, increasing the availability of age-appropriate formulations. However, a case-by-case analysis is required to ensure the best therapeutic option for the specific child. This review aims at discussing the development of medicines for paediatric use from a regulatory perspective, comparing the policies adopted by the EMA and FDA, following an overview of the drivers, restraints, opportunities and challenges.

Process optimization of twin-screw melt granulation of fenofibrate using design of experiment (DoE)

The purpose of this study was to optimize the melt granulation process of fenofibrate using twin-screw granulator. Initial screening was performed to select the excipients required for melt granulation process. A 3 × 3 factorial design was used to optimize the processing conditions using the % drug loading (X₁) and screw speed (X₂) as the independent parameters and granule friability (Y₁) % yield (Y₂) as the dependent parameters. The effect of the independent parameters on the dependent parameters was determined using response surface plots and contour plots. A linear relationship was observed between % drug loading (X₁) and % friability (Y₁) and a quadratic relationship was observed between the independent parameters (X₁ and X₂) and % yield (Y₂). The processing conditions for optimum granules were determined using numerical and graphical optimization and it was found that 15% drug loading at 50 rpm results in maximum % yield of 82.38% and minimum friability of 7.88%. The solid-state characterization of the optimized granules showed that the drug turned from crystalline state to amorphous state during melt granulation process. The optimized granules were compressed into tablets using Purolite® as the super disintegrating agent. The optimized formulation showed >85% drug release in 0.75% SLS solution within 60 min.

Development of Nanocrystal Ziprasidone Orally Disintegrating Tablets: Optimization by Using Design of Experiment and In Vitro Evaluation

The objective of the current study was to develop ziprasidone hydrochloride monohydrate (ZHM) nanocrystal-based orally dispersible tablet (ODT) formulations. Design of experiment approach was used to develop ODTs. The tablets were compressed using direct compression method and characterized with quality control tests. In vitro dissolution studies and Caco-2 cell permeability tests were executed. The hardness and friability values of nanocrystal-based ODTs were found 31.2 N and 1.05%, respectively. The disintegration time was below 10 s. Dissolution profile in pH 7.4 phosphate buffer showed that nanocrystal-based ODTs and commercial product were dissolved in 120 min 58.98% and 16%, respectively. In pH 7.4 phosphate buffer with SLS, sample groups dissolved above 85% at the end of the study. Permeability value and cumulative ZHM amount on the cells were improved with nanocrystals. In conclusion, the novel formulation of ZHM nanocrystal-based ODTs was successfully developed for alternative dosage form.

Abuse Deterrent Immediate Release Egg-Shaped Tablet (Egglets) Using 3D Printing Technology: Quality by Design to Optimize Drug Release and Extraction

Opioid abuse is a growing problem and has become a national health crisis over the past decade in the USA. Oral ingestion, snorting, and injection are the most commonly employed routes of abuse for an immediate release product. To circumvent these issues, we have developed an egg-shaped tablet (egglet) using fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing technology. Drug-loaded polymeric filaments (1.5 mm) were prepared using hot melt extrusion (HME) followed by printing into egglets of different sizes and infill densities. Based on printability and crush resistance, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was found to be the most suitable polymer for the preparation of abuse deterrent egglets. Further, egglets were evaluated and optimized for mechanical manipulation using household equipment, milling, particle size distribution, solvent extraction, and drug release as per the FDA guidance (November 2017). A multifactorial design was used to optimize egglets for solvent extraction and drug release. Extreme hardness (> 500 N) and very large particle size (> 1 mm) on mechanical manipulation confirmed the snorting deterring property while less than 15% drug extraction in 5 min (% S_ext) demonstrated the deterrence for injection abuse. Quality target product profile D85 < 30 min and % S_ext < 15 was achieved with egglets of 6 mm diameter, 45% infill density, and 15% w/w drug loading. Dose of drug can be easily customized by varying dimension and infill density without altering the composition. HME coupled with FDM 3D printing could be a promising tool in the preparation of patient-tailored, immediate release abuse deterrent formulation.

Application of 3D printing technology and quality by design approach for development of age-appropriate pediatric formulation of baclofen

Pediatric population is a sensitive sector of the healthcare and pharmaceutical field with additional needs compared to the adult population. Extemporaneous formulations for children are generally prepared by manipulating adult formulations, but medication errors can result in suboptimal efficacy and with significant safety concerns. The aim of proposed project was to explore a 3D printing technology for the development of customized minicaplets of baclofen for the pediatric population. Based on results of 3-point bend test, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) with sorbitol (10% w/w) were selected for preparation of baclofen loaded filaments using hot melt extrusion (HME). Effect of dimension, infill percentage and infill pattern on dose, disintegration time and release profile were investigated. Characteristic crystalline peaks of baclofen were absent in DSC thermograms and XRD pattern of filament and minicaplets. Minicaplets printed in diamond (fast) infill pattern with 100% infill showed higher disintegration time (38 mins) compared to linear, sharkfill and hexagonal pattern. 3² full factorial orthogonal design suggested that baclofen release (D50 and D85) was marginally affected by infill percentage but significantly affected by caplet dimension (p < 0.05). Thus, low cost FDM 3D printing technique can be a promising alternative for preparation of dose and release customized pediatric dosage forms.